User talk:Sebmol

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        <username>Hasley</username>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/113.199.242.175|113.199.242.175]] ([[User_talk:113.199.242.175|talk]]) to last version by [[User:CommonsDelinker|CommonsDelinker]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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__TOC__
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| style=&quot;padding: 20px&quot; | [[Image:Feather narrow.png|50px]]
| style=&quot;text-align: center&quot; | '''Welcome to my talk page'''&lt;br /&gt;I love to get mail.&lt;br /&gt;[{{fullurl:{{NAMESPACE}}:{{PAGENAME}}|action=edit&amp;section=new}} Leave me a message].
| style=&quot;font-size: smaller; font-weight: bold; width: 40%&quot; |
{{Portal-head2|336688|Please note}}
* If I contact you on your talk page, please post your response there.
* If you contact me on my talk page, I will post my response here.
* Please do not split up discussions over several talk pages.
|-
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |  {{auto archive|target='User talk:Sebmol/Archive/((Year))-((Quarter:I))'|age=14}}
|}

== Thanks ==

[[Image:Original Barnstar.png|right]]
Hey Seb, I know it's early days, but I just thought I'd give you a barnstar anyways (Wikiversity's first) to thank you for all your tireless work. You deserve this already :-). [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 15:56, 16 August 2006 (UTC)

== Nice color ==

don't you think ? [[User:Guillom|Guillom]] 15:21, 17 August 2006 (UTC)

== Bureaucratship ==

Hi Sebastian, I nominated you for [[WV:CC|bureaucratship]] - I think you'd be great for the job. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 17:13, 19 August 2006 (UTC)

==Hey there==

I see you've listed yourself as willing to mentor me.  How do I indicate you on the page?  Still willing to do it, I hope!  Thanks for the opportunity to serve Wikiversity! [[User:Atrivedi|Atrivedi]]
:Just write it next to the name of the mentor you accept. -- [[User:sebmol|sebmol]] [[User talk:sebmol|&lt;sup&gt;?&lt;/sup&gt;]] 09:41, 20 August 2006 (UTC)

== Approach ==

I've noticed that in a number of your posts, you have emphasized that this project is rather young - thanks for having this spirit at heart! Generally speaking, I think I agree with your philosophy and perspective too. Admittingly, in the back of my mind, I am a bit worried. I really hope we don't fall into the trap of codifying too much. --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 07:18, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

== Thanks /Parser functions? ==

Thanks for the welcome. In response, yes I am aware of the parser function, but have limited awareness of how they work. I created the template as part of my work on [[User:Trevor MacInnis/MainPage|this little experiment]], which is basically something I've copied from the Italian wikipedia. Perhaps you might want to take a look at it. If any of it is any good perhaps it can be used on the Main Page? Thanks again, and let me know if there's anything specific I can help with. - [[User:Trevor MacInnis|Trevor MacInnis]] 14:54, 21 August 2006 (UTC)

== Huhu ==

Na jetzt muß ich doch auch mal schauen, wie es hier so ist... ;) --[[User:Cascari|Cascari]] 18:22, 22 August 2006 (UTC)

== import process update ==

See the [[Wikiversity talk:Notices for custodians|note from SBJohnny on this talk page]] about import of pages from Wikibooks.

== interwiki links in red ==

[[Image:Redinterwikilinks.png|thumb|right]]
I have seen this happen twice: one Wikiversity page suddenly starts displaying all interwiki links in red. The first time I saw it was last week, it lasted about a day. [[Help with the migration of Wikiversity pages from Wikibooks|This page]] just did the same thing today. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 18:16, 27 August 2006 (UTC)

== &quot;Joining us again&quot; ==

Hi Sebastien, I fully anticipated to be back to normal this week, but things will remain chaotic, I'm afraid, until after the weekend (back home again Monday evening). From then on, I very much look forward to joining you all again on IRC and wiki :-) [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 14:30, 28 September 2006 (UTC)

== Sebbot ==

Hi Seb - I granted bot status for [[User:Sebbot]] - sorry it's taken me this long, and I hope it hasn't inconvenienced you in the meantime. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] 10:10, 3 October 2006 (UTC)

== Free Online Uni ==

Thanks for moving that; I was wondering if we might want to do that.  [[User:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] 22:07, 10 October 2006 (UTC)

== community-approved ==

You are now a community-approved custodian and Wikiversity's first community-approved bureaucrat! Thanks for all of your contributions to Wikiversity. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 16:35, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

== Research Guidelines ==

Hey - I'd be grateful if you could have a browse round [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity_talk:Research_guidelines/En Research Guidelines] on beta (haven't figured out interwiki links on WV yet). Thanks - [[User:Xenon|Xenon]] 19:49, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

== Wherebot ==

I think everything is ready at Wikiversity for '''Wherebot'''. There is now an example of how this might work at Wikiversity; see [[User:Wherebot#Example]]. If you have any questions for user '''Where''', maybe you could put them [[w:User talk:Where#wherebot for Wikiversity|here]] (&quot;wherebot for Wikiversity&quot; thread at Wikipedia). --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 16:54, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

==Edit==
I do not know what you mean.  I pointed out the location of the bussiness school..---[[User:Hillgentleman|Hillgentleman]]|[[User talk:hillgentleman]] 16:32, 24 November 2006 (UTC)


== Oh I forgot ==

What do you think of my new articles. Please reply on my talk page on how I can improve them.

[[Football (soccer)]]

[[UFO research]]

[[Digestive system]]

[[User:Student Galaxy|Student Galaxy]] 17:27, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== Custodianship ==

I want you to be my mentor for Custodianship. It says I need one.
[[User:Student Galaxy|Student Galaxy]] 20:02, 26 November 2006 (UTC)

== semicircles? ==

Looks like you got away with [http://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=MediaWiki:Monobook.css&amp;diff=next&amp;oldid=31049 it]. The buttons remind me of the dome in the logo...now I wish the buttons were full semicircles!. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 01:33, 13 December 2006 (UTC)

== [[Wikiversity:Bots/Status]] ==

I've asked Hagerman to help us out by running his bot on Wikiversity (It's a pretty neat bot that marks comments with {{tl|Unsigned}}). I was hoping you could drop by that page to approve/&lt;s&gt;decline&lt;/s&gt;/flag the bot so we can get it running. [[User:JWSchmidt]] and I will be happy to monito its performance. Cheers. [[User:MichaelBillington|Michael Billington]] ([[User talk:MichaelBillington|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/MichaelBillington|contribs]]) 04:04, 15 December 2006 (UTC)

== candidate for probationary custodianship ==

Please consider this candidate: [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/J.Steinbock]]. Thanks. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 14:45, 16 December 2006 (UTC)

==&quot;Rounded&quot; corners==

This discussion has been moved to [[MediaWiki talk:Monobook.css]] where it should always have been. [[User:Guillom|guillom]] 14:30, 11 January 2007 (UTC)

== who is online ==

 for the status thing
 i'd imagine one could make an rc-bot
 that changes the status as soon as the user makes an edit
 and times out 15 minutes after the last one

:Problem with that is -- what about people who are here for courses? It's fine for active editors, not for learning participants. I've thought a bit about that approach too. [[User:Historybuff|Historybuff]] 17:37, 18 January 2007 (UTC)

== sitenotice ==

Could you update the sitenotice at beta.wikiversity.org? Thanks. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 16:10, 26 January 2007 (UTC)

== renaming user ==

Hello. I'm drini. I got impersonated past weeks by User:Drini here on this wiki. I'm kindly requesting your help getting back my name 
renaming Drini to something else (inird, xyz, etc), and then changing this username (Drinisteward) back to drini. I've made a small edit on meta confirming my identity: [http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ADrini&amp;diff=529839&amp;oldid=526230] . I'm a steward, I could make the rename myself, but since this project has local bureaucrats, it's better if you (or cormaggio) could help me on this. 

I'll appreciate the help (I'm also dropping a note on cormaggio, so make sure you don't rename users twice ;) [[User:Drinisteward|Drinisteward]] 14:58, 13 February 2007 (UTC)

== Happy Birthday Sebmol! ==

[[Image:Birthday_candles.jpg|500px]]

From [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 11:36, 10 March 2007 (UTC)

== Missing custodian template ==

Thought I'd have a go after the IRC chat last night!

[[User:Chrisfow/sandbox]]

[[User:Chrisfow|Chrisfow]] 13:18, 28 March 2007 (UTC)

== probationary custodian request ==

As discussed at [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship#Requests for Custodianship|Requests for Custodianship]] I am willing to mentor [[User:Remi0o]] and he is willing to put up with me. If you agree, please make Remi0o a probationary custodian. --[[User:JWSchmidt|JWSchmidt]] 21:20, 11 April 2007 (UTC)

== Cormaggio messes up: Part 47 ==

Hi Sebmol, in archiving [[Wikiversity:Announcements]], I've messed up the layout of [[Template:Announcements/Community_bulletin_board]], which in turn messes up the Community portal. Do you know how we can keep them in two separate columns - or do you have any other suggestions? Thanks. [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 11:39, 19 April 2007 (UTC)

== Thank you ==
Hi Sebmol! Thanks for the buttons. I will do my best with them :-) --[[User:HappyCamper|HappyCamper]] 02:32, 29 April 2007 (UTC)

== Adding a button to the editing toolbar thing ==

Do you think you could add a button that when you press it give you a simple layout of a simple table maybe? That'd be cool. :) Maybe it could have options too where it gives you parameters for certain properties of the tables. It would just be a faster way to do it so someone doesn't have to exactly look it up. Heh. Thanks.
--[[User:Devourer09|Devourer09]] 15:04, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

== Custodianship on Beta Wikiversity ==

Hi! I have posted you a messsage on beta Wikiversity. I decided to let you know here since you check this site often. Greetings, Azimski 20:31, 28 June 2007 (UTC)

== the babel template ==

check my talk page, is it only me or are en-3 templates displaying that wikimedia france link? i'm not sure it should be there (didn't like it there, myself, but if it is supposed to be..). [[User:Cetheriel|capi]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cetheriel|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 15:06, 20 July 2007 (UTC)

== Please change my name ==

[[Wikiversity:Changing_username#User:Edmundkh_to_EdmundEzekielMahmudIsa]]. --[[User:Edmundkh|Edmund the King of the Woods!]] 14:52, 24 August 2007 (UTC)

== Offer ==

Hi, Sebmol, I have a humble request for you. Would you be willing to mentor me as a probationary [[Wikiversity:Candidates_for_Custodianship/Pumpmeup|custodian]]? I'm willing to help out all I can - and really just need someone to get me going and a solid reference point should I encounter situations where I'm not too sure what to do (although this shouldn't happen to much after reading the guide and being well versed in Wikimedia projects). I run my own private installation of MediaWiki so the technical aspects shouldn't be a problem. It would be great if I could learn from someone obviously experienced and with the project's best interests at heart. Cheers, --'''[[User:Pumpmeup|{{font|color=Purple|Pump}}]]'''[[Special:Contributions/Pumpmeup|{{font|color=black|me}}]]'''[[User talk:Pumpmeup|{{font|color=blue|up}}]]''' 06:08, 28 October 2007 (UTC)

== MichaelFrey Bot ==

Seb, would you mind taking a look at [[Wikiversity:Bots/Status#User:MichaelFreyTool]]? Michael asked me to take a look at it, but I've no idea what to look for. :-) It seems ok - in use on Wikibooks and de.wv - is that valid criteria for turning on a bot locally? [[User:Cormaggio|Cormaggio]] &lt;sup&gt;&lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Cormaggio|talk]]&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/sup&gt; 20:27, 9 February 2008 (UTC)

== Username Change  ==

Is there a chance if you could take a look at [[Wikiversity:Changing username|Changing username]] I've placed a request for my username to be changed. [[User:Imperial|'''Imperial''']] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Imperial|''What do you want?'']]&lt;/sup&gt; 08:30, 11 March 2008 (UTC)

== beta.wikiversity bot ==

Please see: http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:White_Cat#bot --&lt;small&gt; [[User:White Cat|Cat]]&lt;/small&gt; &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:White Cat|chi?]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:42, 13 March 2008 (UTC)

== My wish ==

I read your post, but I am very busy at the moment. I have a response on my to-do list. --[[User:McCormack|McCormack]] 13:18, 24 March 2008 (UTC)

== usurping request on beta.wikiversity ==

I would like to take over User:Yuyu ([http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Contributions/Yuyu no edits]) on beta.wikiversity. I'm using Yuyu on most of the project, en as a sysop in [[:w:zh:User:Yuyu|zh.wikipedia]]. --[[User:Yuyu|Yuyu]] 18:40, 25 April 2008 (UTC)

== Rename request ==

Please, rename kisbes on the beta wikiversity to balasyum. --[[User:Kisbes|Kisbes]] 17:51, 25 May 2008 (UTC)

==Custodial flag for Remi==
[[Wikiversity:Notices_for_custodians#Custodial_flag|ping]], ----[[User:Erkan_Yilmaz|Erkan Yilmaz]] &lt;small&gt;uses the [[Wikiversity:Chat]] ([http://java.freenode.net//index.php?channel=wikiversity-en try])&lt;/small&gt; 16:51, 23 June 2008 (UTC)

== ping ==

[http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Wikiversity:Notices_for_custodians#range_block_log ping] --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 05:29, 5 October 2008 (UTC)

== ArchiveBot ==

Is there any way to get ArchiveBot to count &lt;nowiki&gt;{{unsigned}}&lt;/nowiki&gt; as a signature?  [[user:Jade Knight|The Jade Knight]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Jade Knight|(d'viser)]]&lt;/sup&gt; 04:28, 8 October 2008 (UTC)

== Usurpation follow-up ==

Crats:  I messaged a couple of you previously about this but just noticed there was a specific note to message all crats on [[Wikiversity:Changing_username#User_rename_requests]] and due to the delay thought I'd better do again:  I'm following up on my request from December at [[Wikiversity:Changing_username#Usurpation_of_User:Doug]], no action has been taken.  [[User:Mu301|mikeu]] mentioned back in January that there was a technical problem with some of the tools and I see that mentioned on the Changing Username page now too.  Reviewing the problem myself though, I am not clear on why this administrative issue is really a problem.  I can see why it might be in some cases but not allowing clearly valid requests to go through without a ''pro forma'' check seems silly.  For the life of me, I cannot see what these two tools would tell you for information about a user that you can't get nearly as easily through other means, particularly when we're talking about accounts that haven't edited in years in most cases and even then very little.  I know there are only four of you, but the request ahead of mine has been sitting since July.  That user and I are both Sysops on other projects and are both trying usurp accounts that appear to be clearly dead.  I've actually been waiting before taking a more active role here until my account was fully unified and it looks like you could use a bit of help.  Cheers! --[[User:BewareofDoug|BewareofDoug]] 03:02, 17 March 2009 (UTC)

== User rename request ==

Would you please check the [[Wikiversity:Changing username|username]] page for my request on changing userame? [[User:Carlos.ivan.fuentes|C.I.]] 17:05, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== What happened to Archive bot? ==

I tried to apply using the archive request template, but when I looked at Archivebot, it seems that it has only ever archived 1100 edits. Is this Bot broken?

== fyi ==

[[Wikiversity:Community_Review/Abd#Proposal_to_remove_all_current_Bureaucrats]] --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 18:02, 1 February 2011 (UTC)

== missing bureaucrat noticeboard on beta.wikiversity ==

This message was supposed to be posted at http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/User_talk:Sebmol

Hi. You are listed as a bureaucrat on that wiki, but so is at least one other person. To contact a bureaucrat, in order to usurp accounts and similar, users have to send duplicate messages, rather than post at a single place. Please create a bureaucrat noticeboard of some sort and list it at [[:meta:Index of pages where renaming can be requested]]. If it already exists, please list it there! Thank you. --[[User:Joy-temporary|Joy-temporary]] 11:30, 5 August 2011 (UTC)

== User rename requests open ==

I've reviewed the standing renaming requests at [[WV:Changing username#User_rename_requests]] and have commented with recommendations, for all but one of them. I'm notifying all three active 'crats of this, because simple renaming requests should not be delayed. I have not yet reviewed the usurpation requests. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] 18:56, 27 August 2011 (UTC)

== [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|Forced user renames coming soon for SUL]] ==

&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Hi, sorry for writing in English. I'm writing to ask you, as a bureaucrat of this wiki, to [//meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Single+User+Login+finalisation+announcement%2FPersonal+announcement&amp;filter=&amp;action=page translate and review the notification] that will be sent to all users, also on this wiki, who will be forced to change their user name on May 27 and will probably need your help with renames.
You may also want to help with the pages [[m:Rename practices]] and [[m:Global rename policy]].
Thank you, [[m:User:Nemo_bis|Nemo]] 13:08, 3 May 2013 (UTC)
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- EdwardsBot 0441 --&gt;

== Custodianship ==

Hello Sebmol, Can you help me become a custodian. Please give me a comment on my talk page, Please talk on [[User talk:Draubb|Draubb]] or [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Draubb]]. Bye! [[User:Draubb|Draubb]] ([[User talk:Draubb|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Draubb|contribs]]) 00:42, 19 May 2013 (UTC)

== ArchiveBot broken ==

[[User:ArchiveBot|ArchiveBot]], which you operate on your system, has not run since April of this year. Sebmol, can you advise us? Are you monitoring your Talk page? --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 14:12, 1 October 2013 (UTC)
:Hi, fyi - I've requested usurpation of the bot's username [[Wikiversity:Changing username#ArchiveBot → ArchiveBot (usurped)|here]] -[[User talk:Fastily|&lt;span style=&quot;font-family:Trebuchet MS;color:Indigo;font-weight:bold&quot;&gt;&lt;big&gt;F&lt;/big&gt;&lt;small&gt;ASTILY&lt;/small&gt;&lt;/span&gt;]] 09:34, 14 May 2014 (UTC)

== Problem with unified account ==

Hi. I am registered in pl.wikipedia.org with the username Zink. I tried to create the unified account, but the page said that the en.wikiversity.org was the mother wiki for my account, and asked me to enter the password for it. I'm not registered here, but in fact there is an account here with the same name, which does not belong to me, thus I cannot provide the password. But the unified account page won't let me go further without that. I have written to one of the Polish Wikipedia bureaucrats, but haven't got any answer for a week now. Can you help me? I'm not particularly interested in taking over someone else's account, but I would like to complete the unified account conversion procedure.

== An important message about renaming users ==

&lt;div class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;
Dear Sebmol,

I am cross-posting this message to many places to make sure everyone who is a Wikimedia Foundation project bureaucrat receives a copy. If you are a bureaucrat on more than one wiki, you will receive this message on each wiki where you are a bureaucrat.

As you may have seen, work to perform the Wikimedia cluster-wide [[mw:SUL finalisation|single-user login finalisation]] (SUL finalisation) is taking place. This may potentially effect your work as a local bureaucrat, so please read this message carefully.

Why is this happening? As currently stated at [[m:Global rename policy|the global rename policy]], a global account is a name linked to a single user across all Wikimedia wikis, with local accounts unified into a global collection. Previously, the only way to rename a unified user was to individually rename every local account. This was an extremely difficult and time-consuming task, both for stewards and for the users who had to initiate discussions with local bureaucrats (who perform local renames to date) on every wiki with available bureaucrats. The process took a very long time, since it's difficult to coordinate crosswiki renames among the projects and bureaucrats involved in individual projects. 

The SUL finalisation will be taking place in stages, and one of the first stages will be to turn off Special:RenameUser locally. This needs to be done as soon as possible, on advice and input from Stewards and engineers for the project, so that no more accounts that are unified globally are broken by a local rename to usurp the global account name. Once this is done, the process of global name unification can begin. The date that has been chosen to turn off local renaming and shift over to entirely global renaming is 15 September 2014, or three weeks time from now. In place of local renames is a new tool, hosted on Meta, that allows for global renames on all wikis where the name is not registered will be deployed. 

Your help is greatly needed during this process and going forward in the future if, as a bureaucrat, renaming users is something that you do or have an interest in participating in. The Wikimedia Stewards have set up, and are in charge of, a new community usergroup on Meta in order to share knowledge and work together on renaming accounts globally, called [[m:Global renamers|Global renamers]]. Stewards are in the process of creating documentation to help global renamers to get used to and learn more about global accounts and tools and Meta in general as well as the application format. As transparency is a valuable thing in our movement, the Stewards would like to have at least a brief public application period. If you are an experienced renamer as a local bureaucrat, the process of becoming a part of this group could take as little as 24 hours to complete. You, as a bureaucrat, should be able to apply for the global renamer right on Meta by the [[m:SRGP|requests for global permissions]] page on 1 September, a week from now.

In the meantime please update your local page where users request renames to reflect this move to global renaming, and if there is a rename request and the user has edited more than one wiki with the name, please send them to [[:m:SRUC|the request page for a global rename]].

Stewards greatly appreciate the trust local communities have in you and want to make this transition as easy as possible so that the two groups can start working together to ensure everyone has a unique login identity across Wikimedia projects. Completing this project will allow for long-desired universal tools like a global watchlist, global notifications and many, many more features to make work easier.

If you have any questions, comments or concerns about the SUL finalisation, read over the [[m:SUL|Help:Unified login]] page on Meta and leave a note on the talk page there, or on the talk page for [[m:Talk:Global renamers|global renamers]]. You can also contact me on [[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|my talk page on meta]] if you would like. I'm working as a bridge between Wikimedia Foundation Engineering and Product Development, Wikimedia Stewards, and you to assure that SUL finalisation goes as smoothly as possible; this is a community-driven process and I encourage you to work with the Stewards for our communities.

Thank you for your time.
-- [[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan (WMF)]] [[m:User talk:Keegan (WMF)|talk]] 18:24, 25 August 2014 (UTC)

&lt;small&gt;--This message was sent using [[m:MassMessage|MassMessage]]. Was there an error? [[m:Talk:MassMessage|Report it!]]&lt;/small&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Keegan (WMF)@metawiki using the list at http://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Keegan_(WMF)/MassMessage/Crats&amp;oldid=9637985 --&gt;

== [[Wikiversity:Candidates for Custodianship/Dave Braunschweig#Voting for full custodianship]] ==

As a bureaucrat, please close this discussion. It's been two weeks. Thanks. --[[User:Abd|Abd]] ([[User talk:Abd|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Abd|contribs]]) 15:15, 12 September 2014 (UTC)

== Your admin status ==

Hello. I'm a [[:m:stewards|steward]]. A new [[:m:Admin activity review|policy]] regarding the removal of &quot;advanced rights&quot; (administrator, bureaucrat, etc.) was adopted by [[:m:Requests for comment/Activity levels of advanced administrative rights holders|community consensus]] recently. According to this policy, the stewards are reviewing administrators' activity on wikis with no inactivity policy.
 
You meet the inactivity criteria (no edits and no log actions for 2 years) on '''enwikiversity''', where you are a bureaucrat and administrator. Since that wiki does not have its own administrators' rights review process, the global one applies.
 
If you want to keep your rights, you should inform the community of the wiki about the fact that the stewards have sent you this information about your inactivity. If the community has a discussion about it and then wants you to keep your rights, please contact the stewards at [[:m:Stewards' noticeboard]], and link to the discussion of the local community, where they express their wish to continue to maintain the rights, and demonstrate a continued requirement to maintain these rights.
 
We stewards will evaluate the responses. If there is no response at all after approximately one month, we will proceed to remove your administrative rights. In cases of doubt, we will evaluate the responses and will refer a decision back to the local community for their comment and review. If you have any questions, please contact us on [[:m:Stewards' noticeboard]].
 
Best regards, '''[[User:Rschen7754|Rs]][[User talk:Rschen7754|chen]][[Special:Contributions/Rschen7754|7754]]''' 21:05, 23 November 2014 (UTC)

== Your account will be renamed ==

&lt;div class=&quot;plainlinks mw-content-ltr&quot; lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;
Hello,

The developer team at Wikimedia is making some changes to how accounts work, as part of our on-going efforts to provide new and better tools for our users like cross-wiki notifications. These changes will mean you have the same account name everywhere. This will let us give you new features that will help you edit and discuss better, and allow more flexible user permissions for tools. One of the side-effects of this is that user accounts will now have to be unique across all 900 Wikimedia wikis. See [[m:Special:MyLanguage/Single User Login finalisation announcement|the announcement]] for more information.

Unfortunately, your account clashes with another account also called ArchiveBot (usurped). To make sure that both of you can use all Wikimedia projects in future, we have reserved the name ArchiveBot (usurped)~enwikiversity that only you will have. If you like it, you don't have to do anything. If you do not like it, you can [[Special:GlobalRenameRequest|pick out a different name]].

Your account will still work as before, and you will be credited for all your edits made so far, but you will have to use the new account name when you log in.

Sorry for the inconvenience.

Yours,&lt;br /&gt;[[m:User:Keegan (WMF)|Keegan Peterzell]]&lt;br /&gt;Community Liaison, Wikimedia Foundation
&lt;/div&gt; 23:28, 17 March 2015 (UTC)
&lt;!-- SUL finalisation notification --&gt;

== Wikiversity:Bots ==

There is a current discussion about changes to the [[Wikiversity:Bots]] policy. As a bot operator we would welcome your input at [[Wikiversity_talk:Bots#Update]]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 15:00, 2 January 2016 (UTC)

Hello, we've noticed that the bot that you operate has been inactive since 2006. The bot flag has been temporarily removed for inactivity per changes in the [[Wikiversity:Bots]] policy. The flag will restored if we notice that the bot has resumed productive activity, or if you request restoration from a bureaucrat. The community does not consider it a big deal to re-grant this right to a trusted contributor. Thank you for the bot contributions that you have made in the past, and we hope that you will consider becoming active again. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:15, 23 January 2016 (UTC)</text>
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[[File:Gustave Le Gray - Brig upon the Water - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Challenge me|border|right|frameless|400x400px|Shreenith]]
{{TOCright}}

'''Web Design''' is an incredibly '''fun''' skill to learn—combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from '''current professionals''' who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs!

The idea of the Web started with {{w|Tim Berners-Lee}} during 1989, while he was working at {{w|CERN}}. His vision was to create a global level hypertext based project, and his implementation with a browser was with [[w:WorldWideWeb|WorldWideWeb]] in 1991. During the early days only text based pages could be used on single lined web browsers.There was no integration of multimedia elements like images, sound and others. However the arrival of the {{w|Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser}} allowed integration of multimedia elements. In October 1994, {{w|W3C}} was founded to develop standards for the Web, which process still continues. Since about 2000, many browsers like Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Google Chrome have been released into the market, and new browsers are still coming.

You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a '''good foundation''' for any web designer. We're also working on the requirements for formal [[Web design qualifications|qualifications]], so you can start collecting evidence of your skills towards a '''formal qualification''' in your country. Of course, if you have anything to add or improve then please join us and contribute!  

(Read [[Web Design/About_the_web_design_learning_project|More about the web design learning project]])

== What you can learn here==
The following topics have been ordered to help provide a pathway for you to learn the main skills of web design. Of course, you might deviate from that path—or create a new path! 

* [[Web Design/Build a basic web page|Build a basic web page]] [[Image:75%.svg]]—Get started creating your own web pages and learning how to style them! You will also find valuable information on what makes a good web design. All of this information is fundamental to getting started.
* [[Web Design/Build a small website|Build a small website]] [[Image:25%.svg]]—Building on your skills to create structured HTML content that can be styled and laid out with your stylesheets (Includes [[CSS challenges|10 CSS Challenges]]!)
* [[Web Design/Developing a Client Project|Developing a Client Project]] [[Image:00%.svg]]—Applying your HTML/CSS skills to your first real client project where you'll learn some project management, information architecture and usability along the way! Now featuring the [[Information Architecture Challenges]]
* [[Web Design/An Introduction to Programming with JavaScript|An Introduction to Programming with JavaScript]] [[Image:50%.svg]]—Learn some of the fundamentals of computer programming (sequence, selection, repetition and variables) with your own web pages! Now with [[Web Design/Introductory algorithm challenges|Introductory algorithm challenges]] and [[Web Design/JavaScript Challenges|JavaScript Challenges]]!
* [[Web Design/CSS3 Animations|CSS3 Animations]] [[Image:100%.svg]] − Animate your website with the CSS3 animations
* [[Web Design/Dynamic_websites_with_PHP|An Introduction to Dynamic Websites with PHP]][[Image:25%.svg]]—Learn the basics of server-side scripting, including page templates and form handling. Now including [[Web Design/PHP_challenges|PHP Challenges]]!
* What to consider when creating [[Web Design/IDs|resource identifiers]].

Each topic includes an outline, suggested activities and learning resources to help you along your way.

== Topics under development ==
* [[Web Design/Using the Internet as a Learning Tool|Using the Internet as a Learning Tool]] [[Image:25%.svg]] – Start learning how you can keep up-to-date with the world of web-design.
* [[Web Design/Design Principles for Web Design|Design Principles for Web Design]] [[Image:00%.svg]] – Before getting too technical, get started with some all important graphic design principles as they're applied to the web!
* [[Web Design/Emerging Technologies|Emerging Technologies]] – There are some pretty nifty tools and technologies constantly working their way into Web design... start to find out about them! Now with [[Web Design/XML challenges|XML Challenges]].
* [[Web Design/Accessibility|Accessibility]] – Start using the right practices from the start!
* [[Web_Design/Design_Suggestions|Design Suggestions]] – Suggestions for Design resources.
* [[Web Design/Getting Your Site On the Web|Getting Your Site On the Web]] [[Image:25%.svg]] – So you've got your site, now you need to get it on the web for everyone to see!
* [[Web Design/Useful Applications|Useful Applications]] – Make sure you have the right tools for the job! Here you'll find a listing of HTML/CSS editors both WYSIWYG and text-based.
* [[Web Design/CSS|CSS]] – Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
* [[Web Design/Dynamic websites|Dynamic websites]]
* [[Google Web Designer]]

== Qualifications ==

Some countries offer official Web design certificates and [[Web Design/Qualifications|qualifications]].  This course  is intended to help those who would like to obtain such a qualification.

==See also==
* [[Web development]]
===Wikipedia===
* [[w:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}]] (in Wikipedia)
* [[w:OpenStack|OpenStack]]

== External Links ==
*  [http://www.w3schools.com W3 Schools Online Web Tutorials] –  A resource for learning HTML 4.0, XHTML 1.0, CSS and scripting (JavaScript, PHP, etc.) languages.
*  [http://www.w3resource.com/index.php w3resource Online Web Tutorials] –  A resource for learning HTML(4.01), CSS(2.1), JavaScript(1.5), PHP 5, SQL 2003 standard and MySQL 5 tutorials.
*  [http://www.techved.com/uae/blog/web-design Web designing explained] - Web design Explained in detail
*  [http://htmldog.com/ HTMLDog] - A resource for best practice guides to XHTML and CSS.
*  [https://www.digitar.co.uk/web-design eCommerce / Shop] - Store Management and selling online
*  [https://thinktoshare.com/website-creating-tips Website Development Tutorial] - Guide to Create a Website

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[[File:Gustave Le Gray - Brig upon the Water - Google Art Project.jpg|alt=Challenge me|border|right|frameless|400x400px|Shreenith]]
{{TOCright}}

'''Web Design''' is an incredibly '''fun''' skill to learn—combining the latest toys of technology with the creativity of design! On top of that, learning web design is unique in that we can learn directly from '''current professionals''' who publish their techniques for all to read on their own Web-logs!

The idea of the Web started with {{w|Tim Berners-Lee}} during 1989, while he was working at {{w|CERN}}. His vision was to create a global level hypertext based project, and his implementation with a browser was with [[w:WorldWideWeb|WorldWideWeb]] in 1991. During the early days only text based pages could be used on single lined web browsers.There was no integration of multimedia elements like images, sound and others. However the arrival of the {{w|Mosaic (web browser)|Mosaic web browser}} allowed integration of multimedia elements. In October 1994, {{w|W3C}} was founded to develop standards for the Web, which process still continues. Since about 2000, many browsers like Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and Google Chrome have been released into the market, and new browsers are still coming.

You'll find below a growing number of topics that we think provide a '''good foundation''' for any web designer. We're also working on the requirements for formal [[Web design qualifications|qualifications]], so you can start collecting evidence of your skills towards a '''formal qualification''' in your country. Of course, if you have anything to add or improve then please join us and contribute!  

(Read [[Web Design/About_the_web_design_learning_project|More about the web design learning project]])

== What you can learn here==
The following topics have been ordered to help provide a pathway for you to learn the main skills of web design. Of course, you might deviate from that path—or create a new path! 

* [[Web Design/Build a basic web page|Build a basic web page]] [[Image:75%.svg]]—Get started creating your own web pages and learning how to style them! You will also find valuable information on what makes a good web design. All of this information is fundamental to getting started.
* [[Web Design/Build a small website|Build a small website]] [[Image:25%.svg]]—Building on your skills to create structured HTML content that can be styled and laid out with your stylesheets (Includes [[CSS challenges|10 CSS Challenges]]!)
* [[Web Design/Developing a Client Project|Developing a Client Project]] [[Image:00%.svg]]—Applying your HTML/CSS skills to your first real client project where you'll learn some project management, information architecture and usability along the way! Now featuring the [[Information Architecture Challenges]]
* [[Web Design/An Introduction to Programming with JavaScript|An Introduction to Programming with JavaScript]] [[Image:50%.svg]]—Learn some of the fundamentals of computer programming (sequence, selection, repetition and variables) with your own web pages! Now with [[Web Design/Introductory algorithm challenges|Introductory algorithm challenges]] and [[Web Design/JavaScript Challenges|JavaScript Challenges]]!
* [[Web Design/CSS3 Animations|CSS3 Animations]] [[Image:100%.svg]] − Animate your website with the CSS3 animations
* [[Web Design/Dynamic_websites_with_PHP|An Introduction to Dynamic Websites with PHP]][[Image:25%.svg]]—Learn the basics of server-side scripting, including page templates and form handling. Now including [[Web Design/PHP_challenges|PHP Challenges]]!
* What to consider when creating [[Web Design/IDs|resource identifiers]].

Each topic includes an outline, suggested activities and learning resources to help you along your way.

== Topics under development ==
* [[Web Design/Using the Internet as a Learning Tool|Using the Internet as a Learning Tool]] [[Image:25%.svg]] – Start learning how you can keep up-to-date with the world of web-design.
* [[Web Design/Design Principles for Web Design|Design Principles for Web Design]] [[Image:00%.svg]] – Before getting too technical, get started with some all important graphic design principles as they're applied to the web!
* [[Web Design/Emerging Technologies|Emerging Technologies]] – There are some pretty nifty tools and technologies constantly working their way into Web design... start to find out about them! Now with [[Web Design/XML challenges|XML Challenges]].
* [[Web Design/Accessibility|Accessibility]] – Start using the right practices from the start!
* [[Web_Design/Design_Suggestions|Design Suggestions]] – Suggestions for Design resources.
* [[Web Design/Getting Your Site On the Web|Getting Your Site On the Web]] [[Image:25%.svg]] – So you've got your site, now you need to get it on the web for everyone to see!
* [[Web Design/Useful Applications|Useful Applications]] – Make sure you have the right tools for the job! Here you'll find a listing of HTML/CSS editors both WYSIWYG and text-based.
* [[Web Design/CSS|CSS]] – Cascading Style Sheets (CSS)
* [[Web Design/Dynamic websites|Dynamic websites]]
* [[Google Web Designer]]

== Qualifications ==

Some countries offer official Web design certificates and [[Web Design/Qualifications|qualifications]].  This course  is intended to help those who would like to obtain such a qualification.

==See also==
* [[Web development]]
===Wikipedia===
* [[w:{{PAGENAME}}|{{PAGENAME}}]] (in Wikipedia)
* [[w:OpenStack|OpenStack]]

== External Links ==
*  [http://www.w3schools.com W3 Schools Online Web Tutorials] –  A resource for learning HTML 4.0, XHTML 1.0, CSS and scripting (JavaScript, PHP, etc.) languages.
*  [http://www.w3resource.com/index.php w3resource Online Web Tutorials] –  A resource for learning HTML(4.01), CSS(2.1), JavaScript(1.5), PHP 5, SQL 2003 standard and MySQL 5 tutorials.
*  [http://www.techved.com/uae/blog/web-design Web designing explained] - Web design Explained in detail
*  [http://htmldog.com/ HTMLDog] - A resource for best practice guides to XHTML and CSS.
*  [https://www.digitar.co.uk/web-design eCommerce / Shop] - Store Management and selling online

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{{title|Assessment}}
==Overview==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project}}
In addition to the deep dive that the major project takes into a specific topic of interest, the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|quizzes]] test breadth of knowledge.

{{Anchor|Table}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item'''
| '''Weight''' 
| style=&quot;width: 16%&quot;|'''Due'''
|'''Late submissions'''
|'''Extensions'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Expected time involved&lt;br&gt;(total 150 hours)'''
|-
|'''Topic selection'''
|0%
|
|Not accepted
|Not applicable
|Optional submission to confirm topic selection, ask any questions etc.
|'''less than 1 hour'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Not available; withdraw from unit before Census Date instead
| This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] assessment exercise by developing a plan for the chapter and getting feedback. To do this: Register a Wikiversity account, sign up to an approved topic, create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant image), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.
| '''5 hours''': 1 hour to learn &quot;how&quot;, 2 hours research, 2 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 45%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Topics must be approved by the unit convener. Includes a social contribution component.
| '''45 hours''': 7 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 18 hours research, 20 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 20%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Record and share an online multimedia presentation up to 3 minutes long about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic, focusing on  key problem(s) and answer(s) provided by psychological science. Address the same topic as covered in the book chapter.
| '''10 hours''': 2 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 6 hours preparation, 2 hours to record &amp; finalise.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 30%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Available with acceptable documentation
| 6 equally-weighted 10-item, 10-minute, multiple-choice, online quizzes. One quiz per module. Based on [[Motivation_and_emotion/About#Textbook|textbook]] chapters.
| '''90 hours''': 24 hours lectures (12 x 2 hours each), 12 hours tutorials (12 x 1 hour each), 51 hours reading (17 chapters x 3 hours each), 3 hours completing the quizzes (6 x 10 mins each).
|}
&lt;noinclude&gt;

==Requirements==
&lt;includeonly&gt;'''Requirements'''&lt;/includeonly&gt;
# Submission of assessment is optional.  Non-submissions will be awarded 0. 
#  In the absence of email communication to the unit convener requesting alternative assessment, it is assumed that participation in the standard assessment exercises is willingly undertaken. The major project ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]) assessment exercises involve use of collaborative, online, public platforms. Use anonymous accounts if you have privacy concerns. Alternative assessment which satisfies the learning outcomes and graduate attributes may be negotiated with the unit convener where reasonable grounds are presented. The onus is upon the student to negotiate alternative assessment.
# Final marks and grades
## A final overall mark of 50% or higher is required to Pass the unit. 
## The [http://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/examinations-and-results/grading-schema UC grading schema] (HD = 85+, DI = 75 to 84, CR = 65 to 74), and P = 50 to 64) will be applied to final marks.

==Submission==
All assessment items are to be submitted online via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.

==[[/Extensions|Extensions]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Extensions}}
==Late penalty==
#No late submissions for the topic development are accepted.
#Other assessment items can be submitted up to 7 days late without an approved extension. This will incur a 5% penalty per day (i.e., -5% of total marks available for the assessment item), including weekends. A part-day late is counted as a full day late. If submitted beyond 7 days late, 0 will be awarded for the assessment item.

==Marking and feedback==
#Assessment will generally be marked and feedback provided within three weeks of submission.
#Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via the unit's {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#Assessment submitted after the due date and time, regardless of whether an extension was granted, may be returned at a later date than those submitted on time.
#Late submission may result in reduced feedback being provided.
&lt;!-- #If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]]. --&gt;

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}| ]]
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{{title|Assessment}}
==Overview==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project}}
In addition to the deep dive that the major project takes into a specific topic of interest, the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|quizzes]] test breadth of knowledge.

{{Anchor|Table}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item'''
| '''Weight''' 
| style=&quot;width: 16%&quot;|'''Due'''
|'''Late submissions'''
|'''Extensions'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Expected time involved&lt;br&gt;(total 150 hours)'''
|-
|'''Topic selection'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 0%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Not applicable
|Optional submission to confirm topic selection, ask any questions etc.
|'''less than 1 hour'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Not available; withdraw from unit before Census Date instead
| This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] assessment exercise by developing a plan for the chapter and getting feedback. To do this: Register a Wikiversity account, sign up to an approved topic, create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant image), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.
| '''5 hours''': 1 hour to learn &quot;how&quot;, 2 hours research, 2 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 45%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Topics must be approved by the unit convener. Includes a social contribution component.
| '''45 hours''': 7 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 18 hours research, 20 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 20%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Record and share an online multimedia presentation up to 3 minutes long about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic, focusing on  key problem(s) and answer(s) provided by psychological science. Address the same topic as covered in the book chapter.
| '''10 hours''': 2 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 6 hours preparation, 2 hours to record &amp; finalise.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 30%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Available with acceptable documentation
| 6 equally-weighted 10-item, 10-minute, multiple-choice, online quizzes. One quiz per module. Based on [[Motivation_and_emotion/About#Textbook|textbook]] chapters.
| '''90 hours''': 24 hours lectures (12 x 2 hours each), 12 hours tutorials (12 x 1 hour each), 51 hours reading (17 chapters x 3 hours each), 3 hours completing the quizzes (6 x 10 mins each).
|}
&lt;noinclude&gt;

==Requirements==
&lt;includeonly&gt;'''Requirements'''&lt;/includeonly&gt;
# Submission of assessment is optional.  Non-submissions will be awarded 0. 
#  In the absence of email communication to the unit convener requesting alternative assessment, it is assumed that participation in the standard assessment exercises is willingly undertaken. The major project ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]) assessment exercises involve use of collaborative, online, public platforms. Use anonymous accounts if you have privacy concerns. Alternative assessment which satisfies the learning outcomes and graduate attributes may be negotiated with the unit convener where reasonable grounds are presented. The onus is upon the student to negotiate alternative assessment.
# Final marks and grades
## A final overall mark of 50% or higher is required to Pass the unit. 
## The [http://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/examinations-and-results/grading-schema UC grading schema] (HD = 85+, DI = 75 to 84, CR = 65 to 74), and P = 50 to 64) will be applied to final marks.

==Submission==
All assessment items are to be submitted online via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.

==[[/Extensions|Extensions]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Extensions}}
==Late penalty==
#No late submissions for the topic development are accepted.
#Other assessment items can be submitted up to 7 days late without an approved extension. This will incur a 5% penalty per day (i.e., -5% of total marks available for the assessment item), including weekends. A part-day late is counted as a full day late. If submitted beyond 7 days late, 0 will be awarded for the assessment item.

==Marking and feedback==
#Assessment will generally be marked and feedback provided within three weeks of submission.
#Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via the unit's {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#Assessment submitted after the due date and time, regardless of whether an extension was granted, may be returned at a later date than those submitted on time.
#Late submission may result in reduced feedback being provided.
&lt;!-- #If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]]. --&gt;

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==Overview==
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project}}
In addition to the deep dive that the major project takes into a specific topic of interest, the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|quizzes]] test breadth of knowledge.

{{Anchor|Table}}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''Item'''
| '''Weight''' 
| style=&quot;width: 16%&quot;|'''Due'''
|'''Late submissions'''
|'''Extensions'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Expected time involved&lt;br&gt;(total 150 hours)'''
|-
|'''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 0%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Not applicable
|Optional submission to confirm topic selection, ask any questions etc.
|'''less than 1 hour'''
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 5%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Not available; withdraw from unit before Census Date instead
| This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] assessment exercise by developing a plan for the chapter and getting feedback. To do this: Register a Wikiversity account, sign up to an approved topic, create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant image), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.
| '''5 hours''': 1 hour to learn &quot;how&quot;, 2 hours research, 2 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 45%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Author an online book chapter up to 4,000 words about a unique motivation or emotion topic. Topics must be approved by the unit convener. Includes a social contribution component.
| '''45 hours''': 7 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 18 hours research, 20 hours preparation.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia presentation]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 20%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia/Due}}
|Up to 7 days late accepted @ -5% per day
|Available with acceptable documentation
| Record and share an online multimedia presentation up to 3 minutes long about a unique, specific motivation or emotion topic, focusing on  key problem(s) and answer(s) provided by psychological science. Address the same topic as covered in the book chapter.
| '''10 hours''': 2 hours to learn &quot;how&quot;, 6 hours preparation, 2 hours to record &amp; finalise.
|- style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot;
| '''[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]'''
| style=&quot;text-align: right&quot; | 30%
| {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes/Due}}
|Not accepted
|Available with acceptable documentation
| 6 equally-weighted 10-item, 10-minute, multiple-choice, online quizzes. One quiz per module. Based on [[Motivation_and_emotion/About#Textbook|textbook]] chapters.
| '''90 hours''': 24 hours lectures (12 x 2 hours each), 12 hours tutorials (12 x 1 hour each), 51 hours reading (17 chapters x 3 hours each), 3 hours completing the quizzes (6 x 10 mins each).
|}
&lt;noinclude&gt;

==Requirements==
&lt;includeonly&gt;'''Requirements'''&lt;/includeonly&gt;
# Submission of assessment is optional.  Non-submissions will be awarded 0. 
#  In the absence of email communication to the unit convener requesting alternative assessment, it is assumed that participation in the standard assessment exercises is willingly undertaken. The major project ([[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]) assessment exercises involve use of collaborative, online, public platforms. Use anonymous accounts if you have privacy concerns. Alternative assessment which satisfies the learning outcomes and graduate attributes may be negotiated with the unit convener where reasonable grounds are presented. The onus is upon the student to negotiate alternative assessment.
# Final marks and grades
## A final overall mark of 50% or higher is required to Pass the unit. 
## The [http://www.canberra.edu.au/current-students/examinations-and-results/grading-schema UC grading schema] (HD = 85+, DI = 75 to 84, CR = 65 to 74), and P = 50 to 64) will be applied to final marks.

==Submission==
All assessment items are to be submitted online via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.

==[[/Extensions|Extensions]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Extensions}}
==Late penalty==
#No late submissions for the topic development are accepted.
#Other assessment items can be submitted up to 7 days late without an approved extension. This will incur a 5% penalty per day (i.e., -5% of total marks available for the assessment item), including weekends. A part-day late is counted as a full day late. If submitted beyond 7 days late, 0 will be awarded for the assessment item.

==Marking and feedback==
#Assessment will generally be marked and feedback provided within three weeks of submission.
#Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via the unit's {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#Assessment submitted after the due date and time, regardless of whether an extension was granted, may be returned at a later date than those submitted on time.
#Late submission may result in reduced feedback being provided.
&lt;!-- #If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]]. --&gt;

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}| ]]
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{{MET}}
__TOC__
{{MECR|1=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IQM9Y4cwZ7I}}
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==Overview==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|400px|center|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]‎ 

There can be moments in your life where it feels like everything is piling on top of you one by one.  Then there are moments where it may not be everything that is piling on top of you, but there is just one thing, one obstacle that you may feel you just can't get over or deal with.  At moments like these organising your time and prioritsing your needs, so that the essential ones are met first, is important.  The question still remains, how do you know which one is more important?  This isn't always easy to determine, so needs are so similar that there is a fine line as to which one should be dealt with first.  To start off with, not everyone is the same, John Citizen's needs are not the same as Jane Smith's.  Our individual needs and the order as to which one is more important than the other will depend on you.  However, hopefully this chapter will give you a little help as to which  order has been established in the past and guide you in the right direction as to how to prioritise your own needs and subsequently get you that little bit closer to self-actualisation.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs was established in the early 40s by Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970).  The theory behind his hierarchy was based on his article &quot;A Theory of Human Motivation&quot; (1943), which was reviewed in the 50th issue of the ''Psychological Review'' in America.  He aimed to develop a theory that positive valid theory of motivation the satisfied the following demands:
#In theory, the organism as a whole must be considered as the foundation.  Although, it is also important to note that isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions should not be ignored but should also be considered, along with the organism as a whole.
#Drives that are physiologically related or localised, should be considered to be atypical instead of typical.  Therefore the drive theory is rejected.
#There should be an emphasis on ultimate or basic goals.  Unconscious or basic goals are fundamental to motivation and therefore could be applied more universally or cross-culturally rather than superficial goals.
#Behaviour can consist of more than one motivation.  The motivated behaviour is a means by which basic needs can can be appropriately expressed or satisfied. 
#To understand that in practical situations, all organismic states are motivated and motivating.  The situation surrounding the reaction should be taken into consideration, but the motivation should not be based on the situation alone.
#An organisms needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency.  Hence Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
#Classification of motivation should be classified to deal with the issue of levels of specificity and/or generalisation.  The classifications should be based on the goals rather than the drives or motivated behaviour itself.
#The theory should be human-centered and not animal-centered.  The reason for this is that if the theory is animal-centered than there is an exclusion of the purpose and goal, as animals can't write or verbalise it.  Therefore it is unnecessary to use animals when it would be better and more beneficial to the study to use humans.
#And most importantly, Motivation theory and Behaviour theory are not the same.  Motivation is a class of behaviour, where it is possible that multiple motivations can produce or influence a single behaviour. 

Through his research into functionalist tradition, holism (which is the idea that there is an intimate interconnection across the various parts of a whole, in our case humans, that cannot exist independently from each other), and dynamicism (eg, Freudism or psychoanalytical approach), Maslow established a new design known as &quot;general-dynamic&quot; theory (1943).  His theory consisted of varying levels of five needs, also known as the ''Basic Needs'', which included (from the bottom of the pyramid to the top):

#&quot;Physiological&quot; needs
#Safety Needs
#Love/Belonging Needs
#Esteem Needs
#Need for Self-Actualisation

Maslow (1943) states that the gratification and deprivation of each step of hierarchy serves to be an important source of motivation.  He also mentions that for the average individual, the needs tend to be more often unconscious and the unconscious one are more likely to be the more significant and important ones.

The following sections of the chapter will go into more detail for each group of needs, followed by a section on the satisfaction of the needs and a summary.  The summary section, consists of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in a &quot;nut shell&quot;, a short quiz (juts to test you knowledge), and a multimedia clip.
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==&quot;Physiological&quot; Needs==
[[File:Apple juice with 3apples-JD.jpg|250px|right|]]‎ 
When it comes to &quot;physiological&quot; needs what are typically the first things that come to mind? The ability to breathe? The capability to eat and drink? Crystal has spent most of her life living on a day to day basis, never really knowing where her next meal will be coming from or if she will get another meal.  Her mouth is constantly, especially during the hotter months, and her stomach grumbles excessively and none stop. Even though she may not know if she will get at least one meal, she is still about to sustain her body with the water it provides.  Crystal's &quot;physiological&quot; needs to sustain her body is at such a low percentage that the desire to satisfy the need provides the required motivation to act on the deprivation.  In the above figure of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it can be seen that at the bottom of the pyramid in the largest section are the &quot;physiological&quot; needs. Maslow (1943) believed that of all the basic needs, the &quot;physiological&quot; needs are the greatest in power and influence when it comes to an individual's motivation.  He recognised that there are two aspects to this fundamental need: Homeostasis and Appetites.

Homeostasis is the body's automatic responses to sustaining a constant, normal state within the blood stream.  Cannon (1932) includes that the body maintains its form of homeostasis by internally monitoring the following aspects:
* Water content
* Sugar content
* Salt content
* Protein content
* Fat content
* Calcium content
* Oxygen content
* Constant hydrogen-ion level
* Constant temperature of the blood

The body's appetite comes from the lack of nutrients within the body.  This is more commonly a chemical imbalance.  To neutralise this imbalance the body then produces a specific appetite, that will take care of the lack of nutrients (Young, 1936).

To distinguish physiological needs from other needs, it is important to note that they are commonly isolable and localisable somatically (Maslow, 1943).  Therefore the most common physiological needs are breathe, hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, and excretion.  When it comes to studies of physiological needs, they have been primarily conducted on animals, particularly rats, because it is suggested that they have few motivations other than their physiological ones (Maslow, 1943).


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==Safety Needs==
[[File:Badge - Victoria Police.jpg|150px|left|]]‎ 
Jacqui is in her mid to late 20s, and has spent her adult life to-date in a physically abusive relationship.  She doesn't work and is solely dependent on her partner.  If she needs money to buy groceries, her partner is more than happy to give her the money she needs, but she does not have her own and he will not give her any more then the exact amount.  They are constantly being evacuated from their apartment, because rent is not being paid on a regular basis.  Jacqui and her partner don't stay in an apartment for longer than six months at a time.  She is worried day in and day out as to whether they will have somewhere to live the next month.  She knows that she is in a disgraceful situation with her partner but she has no job and no financial security to leave him.  What is she to do?  Why is this insecurity taking over her thoughts and behaviour?

Just like the &quot;physiological&quot; needs, the safety needs are almost as exclusive.  Explanations of the lack of safety can be difficult to describe in adults as they have learnt to inhibit any expression of fear or being threatened.  Infants and children on the other hand have not learnt the ability to inhibit these expressions (Maslow, 1943).  Maslow (1943) uses the example of illnesses in general.  He explains that when a child is sick it may not just be the physiological aspect of the body, but could have a deeper meaning.  In addition to the physical sickness, they can also exhibit a lack in their sense of feeling safe and secure, hence the need to be comforted by their parents or guardian.  It this uncertainty of not knowing what is actually happening that threatens their need for safety and motivates them to seek comfort and knowledge from their parents.  When children are raised in unthreatening and a loving family this enables them to effectively learn how to react to situations that adults would perceive to be dangerous (Maslow, 1943). 

When it comes to an individual's safety needs, Maslow (1943) stated that a healthy, normal fortunate adult is more likely to be satisfied if the following is present:
* Preference for a job with a tenure and protection
* Desire for savings account
* Insurance of various kinds
* Familiar things, things that are recongnisable and known
* Religion or world-philosophy or in more general terms science and philosophy

There are a number of extremes that can affect an individuals sense of safety.  Then there are some people who have no control over their sense of safety, because psychologically it is out of their control.  For example, some neurotic or near-neurotic individuals have a childish view of the world (Maslow, 1943).  This does not apply to all cases of neuroticism, just some.  The neuroticism causes in the individual the inability to inhibit their reactions like all other adults.  Not being able to inhibit their reactions means that, like a child, when they are in threatening and dangerous situations, their reactions become excessively expressed and not hidden.  Safety needs can also be deprived within individuals who are not of great socio-economic standing (Maslow, 1943).

In the book by Maslow and Mittelmann (1941), they talk about obssessive-compulsive individuals, whom have a constant desire to maintain order and stability in their world.  Hence their repetitive routines.  Goldstein (1939) brings up the issue of some cases of brain injury.  These individuals try to avoid anything that they perceive as unfamiliar and strange.

Therefore, by acquiring knowledge and systemising your world, it is possible that you can partially achieve satisfaction within your safety needs.  Having a job that gives you the benefits you need to maintain your lifestyle, being able to have savings and insurance so you a least likely to have concerns about you financial situation if you were to get sick, and living amongst familiar surroundings and people, should decrease the prepotency of this need.  With the decrease of importance of this need you life, will bring the emergence of higher needs: Psychological and Social needs, such as Love/Belonging Needs, Esteem Needs and Need for Self-Actualisation.
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==Psychological and social needs==
The psychological and social needs, unlike the other two basic needs require some form of interaction between society and your self or the emergence greater abilities from within you.  These needs include:

* Love/Belonging Needs
* Esteem Needs
* Need for Self-Actualisation

===Love/belonging needs===
[[File:Expecting family.jpg|200px|right|]]‎ 
Love/Belonging needs as described by Maslow (1943) are reflected by the &quot;''hunger'' for the affectionate relations with people&quot;.  Maslow discusses how maladjusted individuals and individuals with severe psychopathology tend to prevent themselves from accomplishing this need (1943).  He mentions that it is particularly common in today's society, however that was almost 60 years ago.  In a more current study conducted by Hagerty (1999) he rates &quot;belongingness&quot; and love to the risk of a &quot;broken family&quot; in today's society.  This includes both the risk of divorce and the risk of a child in the family dying.  Hagerty (1999) found that over a period of 35 years, from 1960 to 1994, the number of intact marriages per 1000 population declined across 88 different countries.  He also notes that over a period of 35 years the rate of improvement for the 88 countries is slowing reaching an asymptote structure.

As it can be seen from the above description, Love is ''not'' the same as sex.  Sex is seen to be part of the more basic needs and therefore a physiological and not a social need, where as love is accomplished psychologically and socially.  Love/Belongingness needs include the following:

* Family
* Friendship
* Sexual intimacy

The &quot;physiological&quot; needs and the safety needs theoretically should be met first prior to this current need.  However, Prager (1995, p. 289) states that some people work for hardly any rewards and are over stressed, yet they turn to close relations with loved ones for support and rewarding experiences.  This raises the question as to the actual affect of economic pressure on the need for intimacy and as to whether the order of the hierarchy can actually be interchangeable and various steps reversed.

The most important thing to be learnt from this section is that if you wish to feel satisfaction in love/belonging needs than you need to be willing to not just ''receive'' the love from others but also be willing to ''give'' it.

===Esteem needs===
Esteem needs reflect the desire to achieve a stable, firmly based, high evaluation of ourselves, self-respect, or self-esteem and esteem of others (Maslow, 1943).  Just like the physiological needs this one can also be divided further into:

#The desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence, for independence and freedom
#Desire for reputation or prestige, recognition, attention, importance or appreciation

Once satisfaction is acquired in the esteem needs, theoretically an individual should feel worth, self-confidence, strength, capability and the sense of being useful and necessary in the world.  Whereas dissatisfaction theoretically brings inferiority, weakness, and helplessness.  This results in basic discouragement, or compensatory or neurotic trends (Kardiner, 1941).

Essentially, if satisfaction is to be accomplished then one needs to acknowledge their real capacity, achievement and respect for others.

===Need for self-actualisation===
[[File:Creation of Adam.jpg|200px|left|]]‎ 
In his article, Maslow described the need for self-actualisation to be a &quot;desire to do what you are fitted for&quot; (1943).  As it can be seen in the above pyramid this need is at the tip of the hierarchy and the clarity of its emergence is dependent on the satisfaction of the four more basic needs.  Like everything in life, there are of course exceptions to the rule and these will be discussed in the next section.

If you recall from the section on Safety Needs, one way the need can be achieved is by acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe.  The Need for Self-Actualisation also requires the acquirement of knowledge and systemising the universe, however its done through expression rather than achievement.  In other words, acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe via the search for &quot;meaning&quot; (Maslow, 1943).  There are a number of ways to attain fulfillment through one or more of these areas:
* Morality
* Creativity
* Spontaneity
* Problem solving
* Being unprejudiced
* Acceptance of facts

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==How to establish satisfaction==
There are a couple of things that should be noted. In order to accomplish satisfaction of your basic needs there are certain preconditions that need to occur, otherwise they could threaten an aspect of the basic needs and your progression to the satisfaction of higher needs.  These preconditions as mentioned in Maslow's article (1943) are as follows:
* Freedom to speak
* Freedom to do what one wishes without harm to others
* Freedom to express oneself
* Freedom to investigate and seek for information
* Freedom to defend oneself
* Justice
* Fairness
* Honesty
* Orderliness within a group

Your actions can be seen as psychologically important as long as it contributes directly to satisfying the basic needs (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970).  The less directed or weaker the contribution, the less important it is to the point of view of psychological process.  This can also be applied to your defense mechanisms.  The more strong the defenses are the more they have to contribute to the need.

As mentioned in the previous section there are exceptions to the rule, such as:

#Your self-esteem can be more important than love.  In which case these two needs are reversed.
#Your drive to creativeness can be more important than &quot;lower&quot; needs.  This often seen in artists of all sorts.
#Your less prepotent needs can be lost, particularly if the greater prepotent needs (physiological and safety) are continuously being threatened.
#Levy (1937) state that &quot;psychopathetic personality&quot; have a permanent loss of the love/belongingness needs.
#Just as the lesser prepotent needs can be lost, if the greater prepotent needs have been satisfied for a long period of time then they can become  under evaluated.
#Needs and desires are not the only determinants of behaviour.
#Individuals who have strong ideals, high social standards, high values etc. can sacrifice the needs of greater importance for the things they believe in.  For example, refugees who refuse to eat for what they believe in, or protesters who will sacrifice their well belling for their cause.

When it comes to the satisfaction of each level it is important to note that each need ''does not'' have to be 100% satisfied before the next need can be tended too (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970, p. 59).  Maslow states that it is more commonly seen that each need will only be partially satisfied and new needs emerge gradually as the previous need gets closer and closer to its satisfaction threshold, which is not 100%.  For example, physiological needs may be 5% satisfied where as at the same time the need for safety maybe 0%. As the physiological need satisfaction increases, therefore to 25% than the need for safety might increase to 5%. Physiological satisfaction may increase more to 50% and the need for safety would increase too.  (These are arbitrary numbers)

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==Summary==
In order to prioritise your needs to best suit you it is important to evaluate what needs are more important to you.  Maslow's hierarchy is only a guide line as it won't fit everyone.  He even states himself that his theory is not ultimate or universal for all cultures, but it could be applied ''generally'' to other cultures (Maslow, 1943).  Maslow's hierarchy begins at the base of his pyramid with &quot;physiological&quot; needs, such as breathe, hunger, thrist and sex.  This being the most animalistic of the needs and fundamental.  He also signifies the importance of safety and security, as this is the second need he mentions.  The following psychological and social needs, Maslow mentions, can be reversible depending on the individual, depending on you.  Love/Belongingness needs reflects the individual's desire to have a family (or be part of a family), to have friends (or to be a friend), etc.  Esteem needs reflects the desire to be stable, to have a firmly based, high evaluation of yourself, to have self-respect and respect for others.  The need for self-actualisation is the desire to do what you do best and enjoy doing.

Needs are never 100% fulfilled but can have a satisfaction threshold level.  By that stage the importance of the next need would have already gradually increased and therefore can be tended to.  The satisfaction of a need is dependent on you.

==Quiz==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is at the bottom of the Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Need for Self-Actualisation
+ &quot;Physiological&quot; Needs
- Safety Needs
- Love/Belonging Needs

{John has a great paying job, which allows him to pay the bills, the mortgage, feed his family and have a savings account.  He has a loving wife and a healthy five year old daughter, who has just started kindergarten.  He was raised in a diverse family.  His mother was born in India and his father was born in Spain, they met in Australia and developed a network of friends from all around the world.  He has always shown respect to people older him and as he got older he began to show respect to those younger them him too.  The only thing that is missing in his life is that he hasn't had time to do the things he enjoys.  He learnt to play the guitar in high school, however once he got a career and a family he just has not been able to get back to playing it.  Which need is most likely not being attended to?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Love/Belonging need
- Esteem need
+ Esteem need and/or need for self-actualisation 
- Need for self-actualisation

{If a person has achieved satisfaction in their need for esteem then they can be expected to feel....
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Self-confidence
- Worth
- Capability
+ All of the above

{True or False: As one need gradually increases in ''satisfaction'', the ''importance'' of another need gradually increases.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{True or False: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on his article &quot;A theory of human motivation&quot; (1943)
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
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==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;line-height: 2.5 em&quot;&gt;
Cannon, W. B. (1932) ''Wisdom of the Body''. New York: Norton

Kardiner, A. (1941) ''The Traumatic Neuroses of War''. New York: Hoeber

Maslow, A. H. (1943) A Theory of Human  Motivation. In R. J. Lowry (1973) ''Dominance, Self-Esteem, Self-Actualization: Germinal Papers of A.H. Maslow'' (pp. 153-173). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc.

Maslow, A. H. (1970) ''Motivation and Personality''. New York: Harper &amp; Row

Maslow, A. H., &amp; Mittelmann, B. (1941) ''Principles of Abnormal Psychology''. New York: Harper &amp; Bros

Prager, K. J. (1995) ''The Psychology of Intimacy''. New York, NY: Guildford Press

Young, P. T. (1936) ''Motivation of behaviour''. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons

Hagerty, M. R. (1999) Testing Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: National Quality-of-Life Across Time. ''Social Indicators Research, 46(3)'', 249-271 DOI: 10.1023/A:1006921107298
&lt;/div&gt;
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==Books by Maslow==
# The Farther Reaches of Human Nature  NY: Viking, 1971.
# Religions, Values and Peak-Experiences  NY: Penguin Books, 1964.

==External links==

==See also==
* [[Introduction to psychology/Psy102/Tutorials/Motivation#Maslow's hierarchy of needs (10 mins)|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Introductory psychology tutorial)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Clayton Alderfer|Clayton Alderfer]] (Wikipedia)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011]]
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==Overview==
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|400px|center|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]‎ 

There can be moments in your life where it feels like everything is piling on top of you one by one.  Then there are moments where it may not be everything that is piling on top of you, but there is just one thing, one obstacle that you may feel you just can't get over or deal with.  At moments like these organising your time and prioritsing your needs, so that the essential ones are met first, is important.  The question still remains, how do you know which one is more important?  This isn't always easy to determine, so needs are so similar that there is a fine line as to which one should be dealt with first.  To start off with, not everyone is the same, John Citizen's needs are not the same as Jane Smith's.  Our individual needs and the order as to which one is more important than the other will depend on you.  However, hopefully this chapter will give you a little help as to which  order has been established in the past and guide you in the right direction as to how to prioritise your own needs and subsequently get you that little bit closer to self-actualisation.

Maslow's hierarchy of needs was established in the early 40s by Abraham Harold Maslow (1908-1970).  The theory behind his hierarchy was based on his article &quot;A Theory of Human Motivation&quot; (1943), which was reviewed in the 50th issue of the ''Psychological Review'' in America.  He aimed to develop a theory that positive valid theory of motivation the satisfied the following demands:
#In theory, the organism as a whole must be considered as the foundation.  Although, it is also important to note that isolated, specific, partial or segmental reactions should not be ignored but should also be considered, along with the organism as a whole.
#Drives that are physiologically related or localised, should be considered to be atypical instead of typical.  Therefore the drive theory is rejected.
#There should be an emphasis on ultimate or basic goals.  Unconscious or basic goals are fundamental to motivation and therefore could be applied more universally or cross-culturally rather than superficial goals.
#Behaviour can consist of more than one motivation.  The motivated behaviour is a means by which basic needs can can be appropriately expressed or satisfied. 
#To understand that in practical situations, all organismic states are motivated and motivating.  The situation surrounding the reaction should be taken into consideration, but the motivation should not be based on the situation alone.
#An organisms needs can be arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency.  Hence Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.
#Classification of motivation should be classified to deal with the issue of levels of specificity and/or generalisation.  The classifications should be based on the goals rather than the drives or motivated behaviour itself.
#The theory should be human-centered and not animal-centered.  The reason for this is that if the theory is animal-centered than there is an exclusion of the purpose and goal, as animals can't write or verbalise it.  Therefore it is unnecessary to use animals when it would be better and more beneficial to the study to use humans.
#And most importantly, Motivation theory and Behaviour theory are not the same.  Motivation is a class of behaviour, where it is possible that multiple motivations can produce or influence a single behaviour. 

Through his research into functionalist tradition, holism (which is the idea that there is an intimate interconnection across the various parts of a whole, in our case humans, that cannot exist independently from each other), and dynamicism (eg, Freudism or psychoanalytical approach), Maslow established a new design known as &quot;general-dynamic&quot; theory (1943).  His theory consisted of varying levels of five needs, also known as the ''Basic Needs'', which included (from the bottom of the pyramid to the top):

#&quot;Physiological&quot; needs
#Safety Needs
#Love/Belonging Needs
#Esteem Needs
#Need for Self-Actualisation

Maslow (1943) states that the gratification and deprivation of each step of hierarchy serves to be an important source of motivation.  He also mentions that for the average individual, the needs tend to be more often unconscious and the unconscious one are more likely to be the more significant and important ones.

The following sections of the chapter will go into more detail for each group of needs, followed by a section on the satisfaction of the needs and a summary.  The summary section, consists of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in a &quot;nut shell&quot;, a short quiz (juts to test you knowledge), and a multimedia clip.
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==&quot;Physiological&quot; Needs==
[[File:Apple juice with 3apples-JD.jpg|250px|right|]]‎ 
When it comes to &quot;physiological&quot; needs what are typically the first things that come to mind? The ability to breathe? The capability to eat and drink? Crystal has spent most of her life living on a day to day basis, never really knowing where her next meal will be coming from or if she will get another meal.  Her mouth is constantly, especially during the hotter months, and her stomach grumbles excessively and none stop. Even though she may not know if she will get at least one meal, she is still about to sustain her body with the water it provides.  Crystal's &quot;physiological&quot; needs to sustain her body is at such a low percentage that the desire to satisfy the need provides the required motivation to act on the deprivation.  In the above figure of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, it can be seen that at the bottom of the pyramid in the largest section are the &quot;physiological&quot; needs. Maslow (1943) believed that of all the basic needs, the &quot;physiological&quot; needs are the greatest in power and influence when it comes to an individual's motivation.  He recognised that there are two aspects to this fundamental need: Homeostasis and Appetites.

Homeostasis is the body's automatic responses to sustaining a constant, normal state within the blood stream.  Cannon (1932) includes that the body maintains its form of homeostasis by internally monitoring the following aspects:
* Water content
* Sugar content
* Salt content
* Protein content
* Fat content
* Calcium content
* Oxygen content
* Constant hydrogen-ion level
* Constant temperature of the blood

The body's appetite comes from the lack of nutrients within the body.  This is more commonly a chemical imbalance.  To neutralise this imbalance the body then produces a specific appetite, that will take care of the lack of nutrients (Young, 1936).

To distinguish physiological needs from other needs, it is important to note that they are commonly isolable and localisable somatically (Maslow, 1943).  Therefore the most common physiological needs are breathe, hunger, thirst, sex, sleep, and excretion.  When it comes to studies of physiological needs, they have been primarily conducted on animals, particularly rats, because it is suggested that they have few motivations other than their physiological ones (Maslow, 1943).


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==Safety Needs==
[[File:Badge - Victoria Police.jpg|150px|left|]]‎ 
Jacqui is in her mid to late 20s, and has spent her adult life to-date in a physically abusive relationship.  She doesn't work and is solely dependent on her partner.  If she needs money to buy groceries, her partner is more than happy to give her the money she needs, but she does not have her own and he will not give her any more then the exact amount.  They are constantly being evacuated from their apartment, because rent is not being paid on a regular basis.  Jacqui and her partner don't stay in an apartment for longer than six months at a time.  She is worried day in and day out as to whether they will have somewhere to live the next month.  She knows that she is in a disgraceful situation with her partner but she has no job and no financial security to leave him.  What is she to do?  Why is this insecurity taking over her thoughts and behaviour?

Just like the &quot;physiological&quot; needs, the safety needs are almost as exclusive.  Explanations of the lack of safety can be difficult to describe in adults as they have learnt to inhibit any expression of fear or being threatened.  Infants and children on the other hand have not learnt the ability to inhibit these expressions (Maslow, 1943).  Maslow (1943) uses the example of illnesses in general.  He explains that when a child is sick it may not just be the physiological aspect of the body, but could have a deeper meaning.  In addition to the physical sickness, they can also exhibit a lack in their sense of feeling safe and secure, hence the need to be comforted by their parents or guardian.  It this uncertainty of not knowing what is actually happening that threatens their need for safety and motivates them to seek comfort and knowledge from their parents.  When children are raised in unthreatening and a loving family this enables them to effectively learn how to react to situations that adults would perceive to be dangerous (Maslow, 1943). 

When it comes to an individual's safety needs, Maslow (1943) stated that a healthy, normal fortunate adult is more likely to be satisfied if the following is present:
* Preference for a job with a tenure and protection
* Desire for savings account
* Insurance of various kinds
* Familiar things, things that are recongnisable and known
* Religion or world-philosophy or in more general terms science and philosophy

There are a number of extremes that can affect an individuals sense of safety.  Then there are some people who have no control over their sense of safety, because psychologically it is out of their control.  For example, some neurotic or near-neurotic individuals have a childish view of the world (Maslow, 1943).  This does not apply to all cases of neuroticism, just some.  The neuroticism causes in the individual the inability to inhibit their reactions like all other adults.  Not being able to inhibit their reactions means that, like a child, when they are in threatening and dangerous situations, their reactions become excessively expressed and not hidden.  Safety needs can also be deprived within individuals who are not of great socio-economic standing (Maslow, 1943).

In the book by Maslow and Mittelmann (1941), they talk about obssessive-compulsive individuals, whom have a constant desire to maintain order and stability in their world.  Hence their repetitive routines.  Goldstein (1939) brings up the issue of some cases of brain injury.  These individuals try to avoid anything that they perceive as unfamiliar and strange.

Therefore, by acquiring knowledge and systemising your world, it is possible that you can partially achieve satisfaction within your safety needs.  Having a job that gives you the benefits you need to maintain your lifestyle, being able to have savings and insurance so you a least likely to have concerns about you financial situation if you were to get sick, and living amongst familiar surroundings and people, should decrease the prepotency of this need.  With the decrease of importance of this need you life, will bring the emergence of higher needs: Psychological and Social needs, such as Love/Belonging Needs, Esteem Needs and Need for Self-Actualisation.
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==Psychological and social needs==
The psychological and social needs, unlike the other two basic needs require some form of interaction between society and your self or the emergence greater abilities from within you.  These needs include:

* Love/Belonging Needs
* Esteem Needs
* Need for Self-Actualisation

===Love/belonging needs===
[[File:Expecting family.jpg|200px|right|]]‎ 
Love/Belonging needs as described by Maslow (1943) are reflected by the &quot;''hunger'' for the affectionate relations with people&quot;.  Maslow discusses how maladjusted individuals and individuals with severe psychopathology tend to prevent themselves from accomplishing this need (1943).  He mentions that it is particularly common in today's society, however that was almost 60 years ago.  In a more current study conducted by Hagerty (1999) he rates &quot;belongingness&quot; and love to the risk of a &quot;broken family&quot; in today's society.  This includes both the risk of divorce and the risk of a child in the family dying.  Hagerty (1999) found that over a period of 35 years, from 1960 to 1994, the number of intact marriages per 1000 population declined across 88 different countries.  He also notes that over a period of 35 years the rate of improvement for the 88 countries is slowing reaching an asymptote structure.

As it can be seen from the above description, Love is ''not'' the same as sex.  Sex is seen to be part of the more basic needs and therefore a physiological and not a social need, where as love is accomplished psychologically and socially.  Love/Belongingness needs include the following:

* Family
* Friendship
* Sexual intimacy

The &quot;physiological&quot; needs and the safety needs theoretically should be met first prior to this current need.  However, Prager (1995, p. 289) states that some people work for hardly any rewards and are over stressed, yet they turn to close relations with loved ones for support and rewarding experiences.  This raises the question as to the actual affect of economic pressure on the need for intimacy and as to whether the order of the hierarchy can actually be interchangeable and various steps reversed.

The most important thing to be learnt from this section is that if you wish to feel satisfaction in love/belonging needs than you need to be willing to not just ''receive'' the love from others but also be willing to ''give'' it.

===Esteem needs===
Esteem needs reflect the desire to achieve a stable, firmly based, high evaluation of ourselves, self-respect, or self-esteem and esteem of others (Maslow, 1943).  Just like the physiological needs this one can also be divided further into:

#The desire for strength, for achievement, for adequacy, for confidence, for independence and freedom
#Desire for reputation or prestige, recognition, attention, importance or appreciation

Once satisfaction is acquired in the esteem needs, theoretically an individual should feel worth, self-confidence, strength, capability and the sense of being useful and necessary in the world.  Whereas dissatisfaction theoretically brings inferiority, weakness, and helplessness.  This results in basic discouragement, or compensatory or neurotic trends (Kardiner, 1941).

Essentially, if satisfaction is to be accomplished then one needs to acknowledge their real capacity, achievement and respect for others.

===Need for self-actualisation===
[[File:Creation of Adam.jpg|200px|left|]]‎ 
In his article, Maslow described the need for self-actualisation to be a &quot;desire to do what you are fitted for&quot; (1943).  As it can be seen in the above pyramid this need is at the tip of the hierarchy and the clarity of its emergence is dependent on the satisfaction of the four more basic needs.  Like everything in life, there are of course exceptions to the rule and these will be discussed in the next section.

If you recall from the section on Safety Needs, one way the need can be achieved is by acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe.  The Need for Self-Actualisation also requires the acquirement of knowledge and systemising the universe, however its done through expression rather than achievement.  In other words, acquiring knowledge and systemising the universe via the search for &quot;meaning&quot; (Maslow, 1943).  There are a number of ways to attain fulfillment through one or more of these areas:
* Morality
* Creativity
* Spontaneity
* Problem solving
* Being unprejudiced
* Acceptance of facts

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==How to establish satisfaction==
There are a couple of things that should be noted. In order to accomplish satisfaction of your basic needs there are certain preconditions that need to occur, otherwise they could threaten an aspect of the basic needs and your progression to the satisfaction of higher needs.  These preconditions as mentioned in Maslow's article (1943) are as follows:
* Freedom to speak
* Freedom to do what one wishes without harm to others
* Freedom to express oneself
* Freedom to investigate and seek for information
* Freedom to defend oneself
* Justice
* Fairness
* Honesty
* Orderliness within a group

Your actions can be seen as psychologically important as long as it contributes directly to satisfying the basic needs (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970).  The less directed or weaker the contribution, the less important it is to the point of view of psychological process.  This can also be applied to your defense mechanisms.  The more strong the defenses are the more they have to contribute to the need.

As mentioned in the previous section there are exceptions to the rule, such as:

#Your self-esteem can be more important than love.  In which case these two needs are reversed.
#Your drive to creativeness can be more important than &quot;lower&quot; needs.  This often seen in artists of all sorts.
#Your less prepotent needs can be lost, particularly if the greater prepotent needs (physiological and safety) are continuously being threatened.
#Levy (1937) state that &quot;psychopathetic personality&quot; have a permanent loss of the love/belongingness needs.
#Just as the lesser prepotent needs can be lost, if the greater prepotent needs have been satisfied for a long period of time then they can become  under evaluated.
#Needs and desires are not the only determinants of behaviour.
#Individuals who have strong ideals, high social standards, high values etc. can sacrifice the needs of greater importance for the things they believe in.  For example, refugees who refuse to eat for what they believe in, or protesters who will sacrifice their well belling for their cause.

When it comes to the satisfaction of each level it is important to note that each need ''does not'' have to be 100% satisfied before the next need can be tended too (Maslow, 1943; Maslow, 1970, p. 59).  Maslow states that it is more commonly seen that each need will only be partially satisfied and new needs emerge gradually as the previous need gets closer and closer to its satisfaction threshold, which is not 100%.  For example, physiological needs may be 5% satisfied where as at the same time the need for safety maybe 0%. As the physiological need satisfaction increases, therefore to 25% than the need for safety might increase to 5%. Physiological satisfaction may increase more to 50% and the need for safety would increase too.  (These are arbitrary numbers)

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==Summary==
In order to prioritise your needs to best suit you it is important to evaluate what needs are more important to you.  Maslow's hierarchy is only a guide line as it won't fit everyone.  He even states himself that his theory is not ultimate or universal for all cultures, but it could be applied ''generally'' to other cultures (Maslow, 1943).  Maslow's hierarchy begins at the base of his pyramid with &quot;physiological&quot; needs, such as breathe, hunger, thrist and sex.  This being the most animalistic of the needs and fundamental.  He also signifies the importance of safety and security, as this is the second need he mentions.  The following psychological and social needs, Maslow mentions, can be reversible depending on the individual, depending on you.  Love/Belongingness needs reflects the individual's desire to have a family (or be part of a family), to have friends (or to be a friend), etc.  Esteem needs reflects the desire to be stable, to have a firmly based, high evaluation of yourself, to have self-respect and respect for others.  The need for self-actualisation is the desire to do what you do best and enjoy doing.

Needs are never 100% fulfilled but can have a satisfaction threshold level.  By that stage the importance of the next need would have already gradually increased and therefore can be tended to.  The satisfaction of a need is dependent on you.

==Quiz==
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{What is at the bottom of the Maslow's hierarchy of needs?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Need for Self-Actualisation
+ &quot;Physiological&quot; Needs
- Safety Needs
- Love/Belonging Needs

{John has a great paying job, which allows him to pay the bills, the mortgage, feed his family and have a savings account.  He has a loving wife and a healthy five year old daughter, who has just started kindergarten.  He was raised in a diverse family.  His mother was born in India and his father was born in Spain, they met in Australia and developed a network of friends from all around the world.  He has always shown respect to people older him and as he got older he began to show respect to those younger them him too.  The only thing that is missing in his life is that he hasn't had time to do the things he enjoys.  He learnt to play the guitar in high school, however once he got a career and a family he just has not been able to get back to playing it.  Which need is most likely not being attended to?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Love/Belonging need
- Esteem need
+ Esteem need and/or need for self-actualisation 
- Need for self-actualisation

{If a person has achieved satisfaction in their need for esteem then they can be expected to feel....
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Self-confidence
- Worth
- Capability
+ All of the above

{True or False: As one need gradually increases in ''satisfaction'', the ''importance'' of another need gradually increases.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{True or False: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is based on his article &quot;A theory of human motivation&quot; (1943)
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

&lt;/quiz&gt;
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==References==
&lt;div style=&quot;padding-left: 2em; text-indent: -2em;line-height: 2.5 em&quot;&gt;
Cannon, W. B. (1932) ''Wisdom of the Body''. New York: Norton

Kardiner, A. (1941) ''The Traumatic Neuroses of War''. New York: Hoeber

Maslow, A. H. (1943) A Theory of Human  Motivation. In R. J. Lowry (1973) ''Dominance, Self-Esteem, Self-Actualization: Germinal Papers of A.H. Maslow'' (pp. 153-173). Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc.

Maslow, A. H. (1970) ''Motivation and Personality''. New York: Harper &amp; Row

Maslow, A. H., &amp; Mittelmann, B. (1941) ''Principles of Abnormal Psychology''. New York: Harper &amp; Bros

Prager, K. J. (1995) ''The Psychology of Intimacy''. New York, NY: Guildford Press

Young, P. T. (1936) ''Motivation of behaviour''. New York: John Wiley &amp; Sons

Hagerty, M. R. (1999) Testing Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs: National Quality-of-Life Across Time. ''Social Indicators Research, 46(3)'', 249-271 DOI: 10.1023/A:1006921107298
&lt;/div&gt;
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==Books by Maslow==
# The Farther Reaches of Human Nature  NY: Viking, 1971.
# Religions, Values and Peak-Experiences  NY: Penguin Books, 1964.

==External links==

==See also==
* [[Introduction to psychology/Psy102/Tutorials/Motivation#Maslow's hierarchy of needs (10 mins)|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Introductory psychology tutorial)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Clayton Alderfer|Clayton Alderfer]] (Wikipedia)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2011]]
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      <text bytes="77059" xml:space="preserve">[[User:Atcovi/Archive 1|/Archive 1 (September 25, 2013 - November 15, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 2|/Archive 2 (November 15, 2013 - November 27, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 3|/Archive 3 (December 3, 2013 - December 25, 2013)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 4|/Archive 4 (December 24, 2013 - January 1, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 5|/Archive 5 (January 2, 2014 - January 20, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 6|/Archive 6 (March 24, 2014 - April 14, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 7|/Archive 7 (April 19, 2014 - September 8, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 8|/Archive 8 (September 12, 2014 - November 3, 2014)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 9|/Archive 9 (November 6, 2014 - January 26, 2015)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 10|/Archive 10 (January 28, 2015 - March 11, 2015)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 11|/Archive 11 (March 22, 2015 - June 25, 2016)]] • [[User talk:Atcovi/Archive 12 (June 26, 2016 - January 8, 2018)|/Archive 12 (June 26, 2016 - January 8, 2018)]]

:''Before 2013: [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk:Atcovi&amp;diff=750617&amp;oldid=740650 see this]'' 
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==Message from CThatcher==
I don't know if this will reach you.  But I'll try.  I've never added information before.  I am a student at Univ. of Sussex in astronomy and want to apply to the CCA, center for computational astrophysics, for a summer internship.  Their flyer said to go to wikiversity to read about them but the article was deleted.  Can you post here the information or resubmit the article?  My research interest is exoplanets.  Thank you for your consideration.-- Carl Thatcher (I just created my ID as CThatcher and hope I logged in correctly although my name appears at the top of this page in RED.)

Thank you.  Oh, I see I'm supposed to type four squiggly lines!

[[User:CThatcher|CThatcher]] ([[User talk:CThatcher|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/CThatcher|contribs]]) 12:53, 14 January 2018 (UTC)
:{{ping|CThatcher}} First of all, big respect to you for being a student in such a prestigious university. 

:As for your specialty center question, I did a little bit of research around here and I found [[Center for Computational Astrophysics]] (Mike, one of our admins, restored the page)... If it is the one in Illinois you desire, then there it is. Don't seem to be deleted and it also has contact information at the bottom (you might've already contacted them so). 

:For your interest, there is a wikiversity page on [[Exoplanets]], if you'd like to see it... but I don't believe it is of much use. See Mu301's message to your talk page for Exoplanet like resources. Good luck! ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:07, 14 January 2018 (UTC)

::Atcovi, that page looks like spam to me. I'll leave it there for CThatcher to review, but eventually it should get deleted. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:05, 14 January 2018 (UTC)

:::Yeah, I saw your message. I find it rather weird that a specialty center would direct applicants to a page on Wikiversity. Edit: BTW [[User:Mu301|Mike]], I think you'd like to see this as well: [[Near Earth Asteroid Reconnaissance Project]]. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 17:07, 14 January 2018 (UTC)

::::Oh. thanks for catching that. I also found [[Golden Diagram]]. Pages tagged and both accounts have been indef blocked. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 17:36, 14 January 2018 (UTC)

{{ping|Mu301}} [[Special:Contributions/CThatcher|such a shame]]. Good thing the stewards found out about this so-called &quot;student&quot;. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 19:21, 17 January 2018 (UTC)

:That may have been discovered in response to [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Steward_requests/Checkuser&amp;diff=17642166&amp;oldid=17642070 my request to investigate]. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 19:36, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
::Yep. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 20:05, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
== Files Missing Information ==
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== Template:CourseCat ==

[[Template:CourseCat]] is now broken. Please fix. Thanks! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 04:22, 19 January 2018 (UTC)
:{{ping|Dave Braunschweig}} Yeah. I tried to import a page and I accidentally imported the templates. How is it possible to remove the import now? ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:53, 19 January 2018 (UTC)

::You have the ability to rollback. Check your user contributions and roll back any changes from the import you weren't expecting or weren't intending. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:51, 20 January 2018 (UTC)
:::I get the following message:&lt;blockquote&gt;Cannot rollback last edit of Template:BookCat by Atcovi (talk | contribs); someone else has edited or rolled back the page already.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

:::The last edit to the page was by Atcovi (talk | contribs).

:::The edit summary was: 35 revisions imported from b:Template:BookCat: This seems suitable to en.wikiv than en.wikib.

:::Help? ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 02:09, 20 January 2018 (UTC)
:::Yeah, it's more complicated for templates. I just undid a botched import and had to go though the pages by hand. See files listed at [[User:Mu301/sandbox#Import]]. I deleted those that had no what links here, but you have to be careful. If someone else imported prior it can get confused. --[[User:Mu301|mikeu]] &lt;sup&gt;[[User talk:Mu301|talk]]&lt;/sup&gt; 03:57, 20 January 2018 (UTC)
::::Yes. Sorry about that... haven't imported in a long time. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 03:59, 20 January 2018 (UTC)

== Empire ==

Is a multi-ethnic or multinational state with political and or military dominion of populations who are culturally and ethnically distict from the imperial (ruling) ethnic group. And its culture.this is in contrast to a federation,which is an extensive state voluntarily composed of autonomous states and people.An empire is a large political party who rule over terrotories outside of its original borders {{unsigned|Koketso motsamai}}
:{{ping|Koketso motsamai}} Welcome to Wikiversity! Your &quot;worksheets&quot; should be in your userspace or your sandbox: [[User:Koketso motsamai/Sandbox]], if it were to be on Wikiversity. Otherwise, it should be on a worksheet/paper. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:20, 29 January 2018 (UTC)

== Upper Limb Orthotics/Hook of Hamate Fracture ==

Hi Atcovi!

Just FYI, beneath the edit by Pawan Bishnoi, which included his picture was the medical case &quot;Upper Limb Orthotics/Hook of Hamate Fracture&quot;. No problem! I restored the medical case without Pawan Bishnoi's edit. Thanks for responding! --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 23:55, 1 March 2018 (UTC)
:I had a feeling I messed up.. sorry--school work has gotten me stressed out and I didn't really think of the situation before I acted upon it. Thanks for looking out. Won't do it again. ---[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:59, 1 March 2018 (UTC)

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== File:Wilbur S White0.jpg ==

Hi Atcovi!

I agree with your decision to delete File:Wilbur S White0.jpg. Here's what commons OTRS user:Hedwig in Washington had to say, &quot;Without anymore info, it's not PD. Given that Mr White died in 1977 and the way he looks like on the photograph, I assume the picture has been taken 1923 or later. The quality of the photograph seems to indicate an earlier date, early 1900 maybe. Really hard to say. Maybe someone with some insight into the clothing knows something. As of now, I'd say precautionary copyvio.&quot; --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 00:19, 28 August 2018 (UTC)

== The Odyssey ==

Hi Atcovi!

Your analysis and synopsis of [[The Odyssey]] appears to be well-developed and ready for learners! Would you like to have it announced on our Main Page News? --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Marshallsumter|contribs]]) 16:10, 24 March 2019 (UTC)

== You've got mail! ==

Hello, Atcovi. Please check your email; you've got mail!--[[User:MCC214|MCC214]] ([[User talk:MCC214|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MCC214|contribs]]) 09:59, 19 August 2019 (UTC)
:Yes. When I have an easy access to my mail I will respond. Thanks. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 12:23, 19 August 2019 (UTC)

== AP Exams ==

Good luck on your AP exams! -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:33, 9 May 2020 (UTC)
:Thank you Dave! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 23:32, 9 May 2020 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 28 December 2020 ==

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== ''The Signpost'': 31 January 2021 ==

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== Cybergenta ==

Hi, Thank you for [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Cybergenta&amp;oldid=prev&amp;diff=2261180 this edit]. It leaves me puzzled however. A soft redirect to nothing and an advise, what's the point of this page? Am I missing something? [[User:Lymantria|Lymantria]] ([[User talk:Lymantria|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Lymantria|contribs]]) 14:21, 16 February 2021 (UTC)
:Hi. It's the morning here so I guess I didn't really look into the page in its entirety ;-). Yes, you're right. It seems to be promotional content which serves no educational purpose on WV (IMO) - hence, deleted. Thanks for catching that. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 14:35, 16 February 2021 (UTC)

== Wikiversity Grant Proposal: Call for Support or Feedback ==
Hi {{PAGENAME}}! 

A collaborator ({{u|bwsulliv}}) and I have submitted a [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath grant proposal for a new Wikiversity learning project], which we are calling Eventmath. We aim to help math and statistics teachers to teach their students the mathematical thinking skills needed to make sense of current events. Specifically, the project will pair math lesson plans with news articles (or social media posts, if the goal is to debunk misinformation, for example).

I'm writing to you because we would like to gather more feedback from the Wikiversity community. I noticed that you've edited the Mathematics portal recently, so I thought you might be interested in the proposal. If you could either endorse the proposal or provide constructive feedback, we would really appreciate it!

Thank you for your consideration.

[[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]] ([[User talk:Greg at Higher Math Help|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Greg at Higher Math Help|contribs]]) 20:53, 19 February 2021 (UTC)

:Hello Greg. I've only edited anything related to mathematics on WV because I was taking notes of math classes that I was required to take - other than that, I have no interest in teaching or contributing to math lessons. Though, I appreciate your efforts and I very much wish the best luck to you and this project. I'll hopefully keep an eye out for this, though... but with my many other goals and projects I'm in the progress of working on - it may not be a 100% commitment. Thanks for reaching out to me! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 21:04, 19 February 2021 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 28 February 2021 ==

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== Miraheze account ==

Hi Atcovi...I'm going to assume that you do ''not'' have a Miraheze account, as we ''do'' have [https://kerokerowikiw.miraheze.org/wiki/%E5%88%A9%E7%94%A8%E8%80%85:%E3%83%8D%E3%82%A4 this user] claiming to be you. I suspect it's an impersonation case on the part of that user, but just wanted to reach out to you to be sure. Thanks. [[User:Dmehus|Dmehus]] ([[User talk:Dmehus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmehus|contribs]]) 20:37, 8 April 2021 (UTC)

:Even with Google Translate I'm left very confused. But no, I do not have a Miraheze account. Thank you for reaching out to me! —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 04:02, 9 April 2021 (UTC)
::No problem, and thanks so much for your reply. [[User:Dmehus|Dmehus]] ([[User talk:Dmehus|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dmehus|contribs]]) 12:34, 9 April 2021 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 25 April 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the editor: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/From the editor|A change is gonna come]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Disinformation report|The Trump Organization's paid editors]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/In the media|Fernando, governance, and rugby]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Opinion|The (Universal) Code of Conduct]]

* Op-Ed: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Op-Ed|A Little Fun Goes A Long Way]]

* Changing the world: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Changing the world|The reach of protest images on Wikipedia]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Recent research|Quality of aquatic and anatomical articles]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/Traffic report|The verdict is guilty, guilty, guilty]]

* News from Wiki Education: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-04-25/News from Wiki Education|Encouraging professional physicists to engage in outreach on Wikipedia]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 22:34, 25 April 2021 (UTC)
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== Custodianship ==

You are now a custodian. Congratulations! I look forward to your continued contributions to and support of Wikiversity. -- [[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 14:41, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

:Thank you Dave for your words. I'm pleased that the community trusts me with these rights and I'll use them for the best of Wikiversity. Thanks again. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:44, 1 June 2021 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 27 June 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/News and notes|Elections, Wikimania, masking and more]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/In the media|Boris and Joe, reliability, love, and money]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Disinformation report|Croatian Wikipedia: capture and release]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Recent research|Feminist critique of Wikipedia's epistemology, Black Americans vastly underrepresented among editors, Wiki Workshop report]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Traffic report|So no one told you life was gonna be this way]]

* News from the WMF: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/News from the WMF|Searching for Wikipedia]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Humour|Wikipedia's best articles on the world's strangest things]]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/WikiProject report|WikiProject on open proxies interview]]

* Forum: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Forum|Is WMF fundraising abusive?]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Discussion report|Reliability of WikiLeaks discussed]]

* Obituary: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-06-27/Obituary|SarahSV]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:17, 27 June 2021 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 25 July 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/News and notes|Wikimania and a million other news stories]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/Special report|Hardball in Hong Kong]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/In the media|Larry is at it again]]

* Board of Trustees candidates: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/Board of Trustees candidates|See the candidates]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/Recent research|Gender bias and statistical fallacies, disinformation and mutual intelligibility]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/Traffic report|Football, tennis and marveling at Loki]]

* News from the WMF: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/News from the WMF|Uncapping our growth potential – interview with James Baldwin, Finance and Administration Department]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-07-25/Humour|A little verse]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 23:13, 25 July 2021 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 29 August 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/News and notes|Enough time left to vote! IP ban]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/In the media|''Vive la différence!'']]

* Wikimedians of the year: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/Wikimedians of the year|Seven Wikimedians of the year]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/Gallery|Our community in 20 graphs]]

* News from Wiki Education: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/News from Wiki Education|Changing the face of Wikipedia]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/Recent research|IP editors, inclusiveness and empathy, cycles, and world heritage]]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/WikiProject report|WikiProject Days of the Year Interview]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/Traffic report|Olympics, movies, and Afghanistan]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-08-29/Community view|Making Olympic history on Wikipedia]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 19:46, 29 August 2021 (UTC)
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== Hello Atcovi, ==

I'm a new Wikiversitian and I would like to know, '''What are edit milestones?''' Thanks. [[User:Twilight Sparkle 222|&amp;#91;&amp;#91;User:Twilight222&amp;#124;User:Twilight Sparkle 222&amp;#93;&amp;#93;]] ([[User talk:Twilight Sparkle 222|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Twilight Sparkle 222|contribs]]) 11:02, 9 September 2021 (UTC)

:Hey Twilight! Welcome to our community.
:Hm... an edit milestone is when a user reaches a certain number of edits (like 1,000). That's considered a &quot;milestone&quot; and they could record it on their userpage. Otherwise, there is no real benefit of an &quot;edit milestone&quot; - it's just a tool of pride. Why do you ask? Do you like edit milestones? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 18:49, 9 September 2021 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 26 September 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/News and notes|New CEO, new board members, China bans]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/In the media|The future of Wikipedia]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Opinion|Wikimedians of Mainland China were warned]]

* Op-Ed: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Op-Ed|I've been desysopped]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Disinformation report|Paid promotional paragraphs in German parliamentary pages]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Discussion report|Editors discuss Wikipedia's vetting process for administrators]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Recent research|Wikipedia images for machine learning; Experiment justifies Wikipedia's high search rankings]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Community view|Is writing Wikipedia like making a quilt?]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/Traffic report|Kanye, Emma Raducanu and 9/11]]

* News from Diff: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/News from Diff|Welcome to the first grantees of the Knowledge Equity Fund]]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-09-26/WikiProject report|The Random and the Beautiful]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 21:02, 26 September 2021 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 31 October 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the editor: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/From the editor|Different stories, same place]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/News and notes|The sockpuppet who ran for adminship and almost succeeded]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/In the media|China bans, and is there intelligent life on this planet?]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Opinion|A photo on Wikipedia can ruin your life]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Discussion report|Editors brainstorm and propose changes to the Requests for adminship process]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Recent research|Welcome messages fail to improve newbie retention]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Community view|Reflections on the Chinese Wikipedia]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Traffic report|James Bond and the Giant Squid Game]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Technology report|Wikimedia Toolhub, winners of the Coolest Tool Award, and more]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Serendipity|How Wikipedia helped create a Serbian stamp]]

* Book review: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Book review|''Wikipedia and the Representation of Reality'']]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/WikiProject report|Redirection]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-10-31/Humour|A very Wiki crossword]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:18, 31 October 2021 (UTC)
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== Turns out, Harvard students aren’t that smart after all ==

Hi {{PAGENAME}},
Since you appear to have an interest in the effect college degrees have on students' earning potential I thought you may be interested in ''[https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2021/nov/17/harvard-university-students-smart-iq Turns out, Harvard students aren’t that smart after all]'', an opinion piece just published by the Guardian. Cheers, [[User:Ottawahitech|Ottawahitech]] ([[User talk:Ottawahitech|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Ottawahitech|contribs]]) 15:31, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

:Very interesting piece! Thanks for sharing. I'll look into it. —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 16:26, 17 November 2021 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 29 November 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/In the media|Denial: climate change, mass killings and pornography]]
* WikiCup report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/WikiCup report|The WikiCup 2021]]
* Deletion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Deletion report|What we lost, what we gained]]
* From a Wikipedia reader: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/From a Wikipedia reader|What's Matt Amodio?]]
* Arbitration report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Arbitration report|ArbCom in 2021]]
* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Discussion report|On the brink of change – RFA reforms appear imminent]]
* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Technology report|What does it take to upload a file?]]
* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/WikiProject report|Interview with contributors to WikiProject Actors and Filmmakers]]
* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Serendipity|&quot;Did You Know ...&quot; featured a photo of the wrong female WWII pilot]]
* News from Diff: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/News from Diff|Content translation tool helps create one million Wikipedia articles]]
* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Traffic report|Reporting ticket sales on the edge of the Wiki, if Eternals should fail]]
* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Recent research|Vandalizing Wikipedia as rational behavior]]
* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-11-29/Humour|A very new very Wiki crossword]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 01:27, 29 November 2021 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 28 December 2021 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the editor: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/From the editor|Here is the news]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/News and notes|Jimbo's NFT, new arbs, fixing RfA, and financial statements]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Serendipity|Born three months before her brother?]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/In the media|The past is not even past]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Recent research|STEM articles judged unsuitable for undergraduates below the first paragraph]]

* Arbitration report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Arbitration report|A new crew for '22]]

* By the numbers: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/By the numbers|Four billion words and a few numbers]]

* Deletion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Deletion report|We laughed, we cried, we closed as &quot;no consensus&quot;]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Gallery|Wikicommons presents: 2021]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Traffic report|Spider-Man, football and the departed]]

* Crossword: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Crossword|Another Wiki crossword for one and all]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2021-12-28/Humour|Buying Wikipedia]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 21:10, 28 December 2021 (UTC)
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== How we will see unregistered users ==

&lt;section begin=content/&gt;
Hi!

You get this message because you are an admin on a Wikimedia wiki.

When someone edits a Wikimedia wiki without being logged in today, we show their IP address. As you may already know, we will not be able to do this in the future. This is a decision by the Wikimedia Foundation Legal department, because norms and regulations for privacy online have changed.

Instead of the IP we will show a masked identity. You as an admin '''will still be able to access the IP'''. There will also be a new user right for those who need to see the full IPs of unregistered users to fight vandalism, harassment and spam without being admins. Patrollers will also see part of the IP even without this user right. We are also working on [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation/Improving tools|better tools]] to help.

If you have not seen it before, you can [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|read more on Meta]]. If you want to make sure you don’t miss technical changes on the Wikimedia wikis, you can [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Tech ambassadors|subscribe]] to [[m:Tech/News|the weekly technical newsletter]].

We have [[m:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation#IP Masking Implementation Approaches (FAQ)|two suggested ways]] this identity could work. '''We would appreciate your feedback''' on which way you think would work best for you and your wiki, now and in the future. You can [[m:Talk:IP Editing: Privacy Enhancement and Abuse Mitigation|let us know on the talk page]]. You can write in your language. The suggestions were posted in October and we will decide after 17 January.

Thank you. 
/[[m:User:Johan (WMF)|Johan (WMF)]]&lt;section end=content/&gt;

18:14, 4 January 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 30 January 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Special report|WikiEd course leads to Twitter harassment]]
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/News and notes|Feedback for Board of Trustees election]]
* Interview: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Interview|CEO Maryana Iskander &quot;four weeks in&quot;]]
* Black History Month: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Black History Month|What are you doing for Black History Month?]]
* Deletion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Deletion report|Ringing in the new year: Subject notability guideline under discussion]]
* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/WikiProject report|The Forgotten Featured]]
* Arbitration report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Arbitration report|New arbitrators look at new case and antediluvian sanctions]]
* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Traffic report|The most viewed articles of 2021]]
* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Gallery|No Spanish municipality without a photograph]]
* Obituary: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Obituary|Twofingered Typist]]
* Op-Ed: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Op-Ed|Identifying and rooting out climate change denial]]
* Essay: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Essay|The prime directive]]
* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Opinion|Should the Wikimedia Foundation continue to accept cryptocurrency donations?]]
* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/In the media|Fuzzy-headed government editing]]
* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Recent research|Articles with higher quality ratings have fewer &quot;knowledge gaps&quot;]]
* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Serendipity|Pooh entered the Public Domain – but Tigger has to wait two more years]]
* Crossword: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-01-30/Crossword|Cross swords with a crossword]]
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:56, 30 January 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 27 February 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the team: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/From the team|Selection of a new ''Signpost'' Editor-in-Chief]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/News and notes|Impacts of Russian invasion of Ukraine]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Opinion|Why student editors are good for Wikipedia]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Special report|A presidential candidate's team takes on Wikipedia]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/In the media|Wiki-drama in the UK House of Commons]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Serendipity|War photographers: from Crimea (1850s) to the Russian invasion of Ukraine (2022)]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Technology report|Community Wishlist Survey results]]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/WikiProject report|10 years of tea]]

* Featured content: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Featured content|Featured Content returns]]

* Deletion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Deletion report|The 10 most SHOCKING deletion discussions of February]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Recent research|How editors and readers may be emotionally affected by disasters and terrorist attacks]]

* Arbitration report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Arbitration report|Parties remonstrate, arbs contemplate, skeptics coordinate]]

* By the numbers: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/By the numbers|Does birthplace affect the frequency of Wikipedia biography articles?]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Gallery|The vintage exhibit]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Traffic report|Euphoria, Pamela Anderson, lies and Netflix]]

* News from Diff: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/News from Diff|The Wikimania 2022 Core Organizing Team]]

* Crossword: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Crossword|A Crossword, featuring Featured Articles]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-02-27/Humour|Notability of mailboxes]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:22, 27 February 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 27 March 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the team: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/From the team|We stand in solidarity with Ukraine]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/News and notes|Of safety and anonymity]]

* Eyewitness Wikimedian – Kharkiv, Ukraine: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Eyewitness Wikimedian – Kharkiv, Ukraine|Countering Russian aggression with a camera]]

* Eyewitness Wikimedian – Vinnytsia, Ukraine: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Eyewitness Wikimedian – Vinnytsia, Ukraine|War diary]]

* Eyewitness Wikimedian – Western Ukraine: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Eyewitness Wikimedian – Western Ukraine|Working with Wikipedia helps]]

* Disinformation report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Disinformation report|The oligarchs' socks]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/In the media|Ukraine, Russia, and even some other stuff]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Recent research|Top scholarly citers, lack of open access references, predicting editor departures]]

* Wikimedian perspective: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Wikimedian perspective|My heroes from Russia, Ukraine &amp; beyond]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Discussion report|Athletes are less notable now]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Technology report|2022 Wikimedia Hackathon]]

* Arbitration report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Arbitration report|Skeptics given heavenly judgement, whirlwind of Discord drama begins to spin for tropical cyclone editors]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Traffic report|War, what is it good for?]]

* Deletion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Deletion report|Ukraine, werewolves, Ukraine, YouTube pundits, and Ukraine]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Gallery|&quot;All we are saying is, give peace a chance...&quot;]]

* From the archives: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/From the archives|Burn, baby burn]]

* Essay: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Essay|Yes, the sky is blue]]

* Tips and tricks: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/Tips and tricks|Become a keyboard ninja]]

* On the bright side: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-03-27/On the bright side|The bright side of news]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:53, 27 March 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 24 April 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/News and notes|Double trouble]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/In the media|The battlegrounds outside and inside Wikipedia]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Special report|Ukrainian Wikimedians during the war]]

* Eyewitness Wikimedian – Vinnytsia, Ukraine: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Eyewitness Wikimedian – Vinnytsia, Ukraine|War diary (Part 2)]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Technology report|8-year-old attribution issues in Media Viewer]]

* Featured content: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Featured content|Wikipedia's best content from March]]

* In focus: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/In focus|Editing difficulties on Russian Wikipedia]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Gallery|A voyage around the world with WLM winners]]

* Interview: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Interview|On a war and a map]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Serendipity|Wikipedia loves photographs, but hates photographers]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Traffic report|Justice Jackson, the Smiths, and an invasion]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Recent research|Student edits as &quot;civic engagement&quot;; how Wikipedia readers interact with images]]

* News from the WMF: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/News from the WMF|How Smart is the SMART Copyright Act?]]

* Essay: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Essay|The problem with elegant variation]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/Humour|Really huge message boxes]]

* From the archives: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-04-24/From the archives|Wales resigned WMF board chair in 2006 reorganization]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:45, 24 April 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 29 May 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the team: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/From the team|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/From the team]]

* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News and notes|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News and notes]]

* Community view: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Community view|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Community view]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Opinion|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Opinion]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/In the media|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/In the media]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Special report|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Special report]]

* In focus: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/In focus|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/In focus]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Discussion report|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Discussion report]]

* WikiProject report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/WikiProject report|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/WikiProject report]]

* Technology report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Technology report|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Technology report]]

* Featured content: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Featured content|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Featured content]]

* Interview: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Interview|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Interview]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Serendipity|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Serendipity]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Recent research|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Recent research]]

* Tips and tricks: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Tips and tricks|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Tips and tricks]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Traffic report|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Traffic report]]

* News from Diff: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News from Diff|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News from Diff]]

* News from the WMF: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News from the WMF|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/News from the WMF]]

* Video: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Video|How the entire country of Qatar was blocked from editing]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Gallery|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Gallery]]

* From the archives: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/From the archives|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/From the archives]]

* Essay: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Essay|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Essay]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Humour|en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-05-29/Humour]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 20:47, 29 May 2022 (UTC)
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== English ==

Hi my name is Caroline I hope you are fine here [[Special:Contributions/41.114.32.124|41.114.32.124]] ([[User talk:41.114.32.124|discuss]]) 05:09, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

:Hi Caroline. How may I help you? —[[User:Atcovi|Atcovi]] [[User talk:Atcovi|(Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Atcovi|Contribs)]] 15:07, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

== ''The Signpost'': 26 June 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* News and notes: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/News and notes|WMF inks new rules on government-ordered takedowns, blasts Russian feds' censor demands, spends big bucks]]

* In the media: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/In the media|Editor given three-year sentence, big RfA makes news, Guy Standing takes it sitting down]]

* Special report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Special report|&quot;Wikipedia's independence&quot; or &quot;Wikimedia's pile of dosh&quot;?]]

* Discussion report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Discussion report|MoS rules on CCP name mulled, XRV axe plea nulled, BLPPROD drafting bid pulled]]

* Opinion: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Opinion|Picture of the Day – how Adam plans to ru(i)n it]]

* Featured content: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Featured content|Articles on Scots' clash, Yank's tux, Austrian's action flick deemed brilliant prose]]

* Essay: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Essay|RfA trend line haruspicy: fact or fancy?]]

* Recent research: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Recent research|Wikipedia versus academia (again), tables' &quot;immortality&quot; probed]]

* Serendipity: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Serendipity|Was she really a Swiss lesbian automobile racer?]]

* News from the WMF: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/News from the WMF|Wikimedia Enterprise signs first deals]]

* Traffic report: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Traffic report|Top view counts for shows, movies, and celeb lawsuit that keeps on giving]]

* Gallery: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Gallery|Celebration of summer, winter]]

* Humour: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-06-26/Humour|Shortcuts, screwballers, Simon &amp; Garfunkel]]

&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;'''[[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost|Read this Signpost in full]]''' · [[w:en:Wikipedia:Signpost/Single|Single-page]] · [[m:Global message delivery/Targets/Signpost|Unsubscribe]] · [[m:Global message delivery|Global message delivery]] 22:34, 26 June 2022 (UTC)
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== ''The Signpost'': 1 August 2022 ==

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; dir=&quot;ltr&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;div style=&quot;margin-top:10px; font-size:90%; padding-left:5px; font-family:Georgia, Palatino, Palatino Linotype, Times, Times New Roman, serif;&quot;&gt;[[File:WikipediaSignpostIcon.svg|40px|right]] ''News, reports and features from the English Wikipedia's weekly journal about Wikipedia and Wikimedia''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2;&quot;&gt;
* From the editors: [[w:en:Wikipedia:Wikipedia Signpost/2022-08-01/From the editors|Rise of the machines, or something]]

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  <page>
    <title>Minecraft/Combat</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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'''Combat''' is to fight different types of mobs and enemies. These tools are mostly fighting mobs, in which mobs have its different shape, size, health, and strength. This subpage of [[Minecraft]] will show different type of tools in which to battle certain type of mobs. This will also show different TYPES of combat, such as Diamond, Wood, Stone and Chain.
&lt;!--Not satisfying? Please state it on the discussion page and the author will get right to it.--&gt;
== Battle Swords ==
'''Swords''' are weapons/tools used in Minecraft to battle against players (if on Multiplayer or local singleplayer), or [[Minecraft/Mobs|mobs]], and can be used to destroy/break things that it is meant to break/destroy, such as cobwebs, vines, leaves, and coco beans. These nifty things can be crafted, or found in chests in strongholds, hidden caves, and in a village (blacksmith's house), and can be crafted into six types (Wood, Gold, Stone, Iron, Diamond, and Netherite - from the lowest to highest attack power). These swords are the best tools to use in a PvP (Player vs Player) battle/against a mob. Swords aren't the only tools, though, for battling, but it is the most logical, used, and powerful tool for PvPing, and it is smart to use one in a battle. 

Swords, also like other tools/armor/books, can be enchanted using the [[Minecraft/Enchantment Table|enchantment table]].

Swords, if they are the same type, can be repaired like bows can (in a crafting table), but it is most commonly used to repair swords in an '''anvil''' (with another sword, or ingots/diamonds, other wooden sword... depends on the type of sword). Swords can also combine enchants too (Unbreaking I and Unbreaking I combined together = Unbreaking II) in an anvil. You can, as well (like armor/other tools/and random things such as sticks, blocks, books, etc.), name/rename your sword in an anvil. you can also take enchantment off your sword using a grindstone. if you hit a mob mid jump you can do crit damage which can kill mobs faster. 

You can block an attack by a mob/player by using your sword as a shield, it will block a portion of the incoming attack, but it will, as well, slow down your movement. 

=== Netherite ===

=== Diamond ===
=== Iron ===

=== Stone ===
=== Gold ===
=== Wood ===There are 6 types of wood in Minecraft. Each has a different shade of bark and wood

If you're building with raw wood you might want to match your varieties to get a uniform look. These 6 varieties are native to different biomes. Jungle wood grows in jungle biomes; oak grows in forest, swamps,ice plains, extreme hills and jungles; and Birch grows in forest and birch forest; and acacias in savanna. You could embark on a wood safari!

== Armor ==

=== Netherite ===

=== Diamond ===
=== Chain ===
=== Leather ===
=== Gold ===
== Sources ==
* [http://minecraft.wikia.com/wiki/Sword Minecraft Wikia - Sword]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pKFhPjom5L4 Youtube's &quot;MrCubey&quot; - Guide on Swords]

== See also ==
* [[Minecraft]]

[[Category:Minecraft]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>203942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410635</id>
      <parentid>2410477</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:05:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5588" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Background ===
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])

=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
: - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])
: - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
: - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
: - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220801.pdf |pdf]])
: - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Computer programming]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>207109</id>
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      <id>2410627</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Maddiegray11</username>
        <id>2936309</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings */ Moved citations over</comment>
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      <text bytes="39919" xml:space="preserve">.&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Helping Give Away Psychological Science Banner}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in adults ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for adults. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in children ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for children. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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{{medical disclaimer}}
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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in adults ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for adults. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in children ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for children. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
{{collapse bottom}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</text>
      <sha1>fbnftyo8w7aodgfruwxl6tkbsy89wt0</sha1>
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      <id>2410629</id>
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        <username>Maddiegray11</username>
        <id>2936309</id>
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      <comment>/* Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in adults */ add child measures</comment>
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{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in adults ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for adults. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in children ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for children. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder in adults ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings for adults. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Maddiegray11</username>
        <id>2936309</id>
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      <comment>/* Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder */ added years</comment>
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{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18 years
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/ne4us Printable PDF]
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|Purchase [https://www.hogrefe.com/uk/shop/multidimensional-anxiety-scale-for-children-2nd-edition-masc-2.html here]
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|Purchase [https://www.wpspublish.com/rcmas-2-revised-childrens-manifest-anxiety-scale-second-edition here]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|[https://osf.io/d8scy Printable PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
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| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
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| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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{{medical disclaimer}}
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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18 years
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;9&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
!Where to Access
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18 years
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18 years
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2018-06|editor-last=Hunsley|editor-first=John|editor2-last=Mash|editor2-first=Eric J.|title=A Guide to Assessments That Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001|journal=Oxford Clinical Psychology|doi=10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
|[https://osf.io/z6qrh Printable PDF]
|-
|Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-V (SCID)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2018-06|editor-last=Hunsley|editor-first=John|editor2-last=Mash|editor2-first=Eric J.|title=A Guide to Assessments That Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001|journal=Oxford Clinical Psychology|doi=10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|
|
|
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
{{collapse bottom}}

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{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{BASEPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Want even 'more' information about this topic? There's an extended version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===


{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}


===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|date=March 2014|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282)
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175)
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|date=NaN|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886).
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199)
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|General Population
|9%
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|[https://osf.io/svn9x Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://osf.io/svn9x Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt; *not free
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-spai.html here]
|-
| colspan=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; |'''For Children and Adolescents Specifically'''
|-
|-
|[https://osf.io/s3fu2 Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)]
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18 years
|12 minutes
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

* [https://osf.io/s3fu2 RCADS Child Self-reported (6-18 years)]

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC) *not free
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|Purchase [https://eprovide.mapi-trust.org/instruments/social-phobia-and-anxiety-inventory-for-children#coas_member_access_content here]
|}

'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
!Where to Access
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|[https://osf.io/2y3cq Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|[https://osf.io/bkvj2 Printable PDF]
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|Purchase [https://shop.acer.org/spai-quickscore-form-pkg-25.html here]
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|Printable [https://osf.io/z4da3 PDF]
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;5&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
!Where to Access
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2018-06|editor-last=Hunsley|editor-first=John|editor2-last=Mash|editor2-first=Eric J.|title=A Guide to Assessments That Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001|journal=Oxford Clinical Psychology|doi=10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
|Purchase [https://global.oup.com/academic/product/anxiety-and-related-disorders-interview-schedule-for-dsm-5-adis-5---adult-version-9780199325160?cc=gb&amp;lang=en&amp; here]
|-
|Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2018-06|editor-last=Hunsley|editor-first=John|editor2-last=Mash|editor2-first=Eric J.|title=A Guide to Assessments That Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001|journal=Oxford Clinical Psychology|doi=10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Semi-structured Interview
|Adults (Ages 18+)
|1-2 hours
| -Available for purchase from [https://www.appi.org/products/structured-clinical-interview-for-dsm-5-scid-5 APA Publishing] (Note: Not free)
|}
'''Note:''' Reliability and validity are included in the extended version [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)/extended version|here]]. This table includes measures with Good or Excellent ratings.

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
{{collapse bottom}}

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        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="572" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{-1
}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{-1
}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>mfe1no44u5jq49cjb8ayi7ce3sv9yzf</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410709</id>
      <parentid>2410704</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:36:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="574" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3\12}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4\12}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>5n9i10ric35e6tm0sv7gqb2l0acs5vt</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410711</id>
      <parentid>2410709</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:38:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="598" xml:space="preserve">&lt;math&gt;2^{3/12}=&lt;/math&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3\12}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4\12}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>87vjw3xtatjsue3dggewv0jsww1eaxe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410712</id>
      <parentid>2410711</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:39:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="588" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12}�pprox&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12}�pprox&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>g7djy2l9zd3vop09mpr2j1ym8j6enok</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410717</id>
      <parentid>2410712</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:42:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="588" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>phj9rbpgwvs0s0fnzqf76h8viohsshb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410726</id>
      <parentid>2410717</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:59:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="603" xml:space="preserve">={| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx0.66667&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.33333&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>biq4c2cpxj2usprvd9zspcmfc5p4fwj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410727</id>
      <parentid>2410726</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:59:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="602" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx0.66667&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.33333&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>m930614lt5qcu13qpqry4req16d4e4u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410728</id>
      <parentid>2410727</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:03:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="602" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>dnav50f5rzcheobe137y1vqtc4vheiz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410729</id>
      <parentid>2410728</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:08:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="660" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}=&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}=&lt;/math&gt;
|}
{|
|+
!1
!3
!
!
|-
|3
|44444
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|-
|
|
|
|
|}</text>
      <sha1>dxwg8i7skdca8t6g1176vh4e6dnk7iq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410731</id>
      <parentid>2410729</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:26:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="700" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>fvphetz9825qsp4foc8kbovputuryf0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410732</id>
      <parentid>2410731</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:26:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="710" xml:space="preserve">Try again
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}}&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>osuvs241luswl1vt6yxsxk33jlpkpoc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410733</id>
      <parentid>2410732</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:37:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="773" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}} \approx 1.18519&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7} \approx 1.19048&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5} \approx 1.2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}} \approx 1.25&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}} \approx 1.26562&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>fmi05qr8r2jm5sy52roquwdvenlnj0k</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410734</id>
      <parentid>2410733</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T05:54:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1558" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}} \approx 1.18519&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7} \approx 1.19048&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5} \approx 1.2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}} \approx 1.25&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}} \approx 1.26562&lt;/math&gt;
|}

==check==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}} \approx 1.18519&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7} \approx 1.19048&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5} \approx 1.2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}} \approx 1.25&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}} \approx 1.26562&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
      <sha1>papsmwik09u6fofv06t2xs16fpxjpkm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410762</id>
      <parentid>2410734</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:07:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="773" xml:space="preserve">{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}} \approx 1.18519&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7} \approx 1.19048&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5} \approx 1.2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}} \approx 1.25&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}} \approx 1.26562&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410774</id>
      <parentid>2410762</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T10:10:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="779" xml:space="preserve">==b==
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;&quot;
|-
! round
! p
! q
! ratio
! cents
! algebra
|-
| 294.13
| 32
| 27
| 1.185185185
| 294.1349974
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{32}{27}= \frac{2^{5}}{3^{3}} \approx 1.18519&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 300
| -1
| 3
| 1.189207115
| 300
| &lt;math&gt;2^{3/12} \approx1.18921&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 301.85
| 25
| 21
| 1.19047619
| 301.8465204
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{25}{21}= \frac{5^{2}}{3\cdot 7} \approx 1.19048&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 315.64
| 6
| 5
| 1.2
| 315.641287
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{6}{5}= \frac{2\cdot 3}{5} \approx 1.2&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 386.31
| 5
| 4
| 1.25
| 386.3137139
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{5}{4}= \frac{5}{2^{2}} \approx 1.25&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 400
| -1
| 4
| 1.25992105
| 400
| &lt;math&gt;2^{4/12} \approx1.25992&lt;/math&gt;
|-
| 407.82
| 81
| 64
| 1.265625
| 407.8200035
| &lt;math&gt;\frac{81}{64}= \frac{3^{4}}{2^{6}} \approx 1.26562&lt;/math&gt;
|}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update for 2022</comment>
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      <text bytes="16819" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Development of chapter plan and user page''&lt;/div&gt;
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Completet}}
&lt;!-- Show this during semester {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} --&gt;
==Summary==
This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the major project by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] and getting feedback. To do this: Create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant figure), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you are unable to submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit is recommended.

==Overview==
# Weight: 5%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]].
# Social contribution component involves providing online feedback about the development of at least one other chapter.
# Book chapters are hosted on [[Main Page|Wikiversity]]. Training in how to use Wikiversity is provided in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]].

==Learning outcomes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional - communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| Be professional - display initiative and drive
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| Be a lifelong learner - evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]:
# '''Chapter plan''': Develop a chapter plan and user page:
##The chapter plan should consist of:
### Title, sub-title, and table of contents
### Headings
### Key points with citations
### 1+ relevant figure(s)
### 3+ references
### 1+ internal link (to a Wikipedia and/or Wikiversity page)
### At least 1 external link (to an external resource)
## &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length for this assessment exercise.
# '''User page''': Develop a user page to share:
## About me: Self-introduction, including a link to the chapter being worked on and e-portfolio and/or other profiles.
## Social contributions: A list of social contributions, with a summary and direct link to evidence for each contribution.
## Example: [[User:NUMBLA0371]]

==Marking criteria==
[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]s will be marked according to the following criteria:
# {{Anchor|Title}}'''Title (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's table of contents]] includes an approved title and sub-title with hyperlinks to the chapter page and user page.
## Same title and sub-title are at the top of the chapter page.
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]].
# {{Anchor|User page}}'''User page (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## A Wikiversity user page has been created, with information about yourself.
## Suggested headings: About me, Social contributions.
## Consider linking to your other profiles.
# {{Anchor|Social contributions}}'''Social contribution (10%)''':  See [[#Examples|examples]].
## On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have provided online feedback about the development of at least one other topic. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Social contribution|More info]].
# {{Anchor|Headings}}'''Headings (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Use the recommended headings (see [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|template]]) plus three to six informative and correctly formatted top-level headings (between the Overview and Conclusion) which may each contain two to five sub-headings. Note that a section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings - i.e., avoid having sections which only contain 1 sub-heading).
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]).
# {{Anchor|Key points}}'''Key points (30%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## In each section, provide at least two key points which summarise psychological science (theory and research) about the topic, including key citations.
## Provide at least one key point before branching into sub-sections.
## Focus on addressing the problem (i.e., the question in the sub-title) using the best available psychological theory and research.
## Link key concepts to further info (e.g., other book chapters and/or relevant Wikipedia articles).
# {{Anchor|Figure}}'''Figure (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Display at least one relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
## Provide a descriptive caption underneath.
# {{Anchor|References}}'''References (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Provide at least three APA style references for peer-reviewed sources cited in the key points.
# {{Anchor|Resources}}'''Resources (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## See also: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter or other Wikiversity or Wikipedia page. The linked text should be the name of the target page. Include the source in parentheses following the link.
## External links: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]] to a key internet resource (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia). The linked text should be the name of the target page or site. Include the source in parentheses following the link.

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than three key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of feedback provided about the development of at least one other book chapter topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of contributing feedback about other chapters. There is at least one key area for further improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan may cover basic information about separate concepts, but lack detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#Submissions will be evaluated according to the [[#marking criteria|marking criteria]].
#No extensions will be approved. Late submissions will receive 0.
#Marks and feedback should be returned within three weeks of the due date.
##Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
##Feedback will be available via the book chapter's Wikiversity discussion page.
##Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].

==Examples==
Examples of topic development submissions which received 100% - links go to snapshots of pages as submitted:
;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 3.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses which are irrevocable. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss alternative options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Template:METF|Official feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03: Social contributions]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs#Advanced wiki editing|Tutorial 04: Advanced wiki editing]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <text bytes="16818" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic development - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Development of chapter plan and user page''&lt;/div&gt;
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Complete}}
&lt;!-- Show this during semester {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} --&gt;
==Summary==
This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the major project by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] and getting feedback. To do this: Create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant figure), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you are unable to submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit is recommended.

==Overview==
# Weight: 5%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]].
# Social contribution component involves providing online feedback about the development of at least one other chapter.
# Book chapters are hosted on [[Main Page|Wikiversity]]. Training in how to use Wikiversity is provided in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]].

==Learning outcomes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional - communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| Be professional - display initiative and drive
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| Be a lifelong learner - evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]:
# '''Chapter plan''': Develop a chapter plan and user page:
##The chapter plan should consist of:
### Title, sub-title, and table of contents
### Headings
### Key points with citations
### 1+ relevant figure(s)
### 3+ references
### 1+ internal link (to a Wikipedia and/or Wikiversity page)
### At least 1 external link (to an external resource)
## &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length for this assessment exercise.
# '''User page''': Develop a user page to share:
## About me: Self-introduction, including a link to the chapter being worked on and e-portfolio and/or other profiles.
## Social contributions: A list of social contributions, with a summary and direct link to evidence for each contribution.
## Example: [[User:NUMBLA0371]]

==Marking criteria==
[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]s will be marked according to the following criteria:
# {{Anchor|Title}}'''Title (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's table of contents]] includes an approved title and sub-title with hyperlinks to the chapter page and user page.
## Same title and sub-title are at the top of the chapter page.
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]].
# {{Anchor|User page}}'''User page (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## A Wikiversity user page has been created, with information about yourself.
## Suggested headings: About me, Social contributions.
## Consider linking to your other profiles.
# {{Anchor|Social contributions}}'''Social contribution (10%)''':  See [[#Examples|examples]].
## On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have provided online feedback about the development of at least one other topic. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Social contribution|More info]].
# {{Anchor|Headings}}'''Headings (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Use the recommended headings (see [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|template]]) plus three to six informative and correctly formatted top-level headings (between the Overview and Conclusion) which may each contain two to five sub-headings. Note that a section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings - i.e., avoid having sections which only contain 1 sub-heading).
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]).
# {{Anchor|Key points}}'''Key points (30%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## In each section, provide at least two key points which summarise psychological science (theory and research) about the topic, including key citations.
## Provide at least one key point before branching into sub-sections.
## Focus on addressing the problem (i.e., the question in the sub-title) using the best available psychological theory and research.
## Link key concepts to further info (e.g., other book chapters and/or relevant Wikipedia articles).
# {{Anchor|Figure}}'''Figure (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Display at least one relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
## Provide a descriptive caption underneath.
# {{Anchor|References}}'''References (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Provide at least three APA style references for peer-reviewed sources cited in the key points.
# {{Anchor|Resources}}'''Resources (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## See also: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter or other Wikiversity or Wikipedia page. The linked text should be the name of the target page. Include the source in parentheses following the link.
## External links: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]] to a key internet resource (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia). The linked text should be the name of the target page or site. Include the source in parentheses following the link.

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than three key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of feedback provided about the development of at least one other book chapter topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of contributing feedback about other chapters. There is at least one key area for further improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan may cover basic information about separate concepts, but lack detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#Submissions will be evaluated according to the [[#marking criteria|marking criteria]].
#No extensions will be approved. Late submissions will receive 0.
#Marks and feedback should be returned within three weeks of the due date.
##Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
##Feedback will be available via the book chapter's Wikiversity discussion page.
##Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].

==Examples==
Examples of topic development submissions which received 100% - links go to snapshots of pages as submitted:
;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 3.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses which are irrevocable. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss alternative options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Template:METF|Official feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03: Social contributions]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs#Advanced wiki editing|Tutorial 04: Advanced wiki editing]]

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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Development of chapter plan and user page''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} --&gt;
==Summary==
This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the major project by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] and getting feedback. To do this: Create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant figure), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you are unable to submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit is recommended.

==Overview==
# Weight: 5%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]].
# Social contribution component involves providing online feedback about the development of at least one other chapter.
# Book chapters are hosted on [[Main Page|Wikiversity]]. Training in how to use Wikiversity is provided in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]].

==Learning outcomes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional - communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| Be professional - display initiative and drive
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| Be a lifelong learner - evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]:
# '''Chapter plan''': Develop a chapter plan and user page:
##The chapter plan should consist of:
### Title, sub-title, and table of contents
### Headings
### Key points with citations
### 1+ relevant figure(s)
### 3+ references
### 1+ internal link (to a Wikipedia and/or Wikiversity page)
### At least 1 external link (to an external resource)
## &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length for this assessment exercise.
# '''User page''': Develop a user page to share:
## About me: Self-introduction, including a link to the chapter being worked on and e-portfolio and/or other profiles.
## Social contributions: A list of social contributions, with a summary and direct link to evidence for each contribution.
## Example: [[User:NUMBLA0371]]

==Marking criteria==
[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]s will be marked according to the following criteria:
# {{Anchor|Title}}'''Title (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's table of contents]] includes an approved title and sub-title with hyperlinks to the chapter page and user page.
## Same title and sub-title are at the top of the chapter page.
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]].
# {{Anchor|User page}}'''User page (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## A Wikiversity user page has been created, with information about yourself.
## Suggested headings: About me, Social contributions.
## Consider linking to your other profiles.
# {{Anchor|Social contributions}}'''Social contribution (10%)''':  See [[#Examples|examples]].
## On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have provided online feedback about the development of at least one other topic. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Social contribution|More info]].
# {{Anchor|Headings}}'''Headings (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Use the recommended headings (see [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|template]]) plus three to six informative and correctly formatted top-level headings (between the Overview and Conclusion) which may each contain two to five sub-headings. Note that a section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings - i.e., avoid having sections which only contain 1 sub-heading).
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]).
# {{Anchor|Key points}}'''Key points (30%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## In each section, provide at least two key points which summarise psychological science (theory and research) about the topic, including key citations.
## Provide at least one key point before branching into sub-sections.
## Focus on addressing the problem (i.e., the question in the sub-title) using the best available psychological theory and research.
## Link key concepts to further info (e.g., other book chapters and/or relevant Wikipedia articles).
# {{Anchor|Figure}}'''Figure (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Display at least one relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
## Provide a descriptive caption underneath.
# {{Anchor|References}}'''References (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Provide at least three APA style references for peer-reviewed sources cited in the key points.
# {{Anchor|Resources}}'''Resources (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## See also: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter or other Wikiversity or Wikipedia page. The linked text should be the name of the target page. Include the source in parentheses following the link.
## External links: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]] to a key internet resource (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia). The linked text should be the name of the target page or site. Include the source in parentheses following the link.

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than three key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of feedback provided about the development of at least one other book chapter topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of contributing feedback about other chapters. There is at least one key area for further improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan may cover basic information about separate concepts, but lack detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#Submissions will be evaluated according to the [[#marking criteria|marking criteria]].
#No extensions will be approved. Late submissions will receive 0.
#Marks and feedback should be returned within three weeks of the due date.
##Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
##Feedback will be available via the book chapter's Wikiversity discussion page.
##Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].

==Examples==
Examples of topic development submissions which received 100% - links go to snapshots of pages as submitted:
;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 3.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses which are irrevocable. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss alternative options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Template:METF|Official feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03: Social contributions]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs#Advanced wiki editing|Tutorial 04: Advanced wiki editing]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]</text>
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&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Development of chapter plan and user page''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}}
==Summary==
This assessment exercise builds skills needed for the major project by developing a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]] and getting feedback. To do this: Create a Wikiversity user page, share a chapter plan (consisting of headings and key points, including at least one relevant figure), and provide feedback on the development of at least one another book chapter with this social contribution summarised on your Wikiversity user page.

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you are unable to submit this assessment on time, withdrawal from the unit is recommended.

==Overview==
# Weight: 5%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Develop a plan for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book Chapter]].
# Social contribution component involves providing online feedback about the development of at least one other chapter.
# Book chapters are hosted on [[Main Page|Wikiversity]]. Training in how to use Wikiversity is provided in [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|tutorials]].

==Learning outcomes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Learning outcomes|learning outcomes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Learning outcome'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Integrate theories and current research towards explaining the role of motivation and emotions in human behaviour.
| Identify the main psychological theories and peer-reviewed research which can be used to explain a specific motivation or emotion topic.
|-
| Critically apply knowledge of motivation or emotion to an indepth understanding of a specific topic in this field.
| Propose how psychological knowledge can be applied to a specific topic to improve motivational and emotional lives. 
|}

==Graduate attributes==
How the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Graduate attributes|graduate attributes]] are addressed by this assessment exercise:
{| border=1 cellpadding=5 cellspacing=&quot;0&quot; background:transparent style=&quot;width:100%;&quot;
|-
| style=&quot;width:40%;&quot; | '''Graduate attribute'''
| style=&quot;width:60%;&quot; | '''Assessment task''' 
|-
| Be professional - communicate effectively
| Communicate your ideas by sharing a chapter plan; provide feedback on other plans.
|-
| Be professional - display initiative and drive
| Get organised by selecting a topic and submitting an on-time chapter plan.
|-
| Be a lifelong learner - evaluate and adopt new technology
| Learn how to edit in a collaborative, online environment.
|}

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines and address the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]:
# '''Chapter plan''': Develop a chapter plan and user page:
##The chapter plan should consist of:
### Title, sub-title, and table of contents
### Headings
### Key points with citations
### 1+ relevant figure(s)
### 3+ references
### 1+ internal link (to a Wikipedia and/or Wikiversity page)
### At least 1 external link (to an external resource)
## &lt;span id=&quot;Word count&quot;&gt;Length (Word count):&lt;/span&gt; There is no minimum or maximum length for this assessment exercise.
# '''User page''': Develop a user page to share:
## About me: Self-introduction, including a link to the chapter being worked on and e-portfolio and/or other profiles.
## Social contributions: A list of social contributions, with a summary and direct link to evidence for each contribution.
## Example: [[User:NUMBLA0371]]

==Marking criteria==
[[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]s will be marked according to the following criteria:
# {{Anchor|Title}}'''Title (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## The [[Motivation and emotion/Book|book's table of contents]] includes an approved title and sub-title with hyperlinks to the chapter page and user page.
## Same title and sub-title are at the top of the chapter page.
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]].
# {{Anchor|User page}}'''User page (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## A Wikiversity user page has been created, with information about yourself.
## Suggested headings: About me, Social contributions.
## Consider linking to your other profiles.
# {{Anchor|Social contributions}}'''Social contribution (10%)''':  See [[#Examples|examples]].
## On your Wikiversity user page, summarise and link to direct evidence that you have provided online feedback about the development of at least one other topic. [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Social contribution|More info]].
# {{Anchor|Headings}}'''Headings (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Use the recommended headings (see [[Template:Motivation_and_emotion/Book_chapter_structure|template]]) plus three to six informative and correctly formatted top-level headings (between the Overview and Conclusion) which may each contain two to five sub-headings. Note that a section should contain 0 or 2+ sub-headings - i.e., avoid having sections which only contain 1 sub-heading).
## Use [[w:Letter case#Sentence case|sentence casing]] (see also [[:Template:Heading casing|heading casing]]).
# {{Anchor|Key points}}'''Key points (30%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## In each section, provide at least two key points which summarise psychological science (theory and research) about the topic, including key citations.
## Provide at least one key point before branching into sub-sections.
## Focus on addressing the problem (i.e., the question in the sub-title) using the best available psychological theory and research.
## Link key concepts to further info (e.g., other book chapters and/or relevant Wikipedia articles).
# {{Anchor|Figure}}'''Figure (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Display at least one relevant figure. See [[Template:Motivation and emotion/Book chapter structure#Figures|example]].
## Provide a descriptive caption underneath.
# {{Anchor|References}}'''References (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## Provide at least three APA style references for peer-reviewed sources cited in the key points.
# {{Anchor|Resources}}'''Resources (10%)''': See [[#Examples|examples]].
## See also: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) link]] to a relevant book chapter or other Wikiversity or Wikipedia page. The linked text should be the name of the target page. Include the source in parentheses following the link.
## External links: Provide at least one bullet-pointed [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external link]] to a key internet resource (not Wikiversity or Wikipedia). The linked text should be the name of the target page or site. Include the source in parentheses following the link.

==Grade descriptions==
This section describes typical characteristics of topic developments at each grade level, based on the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

{| border=1 cellpadding=7 cellspacing=0 style = &quot;background:transparent; width:90%&quot;
! Grade
! Description
|-
| style=&quot;width:140px; vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''HD (High Distinction)'''
| A clear, complete, easy to understand plan is presented. Considerable depth and breadth of theoretical and research knowledge of the topic is demonstrated via the scope and detail within the plan. All recommended sections are provided. The development of the plan illustrates that author has actively engaged in developing skills required for collaborative online writing and editing (e.g., interwiki links are provided for key terms, responses are made to comments on the chapter talk page). There are citations to more than three key academic sources with references provided in APA style. The author introduces themself on their Wikiversity user page and summarises and provides directly verifiable evidence of feedback provided about the development of at least one other book chapter topic.
|-
| style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''DI (Distinction)'''
| A very good, understandable plan is presented. The plan includes key relevant theory and research, with relevant references. The material is well organised into sections, with minimal spelling and grammar issues. There is good evidence that the author has developed the capacity to work effectively in the collaborative editing environment. The author's user page is set up and links to evidence of contributing feedback about other chapters. There is at least one key area for further improvement.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''CR (Credit)'''
| A competent plan is presented. The plan includes the main ideas and sections necessary for developing a good chapter about the topic. Some aspects of the plan, however, may be missing, limited, or problematic. For example, the headings and structure may be under-developed, the reference list may indicate a lack of depth in investigation of the topic, use of wiki links and/or images could often be improved, and/or user page set-up feedback about other chapters may not have been completed.
|-
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''P (Pass)'''
| A basic, sufficient plan is presented, however there may be incomplete coverage of relevant theory and research, and/or a lack of depth or breadth in conceptualising the chapter. The chapter plan may cover basic information about separate concepts, but lack detail about how the concepts will be brought together to help address the topic. A basic heading structure is presented, but is likely to need more sections and/or improved formatting or organisation. Spelling and grammar problems are often evident. Citation and referencing tends to be missing or limited in scope and quality (e.g., top peer-reviewed citations about the topic haven't been cited). These plans usually have very brief edit histories (e.g., less than 24 hours) and are often noticeably shorter than plans which attract higher grades. Authors often haven't set up an informative user page or provided evidence of engagement with the development of other chapter plans.
|- 
|  style=&quot;vertical-align:top;&quot; | '''F (Fail)'''
| The plan is insufficient and/or incomplete. Major gaps and/or errors in content are evident. Little evidence of awareness of relevant theory, research, and use of peer-reviewed references. These plans typically have under-developed heading structures and do not illustrate the use of key editing skills. Written expression is often undermined by poor spelling and/or grammar. These plans typically have very brief editing histories (e.g., consist of a few, last minute edits). There is generally no evidence of active engagement with the development of other chapters.
|}

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#Submissions will be evaluated according to the [[#marking criteria|marking criteria]].
#No extensions will be approved. Late submissions will receive 0.
#Marks and feedback should be returned within three weeks of the due date.
##Marks will be available via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}
##Feedback will be available via the book chapter's Wikiversity discussion page.
##Availability of marks and feedback will be notified via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} Announcements.
#If you don't understand or disagree with your mark and/or feedback, then please see the [[User:Jtneill/Marking dispute process|marking dispute process]].

==Examples==
Examples of topic development submissions which received 100% - links go to snapshots of pages as submitted:
;2021
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Affective_disorders&amp;oldid=2314003 Affective disorders] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3186377&amp;action=history U3186377]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Cognitive_dissonance_and_motivation&amp;oldid=2313463 Cognitive dissonance and motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202904&amp;action=history U3202904]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Domestic_violence_motivation&amp;oldid=2313842 Domestic violence motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3194166&amp;oldid=2313868 U3194166]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Fantasy_and_sexual_motivation&amp;oldid=2313839 Fantasy and sexual motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187741&amp;oldid=2313844 U3187741]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Laziness&amp;oldid=2312068 Laziness] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187874&amp;oldid=2310813 U3187874]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Non-English_emotion_words Non-English emotion words] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3202854&amp;oldid=2312677 U3202854]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Positive_illusions_about_the_self&amp;oldid=2312873 Positive illusions about the self] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3187178&amp;oldid=2311466 U3187178]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Torture_motivation&amp;oldid=2311842 Torture motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:J.Payten&amp;oldid=2311388 J.Payten]

;2020
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Body_image_flexibility&amp;oldid=2196896 Body image flexibility] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3170940&amp;oldid=2191350 U3170940]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Emotional_self-efficacy&amp;oldid=2200012 Emotional self-efficacy] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190210&amp;oldid=2198005 U3190210]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Guilty_pleasure&amp;oldid=2196391 Guilty pleasure] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160224&amp;oldid=2198079 U3160224]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Meta-emotion&amp;oldid=2199480 Meta-emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3190467&amp;oldid=2194797 U3190467]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2020/Methamphetamine_and_emotion&amp;oldid=2199878 Methamphetamine and emotion] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:NUMBLA0371&amp;oldid=2199869 NUMBLA0371]
;2019
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2019/Growth_mindset_development&amp;oldid=2052186 Growth mindset development] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3172958&amp;oldid=2051716 U3172958]
;2018
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2018/Familicide_motivation&amp;oldid=1916838 Familicide motivation] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3160212&amp;oldid=1915671 U3160212]
;2017
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2017/Awe_and_well-being&amp;oldid=1730944 Awe and well-being] - [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=User:U3122707&amp;oldid=1730836 U3122707]

==Licensing==
Contributions to Wikiversity are made under [http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/ Creative Commons 3.0 Share-alike] (CC-BY-SA 3.0) and [http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html GFDL] licenses which are irrevocable. These licenses give permission for others to edit and re-use contributed content, with appropriate acknowledgement. For more information, see the [[wmf:Terms of use|Wikimedia Foundation's Terms of use]]. If you do not wish to contribute your work under this license, discuss alternative options with the unit convener.

==See also==
* [[/Checklist|Topic development - Checklist]]
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Marking and feedback
** [[Template:METF|Official feedback template]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Physiological needs#Social contributions|Tutorial 03: Social contributions]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Psychological needs#Advanced wiki editing|Tutorial 04: Advanced wiki editing]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic| ]]</text>
      <sha1>lkle327d3v9rwnbtgwocehcyvp1ee3f</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Microprocessor Based System Design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>232469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410638</id>
      <parentid>2410482</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:22:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Analog Interfacing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5043" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>5le5w1n7zoc8updgobjjzjlhjdtlwf3</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410639</id>
      <parentid>2410638</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:23:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Instruction Set Architecture */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5072" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>t3gx2ky9c8m903vmbadvyyhpxy05hjf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410641</id>
      <parentid>2410639</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:29:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interrupts and Exceptions  */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5079" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>59e4gaf8gm1sc74n5ouh3f1jowb90e1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410642</id>
      <parentid>2410641</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:30:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5076" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;! == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == &gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>b6zfo0g6szlulw211v9ek9vrngku0h6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410644</id>
      <parentid>2410642</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:30:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5080" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Architectural Support''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Serial Bus''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Timers ''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>cb89xt661j56pswtjozqaq4s8lzx6su</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410652</id>
      <parentid>2410644</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:59:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5090" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>5ecw2lo9w3r2jczapgmopinsdml2kpn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410654</id>
      <parentid>2410652</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:05:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5260" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>565ng1g3kgcfkw6pqh4znvfrjwso2yl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410655</id>
      <parentid>2410654</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:06:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Timers  */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5312" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>8mqm76mpqbysuj0siqwl3360wupgssj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410656</id>
      <parentid>2410655</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:09:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5256" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>0lmhcdj1igkrczkmgk4nx0mpppnsa2l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410657</id>
      <parentid>2410656</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:09:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Timers  */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5313" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>rltinxpnvnppbx2ynu3zp83v5ozvh69</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410658</id>
      <parentid>2410657</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:12:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* System and Peripheral Buses */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5366" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>ss09pnqnbjsjriafdgpoatp0kb0rjof</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410659</id>
      <parentid>2410658</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T01:13:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Timers  */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5535" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

'''ARM Architectural Support'''
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;


=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>dsmnaad77mfq3if95nb7dljurv0pg97</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410660</id>
      <parentid>2410659</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T02:27:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Memory and Peripheral Architecture */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5497" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory and Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 

* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems

&lt;/br&gt;
=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;


=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>sfkb8wsxiir1pimqkwd26ga8fflg2ti</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410661</id>
      <parentid>2410660</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T02:37:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Memory and Peripheral Architecture */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5566" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;


=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>28j2hhkhf10gzyhbmtmgx06g5wjyol7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410662</id>
      <parentid>2410661</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T02:39:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Timers  */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5565" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>b8c1fs7bu356gx7be9qec5wlyq7wi3u</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410664</id>
      <parentid>2410662</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T02:55:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>50.44.36.47</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interrupt Synchronization */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30441" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vector Interrupt Controllers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>6drp9861tgolamhu00g5b3czaj2ihln</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410669</id>
      <parentid>2410664</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:15:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30443" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220730.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>tqjtc6qf42v6tb6on3px9t3xj2tpayz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410670</id>
      <parentid>2410669</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:16:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30443" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>trkv1bk7hzz2lbv9lpxdzajycjay7iu</sha1>
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      <text bytes="30489" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART)
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>0ec6gjv9parw9vt40v8d9kcl3nyy1v4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410672</id>
      <parentid>2410671</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:17:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30534" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>bll87k8grnb6l6uw3lqksm8lr9tc91q</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410673</id>
      <parentid>2410672</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:18:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Peripheral Architecture */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30534" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VIC.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>i2kctkwq0jfuugu9ewszesvyd7ew6ec</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410674</id>
      <parentid>2410673</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
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      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30548" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectoredInterrupt.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (UART) ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Inter-Integrated Circuit (I2C)
* Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI)
* Universal Serial Bus (USB) Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>d1y1wcn8o0slwkc4oqrmupzz6yf8tod</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410678</id>
      <parentid>2410674</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:28:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="30575" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectoredInterrupt.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;External links[edit] 

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POST COMMENT


@Luis Daniel Rodriguez (2013 11 22) 

For an idea on how to move forward with narratives &amp; complexity see “Design Stories Are The New User Stories”: http://www.slideshare.net/uxcodeline/ux-intel-2 

@Ralph Lord (2014 02 14) 

Lots of food for thought in this short piece Mr Hudson.  Thank you for writing it.
The biggest problem I see with much of this “UX practices squeezed into Lean/Agile build methodologies” is simply that they don’t have the same purposes or goals.  User Stories are just one example and a good one to call out.  I really appreciate your focus on minimal personas.  Those multi-page, fawning biographical sketches often contain little that is useful for guiding development but lots of evidence that your UX team is made of frustrated novelists. 

The personas and the user stories (or persona stories, I construct I agree with) are relatively easy for our team to fix.  More challenging is the integration with the Agile process.  I’ve worked on a number of Agile projects and tried a number of different integration methods.  Trying to stay one or two sprints ahead of the Dev team always seems to turn into a frantic race to keep up.  I’m thinking lack of resources has been the reason for this.  Perhaps with a larger UX team we could do it. 

Despite the Agile constraint of “no big design” and the fact you’ll be blamed for following a waterfall model (Oh, the shame!) we’re moving towards doing lots of the UX design up front.  Our “Sprint 0” is going to be at least 6 weeks so we can do some research, overall UI framework for the application, development of personas and stories (we’ll be writing Epics with the team), task modelling (our application has many complex and fairly long task flows) and creating assets for the Dev team. 

I think this is what you mean by “rough design”.  We just call it “getting ready for the build” by getting all our ducks in a row (geese in line, chickens in order, etc.)  To reference another industrial process, I liken it to the work that an architect does before a house is built. 

One last observation from my experience is simply that UX work often takes longer than dev work.  That is to say that if we were to decide how many stories to build in a given sprint by the “UX points” count, our sprints would contain far fewer stories.  Again, this may be a question of resources and could be specific to my experiences. 

Maybe that question of how many UX folks you need to keep up with X points of dev work during a sprint is one that deserves investigation. 

Thanks again for your insightful article. 

@Ashley Cook (2014 03 13) 

A very well written article! Thank you for citing the research! 

My current team is preparing to build an enterprise set of personas to guide widespread development that Mr Hudson specifically warns against this in his “collaboration” section. My last project purposefully included developers in persona development, as Mr Hudson recommends. We won’t have that luxury with my current project. We are targeting Agile teams as the primary users of these personas. Anyone here have experience developing enterprise personas and can specifically address how to mitigate the “collaboration” risks identified by the author? 

@David McNamara (2014 03 16) 

I really like this thinking, but I’m struggling to get my head round the practical differences between “User Stories” and “Persona Stories”. Some more examples of implementation would be really useful, contrasting the user and persona versions. 

However, if we do nothing other than revise a user story using a persona name and simplify the language by using third-person I think that’s a real improvement, integrating personas into the process and promoting empathy with the purpose of the story. 

Thanks. 

@mnotess (2014 03 18) 

This article makes some great points about design principles, but the proposed revision of how we state requirements in Agile I find uncompelling. For my reasons, see http://www.learningux.com/2014/03/18/personas-again-vs-roles-in-user-stories/ . 

@ 4566618 (2014 07 30) 

John Carroll, not Jack Carroll. 

@Matthew Glinski (2015 05 07) 

Just because IT people score lower on some empathy test does not mean that correlates to having lower empathy. Empathy is not the measurement of how often someone is willing to put up with stupidity or bullshit. The definition of empathy is one of understanding another perspective and feelings. For most people, empathy is something that is earned, like respect. Unions are a good example of this phenomena. Everyone experiences empathy differently, and not responding to that empathy does not mean anything. Least of all showing us your true colors. 

Can you feel my empathy? Are you trying hard enough? No. Telling me you are is not enough to infer empathy. My experiences show that many things have a huge capacity for empathy. Elephants have been shown to have large capacity for empathy but we cant understand them or ever fully understand them. Largely this means you can’t measure empathy accurately. This shows that the capacity for empathy and reacting to that empathy is not the same thing, and should not be measured as such. 

So, after some careful analysis we come back to IT professionals. Tell me, do you work with computers day in and day out? Everyone thinks they work with computers, but most just work on top of computers, coercing them to do their bidding. Eventually, if you start doing networking or programming, you come to understand the binary nature of it all. Lets take the concept of empathy to a binary landscape. 

Binary means that something is either one way or another, black and white if it were. Everything can be expressed in a binary context.
All you have to do is have enough experience with empathy and dealing with computers to come to the same conclusions. Maybe its not so much about empathy. Sometimes its better to just stop here and read the first letter of every sentence.

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[/Academic locus of control/]] - What is academic locus of control, what are its consequences, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3142852|U3142852]]
# [[/Achievement goal theory/]] - What is achievement goal theory and how can it be applied?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3141425|U3141425]]
# [[/Action identification theory/]] - What is action identification theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3170158|U3170158]]
# [[/Asylum seeker motivation/]] - What are the motivations of asylum seekers?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Belindacooper|U3200789]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3144263|U3144263]]
# [[/Aspirational goals/]] - Are aspirational goals an effective tool in promoting motivation? - [[User:U3175750|U3175750]]
# [[/Autonomy support and motivation/]] - What role does autonomy support play in motivation and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190052|U3190052]]
# [[/Basic psychological need theory/]] - What is basic psychological need theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3182677|U3182677]]
# [[/Boredom and technology addiction/]] - What is the relationship between boredom and technology addiction and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3176856|U3176856]]
# [[/Brief motivational interventions for problematic alcohol use/]] - How can brief motivational interventions be used to reduce problematic alcohol use and associated harms? - [[User:U3187898|U3187898]]
# [[/Cancer screening motivation/]] - What are the motivational facilitators and barriers to participation in cancer screening programs?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3191761|U3191761]]
# [[/Child killer motivation/]] - What motivates children to kill others? - [[User:U3175432|U3175432]]
# [[/Climate change denial motivation/]] - What motivates climate change denial? - [[User:Aimeeclaire|Aimeeclaire]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance and motivation/]] - What is the effect of cognitive dissonance on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3185008|U3185008]] 
# [[/Conscientiousness and motivation/]] - What is the relationship between conscientiousness and motivation? - [[User:U3187486|U3187486]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Cat Vera Vera|Cat Vera Vera]]
# [[/Constructive nonconformism cultivation/]] - How can constructive nonconformism be cultivated? - [[User:U3190499|U3190399]]
# [[/Cortisol and motivation/]] - How does cortisol affect motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3174214|U3174214]]
# [[/Deliberate practice and mastery/]] - How can deliberate practice facilitate mastery?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U115433|U115433]]
# [[/Domestic violence motivation/]] - What motivates domestic violence?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - Ann William
# [[/Egosystem and ecosystem motivation/]] - What are egosystem and ecosystem motivations and what are their consequences? - [[User:Amyleehart|Amyleehart]]
# [[/Eisenhower matrix and time management/]] - What is the Eisenhower matrix and how can it be used to improve time management?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:EllisMerlino250|EllisMerlino250]]
# [[/Endurance sport motivation/]] - What motivates people to engage in endurance sport training and competition?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Zacrosser|Zacrosser]]
# [[/Exercise addiction/]] - What is exercise addiction, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Hamish3145835|Hamish3145835]]
# [[/Feedback and motivation in sport/]] - What is the effect of feedback on motivation in sport? - [[User:U3173886|U3173886]]
# [[/Gamification and educational motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance educational motivation? - [[User:U3166965|U3166965]]
# [[/General strain theory, crime, and delinquency/]] - How does GST explain crime and delinquency? - [[User:U3180567|U3180567]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3200244|U3200244]]
# [[/Goldilocks principle and motivation/]] - How does the Goldilocks principle influence motivation - [[User:Madisoneinfalt|U3190385]]
# [[/Guilty pleasure/]] - What is guilty pleasure and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3160224|U3160224]]
# [[/Habit versus addiction/]] - What are the similarities and differences between habit and addiction?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3176478|U3176478]]
# [[/Healthy risk-taking/]] - What is healthy risk-taking and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Kalanyay|Kalanyay]]
# [[/Hypomania and motivation/]] - What are the motivational characteristics of hypomania?  - [[User:U3187388|U3187388]] 
# [[/Implicit motives/]] - What are implicit motives and how do they work? - [[User:U3201178|U3201178]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian education and work motivation/]] - What motivates Indigenous Australian people to engage in education and work? - [[User:U3187741|U3187741]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian psychologist motivation/]] - What motivates Indigenous Australians to become psychologists?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Aliciajm4|U3201480]]
# [[/Köhler effect and motivation/]] - What is the Köhler effect and how can it be applied? -  [[User:U3170318|U3170318]]
# [[/Motivated reasoning/]] - What is motivated reasoning and how does it affect our lives? - [[User:U3169965|U3169965]]
# [[/Motivational science/]] - What the meaning of motivational science and why is it important to take a scientific approach to understanding motivation? - [[User:Charlos99|Charlos99]]
# [[/Music and study/]] - What effect does music have on studying? What is the best music to study to? - [[User:U3182476|U3182476]]
# [[/Organisational citizenship behaviour motivation/]] - What motivates OCB and what are its consequences?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Cmstanton95|Cmstanton95]]
# [[/Paedophilic motivation/]] - Why are some people sexually attracted to minors?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Ciara Holmes|Ciara Holmes]]
# [[/Parricide motivation/]] - What motivates children to kill their parents?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3177123|U3177123]]
# [[/Performance feedback/]] - How can a manager give effective performance feedback to a worker? - [[User:U3178984|U3178984]]
# [[/Pill-testing motivation at music festivals/]] – What motivates people to engage or not engage in pill-testing at music festivals?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3179701|U3179701]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory/]] - What is protection motivation theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3177198|U3177198]]
# [[/Psychedelic treatment of addiction/]] - How can psychedelics help in treating addiction?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Anubhandary|Anubhandary]]
# [[/Religious motivation/]] - What motivates people to engage in religious activities? - [[User:U3114726|U3114726]]
# [[/Sedentary behaviour change/]] - How can sedentary behaviour be changed? - [[User:U3177230|U3177230]]
# [[/Self-actualisation and motivation/]] - What motivates self-actualisation? - [[User:Amy.lange1306|Amy.lange1306]]
# [[/Self-determination theory in education/]] - How can SDT be applied in educational settings?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3174052|U3174052]]
# [[/Strength model of self-control/]] - What is the strength model of self-control and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3190425|U3190425]]
# [[/Subliminal priming and motivation/]] - What is the effect of subliminal priming on motivation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3192645|U3192645]]
# [[/Theory of basic human values/]] - What is the theory of basic human values and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3037228|U3037228]]
# [[/TV binge-watching motivation/]] - What motivates TV binge-watching? - [[User:Palloverma00|Palloverma00]]
# [[/Unconscious motivation/]] - What role does the unconscious play in motivation? - [[User:Emma.w321|Emma.w321]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3190244|U3190244]]
# [[/Uses and gratifications theory/]] - What is UGT and how can it be applied?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3158414|U3158414]]
# [[/Voyeurism motivation/]] - What motivates voyeurism?&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} --&gt; - [[User:U3091402|U3091402]]
# [[/Work and passion/]] - What is the relationship between work and passion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3181428|U3181428]]
# [[/Writer's block/]] - What causes writer's block and how can it be overcome?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:SLDux|SLDux]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Advertising and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in advertising?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Laigneg|u3185194]]
# [[/Art therapy and emotion/]] – How does art therapy engage and influence emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Hill Sarah Louise|Hill Sarah Louise]]
# [[/Attentional bias for emotional stimuli/]] - What is the nature of human attentional bias for emotional stimuli and what are the implications?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Amy.lange1306|Amy.lange1306]]
# [[/Autism spectrum disorder and emotional regulation/]] - How does ASD impact on emotional regulation?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3187381|U3187381]]
# [[/Autonomous Sensory Meridian Response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3161596|U3161596]]
# [[/Ayahuasca and emotion/]] - What is the effect of ayahuasca on emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:Sydtomcat|Sydtomcat]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3185242|U3185242]]
# [[/Body image flexibility/]] - What is BIF, what are its effects on well-being, and how can it be developed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3170940|U3170940]]
# [[/Cocaine and emotion regulation/|Cocaine and emotion]] - What are the effects of cocaine on emotion regulation? - [[User:Shayley Woodgate|Shayley Woodgate]]
# [[/Cognitive behaviour therapy and emotion/]] - What effect can CBT have on emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3189416-2|U3189416-2]]
# [[/Community resilience/]] - What is community resilience and how can it be fostered? - [[User:Jayleami|Jayleami]]
# [[/Compassion fatigue/]] - What is compassion fatigue, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:MPress2020|MPress2020]]
# [[/Compassion focused therapy/]] - What is CFT and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3190523|U3190523]]
# [[/Compassion training/]] - How can compassion be developed through training?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3189154|U3189154]]
# [[/Compersion/]] - What is compersion and how can it be developed?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3202026|U3202026]]
# [[/Coping and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between coping and emotion? - [[User:U3037120|U3037120]]
# [[/Criminal empathy/]] - What causes empathy for criminals? - [[User:U3177510|U3177510]]
# [[/Crowds and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between crowds and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Fiddausi Husseini|Fiddausi Husseini]]
# [[/Dark triad personality and emotion/]] - What role does emotion play in the dark triad personality? - [[User:Melissa Hogan|Melissa Hogan]]
# [[/Dental fear/]] - What causes dental fear, what are the consequences, and how can it be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3186994|U3186994]]
# [[/Emotional abuse in romantic relationships/]] - Why does emotional abuse occur in romantic relationships and what can be done about it? - [[User:Laurenpeel|Laurenpeel]]
# [[/Emotional schema therapy/]] - What is emotional schema therapy and how does it work? - [[User:U3145017|U3145017]]
# [[/Emotional self-efficacy/]] - What is emotional self-efficacy, what are its effects, and how can it be developed?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190210|U3190210]]
# [[/Emotion display rules/]] - What are display rules, how do they vary, and how are they developed? - [[User:U3188019|U3188019]]
# [[/Emotion regulation and ageing/]] - What is the impact of ageing on emotion regulation and what can be done?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190016|U3190016]]
# [[/Emotion regulation and culture/]] - To what extent does emotion regulation vary by culture? - [[User:Lilyapps123|Lilyapps123]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Claireebousfield|Claireebousfield]]
# [[/Epigenetic impacts on emotional well-being/]] - How can epigenetics influence emotional well-being?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Dakka2005|Dakka2005]]
# [[/Equanimity/]] - What is equanimity and how can it be developed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:TaraMaland|TaraMaland]]
# [[/Equine therapy and emotion/]] - What is equine therapy and what is the role of emotion in equine therapy? - [[User:U3005392|U3005392]]
# [[/Eudaimonia/]] - What is eudaimonia and how can it be developed? - [[User:C.Rose9|C.Rose9]]
# [[/Expressive suppression/]] - What is expressive suppression and what is its effect on emotion? - [[User:U3191574|U3191574]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3162169|U3162169]]
# [[/Fear of pain/]] - How does fear of pain affect our lives? - [[User:U3187664|U3187664]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:OwenUC|OwenUC]]
# [[/Forest therapy and emotion/]] - What is forest therapy and how does it influence emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3175516|U3175516]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3166897|U3166897]]
# [[/Funerals and grief work/]] - How do funerals facilitate grief work?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3025324|U3025324]]
# [[/Hope therapy/]] - What is hope therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:Jackson McNee|Jackson McNee]]
# [[/Horticultural therapy and psychosocial well-being/]] - How can horticultural therapy contribute to psychosocial well-being? - [[User:NNClancy|NNClancy]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:LucieMacdonald|LucieMacdonald]]
# [[/Imagery and emotion/]] - How can imagery be used to regulate emotion? - [[User:U3189677|U3189677]]
# [[/Intranasal oxytocin and emotion/]] - What are the emotional effects of intranasal oxytocin? - [[User:U3167177|U3167177]]
# [[/Intuitive eating/]] - What is intuitive eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health? - [[User:BirdU3171984|BirdU3171984]]
# [[/Leadership and morale/]] - How does leadership affect morale?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3187226|U3187226]]
# [[/Limbic system and emotion/]] - What role does the limbic system play in emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3155259|U3155259]]
# [[/Materialism and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between materialism and well-being?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3197375|U3197375]]
# [[/Mental toughness/]] - What is mental toughness, how does it help, and how can it be developed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Myfanwyb|Myfanwyb]]
# [[/Meta-emotion/]] - What are meta-emotions? How do they influence our emotional lives?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190467|U3190467]]
# [[/Methamphetamine and emotion/]] - What is the effect of methamphetamine on emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:NUMBLA0371|NUMBLA0371]]
# [[/Mindful eating/]] - What is mindful eating and what effect does it have on emotion and health? - [[User:Bellamavro|Bellamavro]]
# [[/Mood management theory and media consumption/]] - What is mood management theory and how does it explain media consumption and its effects on mood?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3190415|U3190415]]
# [[/Morality and emotion/]] - What role do emotions play in morality? - [[User:Kait B|Kait B]]
# [[/Music and emotion regulation/]] – How can music be used to regulate emotion? - [[User:U3183539|U3183539]]
# [[/Nature deficit disorder/]] - What is NDD, why does it matter, and what can be done about it?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3189981|U3189981]]
# [[/Nightmares and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics and consequences of nightmares?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3200978|U3200978]]
# [[/Nutrition and anxiety/]] - How can nutrition be used to help deal with anxiety?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3130574|U3130574]]
# [[/Omega-3 fatty acids and mood/]] - What is the relationship between omega-3 fatty acids and mood?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3190522|U3190522]]
# [[/Optimism and depression/]] - What is the relationship between optimism and depression? - [[User:U3175502|U3175502]]
# [[/Orthorexia and emotion/]] - What are the emotional risk factors and consequences of orthorexia? - [[User:U3191870|U3191870]]
# [[/Oxytocin and mother-infant bonding/]] - What role does oxytocin play in mother-infant bonding?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3189449|U3189449]]
# [[/Oxytocin and social support/]] - What is the relationship between oxytocin and social support? - [[User:U3122220|U3122220]]
# [[/Panic/]] - What are the emotional components of panic and how can panic be managed?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3176631|U3176631]]
# [[/PERMA model of well-being/]] - What is the PERMA model of well-being?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3170318|U3170318]]
# [[/Phencyclidine and emotion/]] - What are the emotional effects of phencyclidine? - [[User:SoniaM2020|SoniaM2020]]
# [[/Positive emotion/]] - What are positive emotions, why do we have them, what are their effects, and how can they be enhanced?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:Taylor Mamukic|Taylor Mamukic]]
# [[/Post-traumatic growth/]] - What is post-traumatic growth and how can it be fostered?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3186080|U3186080]]
# [[/Psychedelic treatment of depression and anxiety/]] - How can psychedelics help in treating depression and anxiety? - [[User:JulesCro|JulesCro]]
# [[/Psychological need satisfaction and body image/]] - What is the relationship between psychological need satisfaction and body image? - [[User:Maddison gray1|Maddison gray1]]
# [[/Psychological resilience during COVID-19 pandemic isolation/]] - How can people be psychologically resilient during COVID-19 pandemic isolation? - [[User:Zacharydodemaide|Zacharydodemaide]]
# [[/Relief/]] - What is relief and what role does it play in our emotional lives? - [[User:Originalusernameplease|Originalusernameplease]]
# [[/Self-criticism and emotion/]] - How does self-criticism affect emotion? - [[User:U3169316|U3169316]]
# [[/Sense of coherence/]] - What is SOC, what are the effects, and how can it be developed? - [[User:U3178767|U3178767]]
# [[/Shame, guilt, and recidivism/]]{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}}{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - What role do shame and guilt play in recidivism? - [[User:U3190229|U3190229]]
# [[/Social comparison and emotion/]] - What is the effect of social comparison on emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Tomu3138325|Tomu3138325]]
# [[/Sorrow/]] - What is sorrow, how does it function, and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:U3202324|U3202324]]
# [[/Stress reduction theory/]] - What is the SRT, what is the evidence, and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3190072|U3190072]]
# [[/Subjective well-being/]] - What is SWB, why does it matter, and how can it be enhanced? - [[User:U3187314|U3187314]]
# [[/Survivor guilt/]] - Why do victims of trauma experience survivor guilt?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3176522|U3176522]]
# [[/Sympathy/]] - What is sympathy, why do we experience it, and what are the consequences, and how can it be facilitated? - [[User:Jacinta.Swinden|Jacinta.Swinden]]
# [[/Terror management theory/]] - What is TMT and how can it be applied? - [[User:Oscar3176498|Oscar3176498]]
# [[/Transgenerational trauma/]] - What is transgenerational trauma and how can it be dealt with?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/High}} - [[User:U3190456|U3190456]]
# [[/Transpersonal psychology/]] - What is transpersonal psychology?{{Motivation and emotion/Multimedia/High}} - [[User:U3195247|U3195247]]
# [[/Trauma and emotion/]] - What is the effect of trauma on emotion? - [[User:U3039010|U3039010]]
# [[/Triune brain theory and emotion/]] - What is the triune brain theory and what are its implications for human emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3174181|U3174181]]
# [[/Unconscious bias and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in unconscious bias? - [[User:U3149815|U3149815]]
# [[/Workplace mental health/]] - How can mental health be enhanced in the workplace? - [[User:GwenFord|GwenFord]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/COVID-19 pandemic impacts on motivation and emotion/]] - How has the COVID-19 pandemic impacted on human motivation and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:U3144808.Lillian|U3144808.Lillian]]
# [[/Disgust and disease avoidance motivation/]] - What role does disgust play in disease avoidance motivation? - [[User:U3160493|U3160493]]
# [[/Long-term side effects of antidepressants on motivation and emotion/]] - What are the long-term side effects of antidepressants on motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3190069|U3190069]]
# [[/Opioid use disorder/]] - What is opioid use disorder and how can it be treated? - [[User:U3065346|U3065346]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[U3216413]]
# [[/Sporting performance, motivation, and emotion/]] - How does motivation and emotion affect sporting performance?{{Motivation and emotion/Book/Low}} - [[User:Jarred Lind|Jarred Lind]]

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{{MECR3|1=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpnJjCRbM0g&amp;feature=youtu.be}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Psychological need satisfaction refers to the fulfilment of three major psychological needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness (Martela &amp; Ryan, 2019). Studies have shown that body image and the way one perceives themselves{{gr}} is significantly affected by environmental factors and whether or not our key psychological needs are being satisfied. The fulfilment of these needs and the relationship with body image can be explored through several theories of motivation, including self-discrepancy theory, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and self-determination theory.

{{Robelbox|theme=11|title='''Focus questions''' [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|]]|width=800px|https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
# Why is body image so prominent across cultures?
#What are three theories that could be linked to psychological need satisfaction and body image?
#What are the consequences if needs are not being satisfied?
# What do psychological theories suggest?&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== Psychological need satisfaction ==

As human beings, individuals have [[wikipedia:Need|needs]] that, when fulfilled, result in a sense of accomplishment and overall well-being (Martela &amp; Ryan, 2019). The concept of need satisfaction refers to the experience of fulfilment when basic needs are met. There are three main types of needs that humans{{gr}} have;{{gr}} physiological, psychological and implicit (see figure 1). Psychological needs refer to the instinctive psychological process that are satisfied by environmental conditions (Barroso, Peters, Johnson, Kelder, &amp; Jefferson, 2010). The key psychological needs include autonomy (a sense of psychological freedom),  competence (a sense of effectiveness) and relatedness (a connection with significant others and relationships) . Figure one shows the typical environmental events that lead to the satisfaction of these key needs. When these needs are satisfied, individual's experience personal growth, engagement, [[wiktionary:intrinsic_motivation|intrinsic motivation]] and an overall improvement in well-being (Reeve, 2018).    
&lt;br /&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Figure 1. 
''Table showing the three main types of human needs''
!Need
!Defintion
!Example
|-
|Physiological 
|Biological and vital connections between brain structures, hormones and organs for survival
|Homeostasis, sex, food, water, sleep
|-
|Psychological
|Instinctive psychological processes that seek environmental conditions to promote an individual's well-being
|Autonomy, competence, relatedness
|-
|Implict
|Environmental events and circumstances that are associated with positive emotions
|Power, achievement, affiliation, 
|}
&lt;br /&gt;
=== Autonomy ===
Autonomy is a key psychological need. It refers to the experience of volition and psychological freedom when it comes to thoughts, feelings and actions (Legault, 2017). When autonomic needs are satisfied, people are likely to embrace individuality and less likely to adhere to social and societal pressures. Studies also show that people tend to feel happier, more interested in tasks and generally more engaged when (Legault, 2017). When these needs are frustrated, people tend to experience feelings of alienation, helplessness and hostility. 

=== Competence ===
The need for competence refers to the need to feel challenged and the feeling of effective contribution to the surrounding environment (Legault, 2017). The idea of competence can also refer to the ability to develop new skill and be able to apply the in real life circumstances and applying feedback provided (Legault, 2017). When the need of competence is satisfied, individuals feel a sense of fulfilment and this can contribute to positive personal growth. The concept of competence is not static, it is an on-going and continuous need that requires persistence and challenge to maintain satisfaction (Legault, 2017). 

=== Relatedness ===
Human's are social creatures, and as a result of that, strive to make meaningful [[wikipedia:Social_connection|social connections]] with the people around them (Reeve, 2018). Relatedness refers to our need as humans to establish emotional bonds and interpersonal relationships. Our need for relatedness is satisfied when we give and receive emotional support and care from the social organisations we associate with (Reeve, 2018, Vartanian, 2012). When this need is frustrated, individuals will likely experience feelings of isolation and loneliness. This can lead to poor well-being and the development of mental illness. 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
Figure. 2 

''Table showing the environmental condition and need satisfaction''
!Psychological Need
!Environmental condition involving need
!Environmental condition satisfying need
|-
|Autonomy
|Opportunities for self-direction
|Autonomy support
|-
|Competence
|Optimal challenge
|Guidance and feedback
|-
|Relatedness
|Social interaction
|Partner responsiveness
|}
&lt;br /&gt;

== Body image ==
Body image refers to the way individuals perceive themselves mentally, emotionally and physically. (Griffiths, Murray, Krug &amp; McLean, 2018). It is a concept that has been present throughout history and across cultures (Griffiths, Murray, Krug &amp; McLean, 2018). Despite it being a personal and internal process, body image can be shaped negatively or positively by the world around us (Mask &amp; Blanchard, 2011). Studies have shown that body image is effected by societal and cultural expectations, media projection and social media usage (Mask &amp; Blanchard, 2011, Brichacek, Neill &amp; Murray, 2018).
[[File:Miss Universe 1930 Winners.jpg|alt=|thumb|240x240px|''Figure 3. Miss universe winners from 1930. This pageant reflects the beauty standards of the time across cultures.''  ]]

=== Societal and cultural impacts ===
Throughout history, societies have conceptualised their own portrayal of 'ideal' beauty (Vartanian, 2012). The standards of beauty vary between cultures and countries; what one culture may see as beautiful and ideal, another may see as undesirable or unattractive (Morrison, Kalin, Morrison, 2004). For example, a 2018 survey conducted in Latino-American and African-American communities showed that both men and women were more attracted to individuals who would be considered overweight in contrast to Caucasian communities, which were generally shown to find the most attractive individuals to be within the normal - to -thinner weight range. Notably this attraction towards overweight individuals was largely attributed by the participants to culture norms and cultural histories such as an abundance of food implying financial security (Barroso, Peters, Johnson, Kelder, &amp; Jefferson, 2010).   

Now more than ever, ideal body and beauty standards are being thrusted upon individuals through means of the internet and social media (Brichacek, Neill &amp; Murray, 2018). With the likes of new editing apps, photos posted on social media are now depicting an unrealistic idea of beauty, which individuals are comparing themselves too.  

=== Consequences of negative body image ===
When psychological needs are not being satisfied, body negativity arises. This refers to an unrealistic and distorted view of how someone sees aspects of their physical appearance (Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). This negative body image can have a diverse range of psychological and physical effects on an individual’s well-being. 

==== Consequences ====

* Low self-esteem
* Low self-confidence
* Substance abuse
* Unhealthy eating habits

==== Mental Illness ====

*[[wikipedia:Depression|Depression]]
*[[wikipedia:Anxiety|Anxiety]]
*[[wikipedia:Eating_disorder|Eating disorders]] (anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa)&lt;br /&gt;
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
;Case study on varying global beauty standards
Since the 1920's, western cultures have desired a sun kissed, tanned look. With prominent celebrities and fashion designers such as Coco Channel, endorsing it’s appeal and beauty, it has become a standard of beauty in these cultures. Overtime, both men and women have gone to, at times, extreme lengths to achieve this tanned look as it has become a sign of beauty. 
On the contrary, some Asian cultures have considered a tanned complexion to be undesirable. This is because historically, tan skin was associated with individuals in the working class and who were in the sun all day working and those with a fair complexion were from the upper-class and did not have to be out in the sun. Still to this day, studies show that a fair complexion is still considered the pinnacle of beauty in some Asian cultures, with some individuals using make-up and creams to make their skin appear lighter. 
This proves that beauty standards cause individuals to be unhappy with their body image and with to change their appearance to adhere to beauty standards (Chen, Yarnal, Chick &amp; Jablonski, 2017). {{RoundBoxBottom}}

&lt;br /&gt;{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Video break!}} 
This video shows a model photoshopped to fit the ideal beauty standards of different countries around the world: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3c0HmhsQ1A
 {{Robelbox/close}}
=== Self-Discrepancy Theory ===
The idea that human's have multiple self-sates has been theorised and discussed by scholars for over a century (Vartanian, 2012). Self-discrepancy theory (SDT) refers to the idea that individual's have three domains of self. Individuals tend to compare their “actual” self to internalised standards of the “ideal or ought” self. Actual refers to an individuals self perception, ideal is the the individuals perception of what is the ideal attributes and is based on the presence/absence of positive outcomes and the 'ought' self refers to your perception of what others believe to be the ideal self and is based on the presence/absence of negative outcomes (Vartanian, 2012). 

In relation to body image, self-discrepancy can be applied. Due to the societal expectations and beauty standards, people, particularly women, feel as though their ideal self is unsatisfactory. There is evidence of body dissatisfaction and they tend to conceptualise their ideal and ought self off a description that society deems as beautiful (Vartanian, 2012).        

{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;top: center; width: 40%; background-color: LightSkyBlue; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 30%; background-color: AliceBlue; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px; height: 10px;&quot; |'''Thought bubble'''
Why do people feel the need to adhere to beauty standards?
&lt;br /&gt;
|}

== Theories of motivation and body image ==
[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.png|alt=|thumb|345x345px|''Figure 4''. ''Self-determination theory'' ]]

=== Self determination theory and need satisfaction ===
Self determination theory (SDT), is a theory of motivation that suggests that individual's have a desire to grow and this can be fulfilled when psychological needs are satisfied (Markland &amp; Ingledew, 2007, Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). This theory revolves around the concept of the three key psychological needs; autonomy, competence and relatedness. 

==== Autonomy and body image ====
Autonomy refers to psychological freedom and the desire to feel as though one is in control of their life (Markland &amp; Ingledew, 2007). Studies have shown when an individual has poor self esteem and body dissatisfaction, they are more likely to develop strict and unhealthy habits such as restrictive eating and over exercising in order to feel as though they have control over at least one aspect of their life (Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). This is an example of when needs are met in a negative and unproductive manner and this can be counterproductive for an individual's well-being. 

==== Competence and body image ====
The psychological need to be competent refers to need to feel challenged, utilise one abilities and accept feedback (Mask &amp; Blanchard, 2011). In regards to body image, this could be physical competence or the conceptualised standard that only skinny people are healthy. Research shows that when someone with poor body image is striving to fulfil this need, it may result in an increased sense of self-effectiveness (Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). This means that an individual may over work themselves and stop at no cost to achieve their desired body image. 

If an individual has poor body image, they likely have low self-esteem and confidence too (Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). This may effect their ability to receive constructive feedback and hinder their chance of fulfilling the need of competence. 

==== Relatedness and body image ====
Relatedness is a key psychological need as human's have a desire to belong to groups and establish meaningful relationships (Mask &amp; Blanchard, 2011). Research has shown that individuals believe they will develop these connections if they work to achieve the 'ideal' standard of beauty (Markland &amp; Ingledew, 2007). Whilst trying to fulfil the sense of relatedness, individuals may start to develop unhealthy dieting and exercising habits (Hricova, Orosova &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, 2018). Social isolation, a lack of confidence and mental illness' such as depression, anxiety and body dysmorphia may be developed as well. On the contrary, if an individual has poor body image and self-esteem, this may effect their ability to socialise and develop meaningful relationships thus hindering their chance at achieving relatedness.  

&lt;br /&gt;[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Pyramid.png|alt=|left|thumb|''Figure 5''. M''aslow’s hierarchy of needs'']]

=== Maslow’s hierarchy of needs ===
Maslow's hierarchy of needs is an order of needs created to explore the motivations of individuals (Taormina &amp; Gao, 2013, Reeve, 2018). There are five tiers, starting with the most basic physiological needs and safety, then gradually narrowing into more personal needs such as social (love/belonging), esteem and self actualisation. In reference to body image, Maslow's hierarchy of needs can provide motivations of body image and body positivity. 

The tiers that are mainly related to body image are love/belonging, esteem and self-actualisation.  

==== Esteem ====
In the hierarchy, esteem is described as achievement, independence, status, dominance, self respect and respect from others (Taormina &amp; Gao 2013, Reeve, 2018). Individual's{{gr}} who have a positive sense of body image have high self-esteem and in return, they are - to some extent- respected by others (Taormina &amp; Gao, 2013). In society, there is also a sense of achievement if one believe's{{gr}} they have reached an ideal body image{{fact}}. Body image greatly impacts not only how you perceive yourself but also how you believe others to perceive you and the extent to which you feel respected and positively recognised{{fact}}.

==== Social (love/belonging) ====
Maslow describes the social tier as belongingness, affection and love that derives from the close relationships to us (Reeve, 2018). This can be linked to the psychological need of relatedness and the need for stable and close relationships. When an individual has a poor sense of body image, they may lack the self esteem and confidence to socialise thus not fulfilling these needs. 

==== Self-actualisation ====
The top tier refers to self-actualisation, which refers to realising personal potential, self-fulfilment and seeking personal growth to further improve abilities (Reeve, 2018 ). This tier can be linked to the psychological needs of autonomy and competence and it implies that an individual has psychological freedom and is always striving to improve their abilities (Taormina &amp; Gao 2013). Body image can impact performance and understanding of self-worth and ability and in turn affect an individual's{{gr}} ability to self-actualise. Maslow believed that to understand this level of need, the person must not only succeed in the previous needs but master them (Taormina &amp; Gao 2013). 

&lt;br /&gt;{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Video break}} 
A crash course explaining motivation and emotions: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hdSLiHaJz8&amp;list=PL8dPuuaLjXtOPRKzVLY0jJY-uHOH9KVU6&amp;t=0s
 {{Robelbox/close}}

{| cellpadding=&quot;10&quot; cellspacing=&quot;5&quot; style=&quot;top: center; width: 40%; background-color: LightSkyBlue; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto&quot;
| style=&quot;width: 30%; background-color: AliceBlue; border: 1px solid #777777; vertical-align: top; -moz-border-radius-topleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomleft: 8px; -moz-border-radius-topright: 8px; -moz-border-radius-bottomright: 8px; height: 10px;&quot; |'''Let's test our knowledge!'''
|}
[[File:Bodyshapes.svg|alt=|thumb|240x240px|''Figure 6''. Four body types that society has established for women.]]
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{The &quot;ideal&quot; body is the same in all cultures. True or False?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{How many levels does Maslow's hierarchy consist of?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
+ 5
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, the relationship between body image and need satisfaction is one of great importance. Body image plays a key part in the human experience, and a poor sense of body image can affect the fulfilment of basic psychological needs such as autonomy, competence and relatedness (Martela &amp; Ryan, 2019). 

The key theories in relation to body image and need satisfaction include, self-discrepancy theory, self determination theory and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. 

It is important that if you are suffering from body image issues, to contact a professional as it can be detrimental to your quality of life and if left untreated, likely to cause the onset of mental health disorders. 

==See also==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Anorexia nervosa and intrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and intrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018)
*[[wikipedia:Body_dysmorphic_disorder|Body dysmorphic disorder]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Body_image|Body image]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Motivation|Motivation]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Body image and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2018)
*[[wikipedia:Need|Needs]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Barroso, C.S., Peters, R.J., Johnson, R.J., Kelder, S.H., &amp; Jefferson, T. (2010). Beliefs and perceived norms concerning body image among African-American and Latino teenagers. Journal of Health Psychology, 15(6), 858-870. 

Brichacek, A., Neill, J., &amp; Murray, K. (2018). The effect of basic psychological needs and exposure to idealised Facebook images on university students’ body satisfaction. Cyberpsychology: Journal Of Psychosocial Research On Cyberspace, 12(3) 

Chen, H., Yarnal, C., Chick, G., &amp; Jablonski, N. (2017). Egg White or Sun-Kissed: A Cross-Cultural Exploration of Skin Color and Women’s Leisure Behavior.&amp;nbsp;Sex Roles,&amp;nbsp;78(3-4), 255-271
Griffiths, S., Murray, S., Krug, I., &amp; McLean, S. (2018). The Contribution of Social Media to Body Dissatisfaction, Eating Disorder Symptoms, and Anabolic Steroid Use Among Sexual Minority Men. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, And Social Networking

Hricova, L., Orosova, O., &amp; Bacikova-Sleskova, M. (2018). Disordered eating in the context of Self-determination theory. Current Psychology.

Legault, Lisa. (2016). The Need for Autonomy. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. 

Legault, Lisa. (2017). The Need for Competence. Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. 

Markland, D., &amp; Ingledew, D. (2007). The relationships between body mass and body image and relative autonomy for exercise among adolescent males and females. Psychology Of Sport And Exercise, 8(5), 836-853.

Martela, F., &amp; Ryan, R. (2019). Distinguishing between basic psychological needs and basic wellness enhancers: the case of beneficence as a candidate psychological need.&amp;nbsp;Motivation And Emotion.

Mask, L., &amp; Blanchard, C. (2011). The effects of “thin ideal” media on women's body image concerns and eating-related intentions: The beneficial role of an autonomous regulation of eating behaviors. Body Image, 8(4), 357-365. 

Morrison, T. G., Kalin, R., &amp; Morrison, M. A. (2004). BODY-IMAGE EVALUATION AND BODY-IMAGE INVESTMENT AMONG ADOLESCENTS: A TEST OF SOCIOCULTURAL AND SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORIES.

Reeve, J. (2018).&amp;nbsp;Understanding motivation and emotion&amp;nbsp;(7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Taormina, &amp; Gao. (2013). Maslow and the Motivation Hierarchy: Measuring Satisfaction of the Needs. The American Journal Of Psychology, 126(2), 155.

Tiggemann, M. (2005). Television and Adolescent Body Image: The Role of Program Content and Viewing Motivation. Journal Of Social And Clinical Psychology, 24(3), 361-381. 

Vartanian, L. (2012). Self-Discrepancy Theory and Body Image, 711-717.
}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hdSLiHaJz8 Crash course video on motivation] (YouTube)
*[https://au.reachout.com/articles/what-is-body-image?gclid=EAIaIQobChMImLmZxNy15QIVSSUrCh3VcA6dEAAYASAAEgIKhPD_BwE Understanding Body Image] (Website)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2019]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Body image]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological]]</text>
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      <text bytes="19873" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Father Inclusion, Engagement, Retention, and Positive Outcomes in Child and Adolescent Research''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Greg Fabiano, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Greg Fabiano outlines future directions in the next generation of father-focused studies in the child and adolescent psychology literature, with an emphasis on improving the study of the parameters of inclusion, engagement, retention, and measurement of outcomes.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EogVEgi3n80&amp;feature=youtu.be here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Research and Intervention with Youths in Poverty''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Martha Wadsworth, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Martha Wadsworth integrates theory and empirical findings about understanding and fostering the process of resilience and adaptation in children and families who live in poverty.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj3bgzgXI6g here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Examination of Brain Networks in Neurodevelopmental Disorders''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Lucina Uddin discusses future directions for neuroscience researchers examining brain networks in neurodevelopmental disorders, highlighting gaps in the current literature.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CoSM8C2ucRE here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 4: the Treatment of Youth Mental Health''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Bruce Chorpita, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Bruce Chorpita discusses mental health care systems and presents ideas and examples of methods that may preserve the strengths of the two major paradigms in children’s mental health, evidence-based treatments, and individualized care models, but that also have the potential to extend their applicability and impact.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnKkc2iyeLo here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== '''''Selecting Mentors when Applying to Doctoral Programs''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Applying to doctoral programs marks an important life milestone for you and other undergraduate majors and post-baccalaureate trainees. Importantly, some of the considerations for choosing where to receive undergraduate training (e.g., faculty-to-student ratio, quality of institution) take a &quot;back seat&quot; to the key factor in doctoral training that most impacts your career: Identifying the person who will serve as your mentor. Undergraduate programs rarely offer formal instruction in choosing doctoral mentors, and some of the factors you might consider could vary from year-to-year and by mentor. Overall, when selecting a mentor you should consider who fits your needs and learning style. Because the quality of your doctoral training is mostly impacted by your mentor, you should think about who is going to fit best with your goals. When searching for mentors to apply to, you should first identify researchers who study topics similar to your interests. You can do this by reading research articles and looking for ones that align with your &quot;burning question&quot;. Other factors you should consider when selecting mentors include: the size of their lab, the time they devote to their mentees, the area in which their research encompasses, and the resources they have available. To determine what to look for in these factors, it is important to know your values and learning style. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXpO0FqAY9E here].

=== '''''Responding to Peer Review Commentary''''' ===
'''Presented by''' '''Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Publishing articles involves submitting scholarly manuscripts to peer-reviewed journals. A key component of publishing manuscripts involves receiving commentary about your work from peers in your field, and satisfactorily responding to such commentary. Yet, researchers rarely receive formal training on responding to peer review commentary. The first thing to know when submitting an article for peer review is that it can take several months to get feedback and the feedback among reviewers hardly converges. However, the good news is, typically if you receive a revise and resubmit, revise accordingly and resubmit the paper, the finished product will likely be of higher quality than when you first submitted for publication. When submitting a paper for publication, you should consider which journal you believe will give you a fair review and you should submit 2-4 reviewers in your cover letter that you think have the expertise to review your work. Once you get your decision from peer-review, you should wait a few days before working on revisions and/or responding. Next you should itemize the decision letter creating a to-do list of the revisions (this will become a template for the cover letter you send in response). If there are suggested revisions you cannot do, you need a solid reason as to why you are unable to and you should cite this if possible. If you need help, it is okay to reach out to the editor and/or colleagues for support and advice. If reviewers give conflicting advice, you should give a reason as to why you went with one reviewer's suggestion over the others. Lastly, you can sometimes get a reviewer who is particularly mean, in that case you should let the editor know about the review and if you consistently have a hard time with a reviewer, you can let the editor know in your cover letter that you wish for the person to not review your paper.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCIRuzD5sY here].

=== '''''Strategies for Developing a Research Program''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Research isn’t all elegant study designs, accurate data collection, and sophisticated equations. Researchers must also communicate their ideas and findings with scholarly audiences, and do so effectively. These audiences are no different from those found at your local theater: They understand each paper you write or talk you deliver insofar as it tells a compelling story. Yet, your storytelling doesn’t stop with a single paper or talk. Scholarly records span years and multiple pieces of work. Successful researchers learn to synthesize their records to tell a larger story: a research program. Finding your &quot;burning question&quot; will help when developing a research program. This can then be used to build the theoretical framework to which you begin to answer your &quot;burning question&quot;. The goal of developing a research program should be similar to that of making a film, you want to elicit positive emotion in your audience and make them think. The first three papers you write in your lab should have a role in building your research program and connect back to your &quot;burning question&quot;. Each paper should propel your next paper in this &quot;trilogy&quot; and the third paper should bring you back to the beginning one. Tailored to the lives of early career researchers, these tools reveal keen insights into nailing the job talk that launches your career.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRRvMJiI7zs here].

=== '''''New Models of Collaboration and Dissemination''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eric Youngstrom, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Wikipedia and Wikiversity offer powerful tools for disseminating knowledge to diverse audiences, including scientists and other key stakeholders (e.g., parents and policy makers). These tools greatly increase in utility if scientists receive training on how to leverage these tools for disseminating knowledge. In this workshop, Dr. Eric Youngstrom provides attendees with the know-how for using Wikipedia and Wikiversity, with a focus on how these tools help advance the mission of the open science movement. He begins by outlining copyright for open source information including a description of creative commons (CC) licensing that Wiki platforms use. There are several ways to use a CC license one of which is more high tech and involves registering your work on the CC website and the other which involves you placing CC BY 4.0 NAME on your work. Next Dr. Youngstrom describes how to use OSF to promote open access science. Housing materials on OSF allows others to easily access the work you are doing without having to go through paywalls. Lastly, Dr. Youngstrom describes the non-profit, Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) and the work that HGAPS is doing to promote open science. This includes utilizing free platforms such as OSF and Wiki platforms to disseminate information. He concludes with a discussion on the HGAPS Assessment Center and the free assessment resources housed there. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIrVr1RaOc here]. 

=== '''''Tools For Lab Building: Training Undergraduate Research Assistants''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Sarah Racz, Ph.D. and Dr. Yo Jackson, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
For many research teams, undergraduate research assistants (RA) form a core component of their personnel. A key challenge involves not only the varying motivations of these personnel and their ultimate career goals, but also their relative inexperience with research generally. Often, we found ourselves immersing these students in their first research experiences. In this workshop, Dr. Racz and Jackson discuss concrete strategies for providing standardized research training experiences for undergraduates, with a focus on developing personnel to assist in accurate data collection and creating a hospitable work environment for students, post-doctoral fellows, staff, and faculty. There are many benefits of having undergraduate research assistants in your lab such as showing you are invested in training students, building your lab, and bringing in new ideas to the lab. When recruiting undergrad RAs, your university may have systems in place to assign these students to your lab or you can have open recruitment usually by advertisement or word of mouth. You should also have an application for students to apply, screening criteria for applicants, and an interview process. Once RAs have been hired, you should set clear expectations from the beginning and they should be outlined in a contract that the RA signs. You should have documents outlining the lab processes that RAs can go through and you can also utilize advanced RAs to help train new ones. It is good to set a hours per week expectation for RAs and to have a policy for when they miss scheduled lab time. Give specific tasks to RAs and have regular meetings to discuss tasks and lab duties. It is good to provide a range of skills and experiences to RAs and to have a benchmark so they have something to work towards. You may want to require a specific commitment to the lab such as 2 semesters to ensure retention in the lab as well as reward good performance with more responsibilities. You should also have clear guidelines for publishing with undergrad RAs and these opportunities should be reserved for RAs who have been in the lab for a while and have shown good performance. 

Watch the YouTube Recording [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN1Jpg3_5do here]. 

=== '''''Building and Maintaining Research Partnerships with Schools''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Tim Cavell, Ph.D. and Dr. Elizabeth Talbott, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
A key component of research embedded in primary and secondary schools involves building long-term partnerships with key stakeholders in the school system. These stakeholders include administrators, teachers, classroom aids, school staff, and parents. In this workshop, Drs. Cavell and Talbott provide concrete advice on how to build lasting partnerships with school systems in an effort to conduct research with meaningful impacts on these systems. Schools are important and useful settings to conduct research in since they serve all children from pre-k to 21 years old. When thinking about partnering with a school for research, it is important to consider the culture and history of the school, the current events in the district, the geography of the schools you would like to partner with, and the district's needs. Before trying to partner with a school, you should familiarize yourself with the relationship the school may already have with researchers and whether your project would be better served in another community such as schools that primarily serve underrepresented students. You should also determine who has the authority to greenlight or stop your project and should contact that individual. Sometimes it is helpful to get a referral from someone who has a good relationship with that school or district. It is usually best to start with a phone call when trying to make contact. You should have an initial ask prepared and be ready to play the long game. It can be helpful to have the school identify a point of contact for you so you know who to communicate with. When thinking about conducting research in schools you should consider some key aspects of what will be required of schools. Your research should try to require little if any work from school staff, have minimal disruption to instructional time, be valuable to the teachers and staff, require minimal space in the school for your research team to conduct their work, among others. Obtaining consent is a very important aspect to conducting research in schools and you should think about how to best obtain it. Think about how you want to collect the data in schools considering both personnel needed and the measures you will use. Lastly, prepare your graduate students to conduct research in schools using your knowledge from working with schools.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LxkQ6X0aqQ here]. 

=== '''''Getting Your First Grant''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Deborah Drabick, Ph.D. and Dr. Katie Ehrlich, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting your first grant as a Ph.D. can appear on the surface to be a daunting task, with many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Drs. Drabick and Ehrlich leverage years of experience with extramural funding to explain the grant submission process, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful applications via multiple post-Ph.D. mechanisms, including project grants and K Series applications. First, they cover why it is valuable to apply for a training grant. These reasons include gaining opportunities that may not otherwise be available, getting additional mentorship, have protected research time, and career development. There are several types of funding grants to choose from including NIH T series, K series, F series, and R series, the National Science Foundation training grant, and grants from private agencies. Depending on which grant type you choose, there are different requirements you need to consider.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcYjR9IznGo here]. 

=== '''''Demystifying Academic Job Interviewing''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Kathryn Humphreys and Dr. Jessica Schleider'''

===== Description =====
The academic job interview factors prominently into faculty hiring decisions. It represents a public sample of your program of research and your style of teaching, as well as your critical thinking, responsiveness to feedback, and a whole range of non-specific variables, like your &quot;accessibility,&quot; &quot;collegiality,&quot; or &quot;likeability.&quot; In this workshop, we provide a detailed overview of a winning formula for crafting an outstanding job interview experience, in an effort to minimize the anxiety and maximize the impact associated with your interview visit.

Watch the YouTube Recording of the Workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iZLmNOOIDQ here]. 

=== '''''Preparing a Training Grant: Overview''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Stephen Becker, Ph.D. and Dr. Meghan Miller, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting a training grant involves considering multiple factors that focus on not only a proposed study but also a concrete plan for developing the skills needed to execute this study. By construction, these applications carry many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, we leverage our years of experience with extramural funding to clarify the process of submitting a training grant, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful training grant applications.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qbPoHiAmFk here]. 

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==
=== Jessie Greenlee ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder
* Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Wisonsin-Madson

==== About the award recipient ====
Jessie is a recipient of the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. Jessie completed a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in 2019. Jessie’s research investigates the mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors are associated with mental and physical health disparities in vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in understanding how families promote healthy social and emotional development in individuals with special healthcare needs. Jessie is currently working on several projects aimed at understanding how different sub-system family processes (e.g., marital conflict, co-parenting, parent-child relationship quality) impact outcomes for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Jessie is currently hold a position as an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lafayette College in PA. Learn more about Jessie's work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica&amp;#x20;Greenlee www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica_Greenlee]

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRggTSAhIW0 here].

=== Tyler McFayden ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Development
* Received Ph.D. at Virginia Tech

==== About the award recipient ====
Tyler received the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. She is a current predoctoral clinical intern at the University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill’s (UNC-CH) Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities. Tyler plans to remain at UNC-CH for her postdoctoral training to participate in the NIMH-funded T32 Postdoctoral Research Training Program focusing on intellectual and developmental disabilities. Tyler attended Virginia Tech’s Clinical and Developmental Psychological doctoral program under the mentorship of Dr. Thomas Ollendick, where she worked in a typically developing infant lab, studying early language development, and an autism lab investigating endophenotypes of social communication. Tyler is particularly interested in how language develops in early infancy and in groups without spoken language (e.g., Deaf/Hard of Hearing and minimally-verbal/partially speaking autistic youth) to best inform social communication interventions. Learn more about Tyler’s work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler&amp;#x20;Mcfayden www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler_Mcfayden] 

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_ebFjTEJXk here].</text>
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      <text bytes="21282" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Father Inclusion, Engagement, Retention, and Positive Outcomes in Child and Adolescent Research''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Greg Fabiano, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Greg Fabiano outlines future directions in the next generation of father-focused studies in the child and adolescent psychology literature, with an emphasis on improving the study of the parameters of inclusion, engagement, retention, and measurement of outcomes.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EogVEgi3n80&amp;feature=youtu.be here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Research and Intervention with Youths in Poverty''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Martha Wadsworth, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Martha Wadsworth integrates theory and empirical findings about understanding and fostering the process of resilience and adaptation in children and families who live in poverty.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj3bgzgXI6g here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Examination of Brain Networks in Neurodevelopmental Disorders''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Lucina Uddin discusses future directions for neuroscience researchers examining brain networks in neurodevelopmental disorders, highlighting gaps in the current literature.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CoSM8C2ucRE here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 4: the Treatment of Youth Mental Health''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Bruce Chorpita, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Bruce Chorpita discusses mental health care systems and presents ideas and examples of methods that may preserve the strengths of the two major paradigms in children’s mental health, evidence-based treatments, and individualized care models, but that also have the potential to extend their applicability and impact.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnKkc2iyeLo here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== '''''Selecting Mentors when Applying to Doctoral Programs''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Applying to doctoral programs marks an important life milestone for you and other undergraduate majors and post-baccalaureate trainees. Importantly, some of the considerations for choosing where to receive undergraduate training (e.g., faculty-to-student ratio, quality of institution) take a &quot;back seat&quot; to the key factor in doctoral training that most impacts your career: Identifying the person who will serve as your mentor. Undergraduate programs rarely offer formal instruction in choosing doctoral mentors, and some of the factors you might consider could vary from year-to-year and by mentor. Overall, when selecting a mentor you should consider who fits your needs and learning style. Because the quality of your doctoral training is mostly impacted by your mentor, you should think about who is going to fit best with your goals. When searching for mentors to apply to, you should first identify researchers who study topics similar to your interests. You can do this by reading research articles and looking for ones that align with your &quot;burning question&quot;. Other factors you should consider when selecting mentors include: the size of their lab, the time they devote to their mentees, the area in which their research encompasses, and the resources they have available. To determine what to look for in these factors, it is important to know your values and learning style. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXpO0FqAY9E here].

=== '''''Responding to Peer Review Commentary''''' ===
'''Presented by''' '''Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Publishing articles involves submitting scholarly manuscripts to peer-reviewed journals. A key component of publishing manuscripts involves receiving commentary about your work from peers in your field, and satisfactorily responding to such commentary. Yet, researchers rarely receive formal training on responding to peer review commentary. The first thing to know when submitting an article for peer review is that it can take several months to get feedback and the feedback among reviewers hardly converges. However, the good news is, typically if you receive a revise and resubmit, revise accordingly and resubmit the paper, the finished product will likely be of higher quality than when you first submitted for publication. When submitting a paper for publication, you should consider which journal you believe will give you a fair review and you should submit 2-4 reviewers in your cover letter that you think have the expertise to review your work. Once you get your decision from peer-review, you should wait a few days before working on revisions and/or responding. Next you should itemize the decision letter creating a to-do list of the revisions (this will become a template for the cover letter you send in response). If there are suggested revisions you cannot do, you need a solid reason as to why you are unable to and you should cite this if possible. If you need help, it is okay to reach out to the editor and/or colleagues for support and advice. If reviewers give conflicting advice, you should give a reason as to why you went with one reviewer's suggestion over the others. Lastly, you can sometimes get a reviewer who is particularly mean, in that case you should let the editor know about the review and if you consistently have a hard time with a reviewer, you can let the editor know in your cover letter that you wish for the person to not review your paper.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCIRuzD5sY here].

=== '''''Strategies for Developing a Research Program''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Research isn’t all elegant study designs, accurate data collection, and sophisticated equations. Researchers must also communicate their ideas and findings with scholarly audiences, and do so effectively. These audiences are no different from those found at your local theater: They understand each paper you write or talk you deliver insofar as it tells a compelling story. Yet, your storytelling doesn’t stop with a single paper or talk. Scholarly records span years and multiple pieces of work. Successful researchers learn to synthesize their records to tell a larger story: a research program. Finding your &quot;burning question&quot; will help when developing a research program. This can then be used to build the theoretical framework to which you begin to answer your &quot;burning question&quot;. The goal of developing a research program should be similar to that of making a film, you want to elicit positive emotion in your audience and make them think. The first three papers you write in your lab should have a role in building your research program and connect back to your &quot;burning question&quot;. Each paper should propel your next paper in this &quot;trilogy&quot; and the third paper should bring you back to the beginning one. Tailored to the lives of early career researchers, these tools reveal keen insights into nailing the job talk that launches your career.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRRvMJiI7zs here].

=== '''''New Models of Collaboration and Dissemination''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eric Youngstrom, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Wikipedia and Wikiversity offer powerful tools for disseminating knowledge to diverse audiences, including scientists and other key stakeholders (e.g., parents and policy makers). These tools greatly increase in utility if scientists receive training on how to leverage these tools for disseminating knowledge. In this workshop, Dr. Eric Youngstrom provides attendees with the know-how for using Wikipedia and Wikiversity, with a focus on how these tools help advance the mission of the open science movement. He begins by outlining copyright for open source information including a description of creative commons (CC) licensing that Wiki platforms use. There are several ways to use a CC license one of which is more high tech and involves registering your work on the CC website and the other which involves you placing CC BY 4.0 NAME on your work. Next Dr. Youngstrom describes how to use OSF to promote open access science. Housing materials on OSF allows others to easily access the work you are doing without having to go through paywalls. Lastly, Dr. Youngstrom describes the non-profit, Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) and the work that HGAPS is doing to promote open science. This includes utilizing free platforms such as OSF and Wiki platforms to disseminate information. He concludes with a discussion on the HGAPS Assessment Center and the free assessment resources housed there. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIrVr1RaOc here]. 

=== '''''Tools For Lab Building: Training Undergraduate Research Assistants''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Sarah Racz, Ph.D. and Dr. Yo Jackson, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
For many research teams, undergraduate research assistants (RA) form a core component of their personnel. A key challenge involves not only the varying motivations of these personnel and their ultimate career goals, but also their relative inexperience with research generally. Often, we found ourselves immersing these students in their first research experiences. In this workshop, Dr. Racz and Jackson discuss concrete strategies for providing standardized research training experiences for undergraduates, with a focus on developing personnel to assist in accurate data collection and creating a hospitable work environment for students, post-doctoral fellows, staff, and faculty. There are many benefits of having undergraduate research assistants in your lab such as showing you are invested in training students, building your lab, and bringing in new ideas to the lab. When recruiting undergrad RAs, your university may have systems in place to assign these students to your lab or you can have open recruitment usually by advertisement or word of mouth. You should also have an application for students to apply, screening criteria for applicants, and an interview process. Once RAs have been hired, you should set clear expectations from the beginning and they should be outlined in a contract that the RA signs. You should have documents outlining the lab processes that RAs can go through and you can also utilize advanced RAs to help train new ones. It is good to set a hours per week expectation for RAs and to have a policy for when they miss scheduled lab time. Give specific tasks to RAs and have regular meetings to discuss tasks and lab duties. It is good to provide a range of skills and experiences to RAs and to have a benchmark so they have something to work towards. You may want to require a specific commitment to the lab such as 2 semesters to ensure retention in the lab as well as reward good performance with more responsibilities. You should also have clear guidelines for publishing with undergrad RAs and these opportunities should be reserved for RAs who have been in the lab for a while and have shown good performance. 

Watch the YouTube Recording [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN1Jpg3_5do here]. 

=== '''''Building and Maintaining Research Partnerships with Schools''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Tim Cavell, Ph.D. and Dr. Elizabeth Talbott, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
A key component of research embedded in primary and secondary schools involves building long-term partnerships with key stakeholders in the school system. These stakeholders include administrators, teachers, classroom aids, school staff, and parents. In this workshop, Drs. Cavell and Talbott provide concrete advice on how to build lasting partnerships with school systems in an effort to conduct research with meaningful impacts on these systems. Schools are important and useful settings to conduct research in since they serve all children from pre-k to 21 years old. When thinking about partnering with a school for research, it is important to consider the culture and history of the school, the current events in the district, the geography of the schools you would like to partner with, and the district's needs. Before trying to partner with a school, you should familiarize yourself with the relationship the school may already have with researchers and whether your project would be better served in another community such as schools that primarily serve underrepresented students. You should also determine who has the authority to greenlight or stop your project and should contact that individual. Sometimes it is helpful to get a referral from someone who has a good relationship with that school or district. It is usually best to start with a phone call when trying to make contact. You should have an initial ask prepared and be ready to play the long game. It can be helpful to have the school identify a point of contact for you so you know who to communicate with. When thinking about conducting research in schools you should consider some key aspects of what will be required of schools. Your research should try to require little if any work from school staff, have minimal disruption to instructional time, be valuable to the teachers and staff, require minimal space in the school for your research team to conduct their work, among others. Obtaining consent is a very important aspect to conducting research in schools and you should think about how to best obtain it. Think about how you want to collect the data in schools considering both personnel needed and the measures you will use. Lastly, prepare your graduate students to conduct research in schools using your knowledge from working with schools.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LxkQ6X0aqQ here]. 

=== '''''Getting Your First Grant''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Deborah Drabick, Ph.D. and Dr. Katie Ehrlich, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting your first grant as a Ph.D. can appear on the surface to be a daunting task, with many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Drs. Drabick and Ehrlich leverage years of experience with extramural funding to explain the grant submission process, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful applications via multiple post-Ph.D. mechanisms, including project grants and K Series applications. First, they cover why it is valuable to apply for a training grant. These reasons include gaining opportunities that may not otherwise be available, getting additional mentorship, have protected research time, and career development. There are several types of funding grants to choose from including NIH T series, K series, F series, and R series, the National Science Foundation training grant, and grants from private agencies. Depending on which grant type you choose, there are different requirements you need to consider. When telling your story in a grant application, you should build off of your graduate school focus. You should also discuss what is missing/unresolved in the field, discuss how you will learn from this research, and how the goal of the grant is relevant for the field. Consider the big trends in the field and how your work could fill the gaps. In order to make your application successful, you will need to show some preliminary data usually in the form of a pilot project. You will typically need a &quot;track record&quot; i.e., few publications in your area of interest in order for your application to be successful. Next, consider whether or not your need to bring in more senior individuals to the team and what other personnel you will need for the grant. It is important to be clear up front in what you are asking your team members to do. The next step is to formulate the budget. Think about staffing costs, including hiring full time personnel, graduate students, and Co-PIs. Once your application is under review, there are typically 3 reviewers who will rate your application in 5 areas on a scale from 1 to 9. These scores are used to create an overall impact score which are then used to determine who to fund. It is ideal to have multiple grants under review at a time. Once you have written one grant, it is easier to use that as a template and modify for the requirements of other funding agencies. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcYjR9IznGo here]. 

=== '''''Demystifying Academic Job Interviewing''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Kathryn Humphreys and Dr. Jessica Schleider'''

===== Description =====
The academic job interview factors prominently into faculty hiring decisions. It represents a public sample of your program of research and your style of teaching, as well as your critical thinking, responsiveness to feedback, and a whole range of non-specific variables, like your &quot;accessibility,&quot; &quot;collegiality,&quot; or &quot;likeability.&quot; In this workshop, we provide a detailed overview of a winning formula for crafting an outstanding job interview experience, in an effort to minimize the anxiety and maximize the impact associated with your interview visit.

Watch the YouTube Recording of the Workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iZLmNOOIDQ here]. 

=== '''''Preparing a Training Grant: Overview''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Stephen Becker, Ph.D. and Dr. Meghan Miller, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting a training grant involves considering multiple factors that focus on not only a proposed study but also a concrete plan for developing the skills needed to execute this study. By construction, these applications carry many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, we leverage our years of experience with extramural funding to clarify the process of submitting a training grant, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful training grant applications.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qbPoHiAmFk here]. 

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==
=== Jessie Greenlee ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder
* Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Wisonsin-Madson

==== About the award recipient ====
Jessie is a recipient of the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. Jessie completed a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in 2019. Jessie’s research investigates the mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors are associated with mental and physical health disparities in vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in understanding how families promote healthy social and emotional development in individuals with special healthcare needs. Jessie is currently working on several projects aimed at understanding how different sub-system family processes (e.g., marital conflict, co-parenting, parent-child relationship quality) impact outcomes for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Jessie is currently hold a position as an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lafayette College in PA. Learn more about Jessie's work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica&amp;#x20;Greenlee www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica_Greenlee]

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRggTSAhIW0 here].

=== Tyler McFayden ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Development
* Received Ph.D. at Virginia Tech

==== About the award recipient ====
Tyler received the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. She is a current predoctoral clinical intern at the University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill’s (UNC-CH) Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities. Tyler plans to remain at UNC-CH for her postdoctoral training to participate in the NIMH-funded T32 Postdoctoral Research Training Program focusing on intellectual and developmental disabilities. Tyler attended Virginia Tech’s Clinical and Developmental Psychological doctoral program under the mentorship of Dr. Thomas Ollendick, where she worked in a typically developing infant lab, studying early language development, and an autism lab investigating endophenotypes of social communication. Tyler is particularly interested in how language develops in early infancy and in groups without spoken language (e.g., Deaf/Hard of Hearing and minimally-verbal/partially speaking autistic youth) to best inform social communication interventions. Learn more about Tyler’s work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler&amp;#x20;Mcfayden www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler_Mcfayden] 

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_ebFjTEJXk here].</text>
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      <text bytes="21801" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Father Inclusion, Engagement, Retention, and Positive Outcomes in Child and Adolescent Research''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Greg Fabiano, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Greg Fabiano outlines future directions in the next generation of father-focused studies in the child and adolescent psychology literature, with an emphasis on improving the study of the parameters of inclusion, engagement, retention, and measurement of outcomes.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EogVEgi3n80&amp;feature=youtu.be here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Research and Intervention with Youths in Poverty''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Martha Wadsworth, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Martha Wadsworth integrates theory and empirical findings about understanding and fostering the process of resilience and adaptation in children and families who live in poverty.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj3bgzgXI6g here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Examination of Brain Networks in Neurodevelopmental Disorders''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Lucina Uddin discusses future directions for neuroscience researchers examining brain networks in neurodevelopmental disorders, highlighting gaps in the current literature.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CoSM8C2ucRE here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 4: the Treatment of Youth Mental Health''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Bruce Chorpita, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Bruce Chorpita discusses mental health care systems and presents ideas and examples of methods that may preserve the strengths of the two major paradigms in children’s mental health, evidence-based treatments, and individualized care models, but that also have the potential to extend their applicability and impact.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnKkc2iyeLo here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== '''''Selecting Mentors when Applying to Doctoral Programs''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Applying to doctoral programs marks an important life milestone for you and other undergraduate majors and post-baccalaureate trainees. Importantly, some of the considerations for choosing where to receive undergraduate training (e.g., faculty-to-student ratio, quality of institution) take a &quot;back seat&quot; to the key factor in doctoral training that most impacts your career: Identifying the person who will serve as your mentor. Undergraduate programs rarely offer formal instruction in choosing doctoral mentors, and some of the factors you might consider could vary from year-to-year and by mentor. Overall, when selecting a mentor you should consider who fits your needs and learning style. Because the quality of your doctoral training is mostly impacted by your mentor, you should think about who is going to fit best with your goals. When searching for mentors to apply to, you should first identify researchers who study topics similar to your interests. You can do this by reading research articles and looking for ones that align with your &quot;burning question&quot;. Other factors you should consider when selecting mentors include: the size of their lab, the time they devote to their mentees, the area in which their research encompasses, and the resources they have available. To determine what to look for in these factors, it is important to know your values and learning style. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXpO0FqAY9E here].

=== '''''Responding to Peer Review Commentary''''' ===
'''Presented by''' '''Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Publishing articles involves submitting scholarly manuscripts to peer-reviewed journals. A key component of publishing manuscripts involves receiving commentary about your work from peers in your field, and satisfactorily responding to such commentary. Yet, researchers rarely receive formal training on responding to peer review commentary. The first thing to know when submitting an article for peer review is that it can take several months to get feedback and the feedback among reviewers hardly converges. However, the good news is, typically if you receive a revise and resubmit, revise accordingly and resubmit the paper, the finished product will likely be of higher quality than when you first submitted for publication. When submitting a paper for publication, you should consider which journal you believe will give you a fair review and you should submit 2-4 reviewers in your cover letter that you think have the expertise to review your work. Once you get your decision from peer-review, you should wait a few days before working on revisions and/or responding. Next you should itemize the decision letter creating a to-do list of the revisions (this will become a template for the cover letter you send in response). If there are suggested revisions you cannot do, you need a solid reason as to why you are unable to and you should cite this if possible. If you need help, it is okay to reach out to the editor and/or colleagues for support and advice. If reviewers give conflicting advice, you should give a reason as to why you went with one reviewer's suggestion over the others. Lastly, you can sometimes get a reviewer who is particularly mean, in that case you should let the editor know about the review and if you consistently have a hard time with a reviewer, you can let the editor know in your cover letter that you wish for the person to not review your paper.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCIRuzD5sY here].

=== '''''Strategies for Developing a Research Program''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Research isn’t all elegant study designs, accurate data collection, and sophisticated equations. Researchers must also communicate their ideas and findings with scholarly audiences, and do so effectively. These audiences are no different from those found at your local theater: They understand each paper you write or talk you deliver insofar as it tells a compelling story. Yet, your storytelling doesn’t stop with a single paper or talk. Scholarly records span years and multiple pieces of work. Successful researchers learn to synthesize their records to tell a larger story: a research program. Finding your &quot;burning question&quot; will help when developing a research program. This can then be used to build the theoretical framework to which you begin to answer your &quot;burning question&quot;. The goal of developing a research program should be similar to that of making a film, you want to elicit positive emotion in your audience and make them think. The first three papers you write in your lab should have a role in building your research program and connect back to your &quot;burning question&quot;. Each paper should propel your next paper in this &quot;trilogy&quot; and the third paper should bring you back to the beginning one. Tailored to the lives of early career researchers, these tools reveal keen insights into nailing the job talk that launches your career.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRRvMJiI7zs here].

=== '''''New Models of Collaboration and Dissemination''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eric Youngstrom, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Wikipedia and Wikiversity offer powerful tools for disseminating knowledge to diverse audiences, including scientists and other key stakeholders (e.g., parents and policy makers). These tools greatly increase in utility if scientists receive training on how to leverage these tools for disseminating knowledge. In this workshop, Dr. Eric Youngstrom provides attendees with the know-how for using Wikipedia and Wikiversity, with a focus on how these tools help advance the mission of the open science movement. He begins by outlining copyright for open source information including a description of creative commons (CC) licensing that Wiki platforms use. There are several ways to use a CC license one of which is more high tech and involves registering your work on the CC website and the other which involves you placing CC BY 4.0 NAME on your work. Next Dr. Youngstrom describes how to use OSF to promote open access science. Housing materials on OSF allows others to easily access the work you are doing without having to go through paywalls. Lastly, Dr. Youngstrom describes the non-profit, Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) and the work that HGAPS is doing to promote open science. This includes utilizing free platforms such as OSF and Wiki platforms to disseminate information. He concludes with a discussion on the HGAPS Assessment Center and the free assessment resources housed there. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIrVr1RaOc here]. 

=== '''''Tools For Lab Building: Training Undergraduate Research Assistants''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Sarah Racz, Ph.D. and Dr. Yo Jackson, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
For many research teams, undergraduate research assistants (RA) form a core component of their personnel. A key challenge involves not only the varying motivations of these personnel and their ultimate career goals, but also their relative inexperience with research generally. Often, we found ourselves immersing these students in their first research experiences. In this workshop, Dr. Racz and Jackson discuss concrete strategies for providing standardized research training experiences for undergraduates, with a focus on developing personnel to assist in accurate data collection and creating a hospitable work environment for students, post-doctoral fellows, staff, and faculty. There are many benefits of having undergraduate research assistants in your lab such as showing you are invested in training students, building your lab, and bringing in new ideas to the lab. When recruiting undergrad RAs, your university may have systems in place to assign these students to your lab or you can have open recruitment usually by advertisement or word of mouth. You should also have an application for students to apply, screening criteria for applicants, and an interview process. Once RAs have been hired, you should set clear expectations from the beginning and they should be outlined in a contract that the RA signs. You should have documents outlining the lab processes that RAs can go through and you can also utilize advanced RAs to help train new ones. It is good to set a hours per week expectation for RAs and to have a policy for when they miss scheduled lab time. Give specific tasks to RAs and have regular meetings to discuss tasks and lab duties. It is good to provide a range of skills and experiences to RAs and to have a benchmark so they have something to work towards. You may want to require a specific commitment to the lab such as 2 semesters to ensure retention in the lab as well as reward good performance with more responsibilities. You should also have clear guidelines for publishing with undergrad RAs and these opportunities should be reserved for RAs who have been in the lab for a while and have shown good performance. 

Watch the YouTube Recording [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN1Jpg3_5do here]. 

=== '''''Building and Maintaining Research Partnerships with Schools''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Tim Cavell, Ph.D. and Dr. Elizabeth Talbott, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
A key component of research embedded in primary and secondary schools involves building long-term partnerships with key stakeholders in the school system. These stakeholders include administrators, teachers, classroom aids, school staff, and parents. In this workshop, Drs. Cavell and Talbott provide concrete advice on how to build lasting partnerships with school systems in an effort to conduct research with meaningful impacts on these systems. Schools are important and useful settings to conduct research in since they serve all children from pre-k to 21 years old. When thinking about partnering with a school for research, it is important to consider the culture and history of the school, the current events in the district, the geography of the schools you would like to partner with, and the district's needs. Before trying to partner with a school, you should familiarize yourself with the relationship the school may already have with researchers and whether your project would be better served in another community such as schools that primarily serve underrepresented students. You should also determine who has the authority to greenlight or stop your project and should contact that individual. Sometimes it is helpful to get a referral from someone who has a good relationship with that school or district. It is usually best to start with a phone call when trying to make contact. You should have an initial ask prepared and be ready to play the long game. It can be helpful to have the school identify a point of contact for you so you know who to communicate with. When thinking about conducting research in schools you should consider some key aspects of what will be required of schools. Your research should try to require little if any work from school staff, have minimal disruption to instructional time, be valuable to the teachers and staff, require minimal space in the school for your research team to conduct their work, among others. Obtaining consent is a very important aspect to conducting research in schools and you should think about how to best obtain it. Think about how you want to collect the data in schools considering both personnel needed and the measures you will use. Lastly, prepare your graduate students to conduct research in schools using your knowledge from working with schools.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LxkQ6X0aqQ here]. 

=== '''''Getting Your First Grant''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Deborah Drabick, Ph.D. and Dr. Katie Ehrlich, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting your first grant as a Ph.D. can appear on the surface to be a daunting task, with many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Drs. Drabick and Ehrlich leverage years of experience with extramural funding to explain the grant submission process, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful applications via multiple post-Ph.D. mechanisms, including project grants and K Series applications. First, they cover why it is valuable to apply for a training grant. These reasons include gaining opportunities that may not otherwise be available, getting additional mentorship, have protected research time, and career development. There are several types of funding grants to choose from including NIH T series, K series, F series, and R series, the National Science Foundation training grant, and grants from private agencies. Depending on which grant type you choose, there are different requirements you need to consider. When telling your story in a grant application, you should build off of your graduate school focus. You should also discuss what is missing/unresolved in the field, discuss how you will learn from this research, and how the goal of the grant is relevant for the field. Consider the big trends in the field and how your work could fill the gaps. In order to make your application successful, you will need to show some preliminary data usually in the form of a pilot project. You will typically need a &quot;track record&quot; i.e., few publications in your area of interest in order for your application to be successful. Next, consider whether or not your need to bring in more senior individuals to the team and what other personnel you will need for the grant. It is important to be clear up front in what you are asking your team members to do. The next step is to formulate the budget. Think about staffing costs, including hiring full time personnel, graduate students, and Co-PIs. Once your application is under review, there are typically 3 reviewers who will rate your application in 5 areas on a scale from 1 to 9. These scores are used to create an overall impact score which are then used to determine who to fund. It is ideal to have multiple grants under review at a time. Once you have written one grant, it is easier to use that as a template and modify for the requirements of other funding agencies. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcYjR9IznGo here]. 

=== '''''Demystifying Academic Job Interviewing''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Kathryn Humphreys and Dr. Jessica Schleider'''

===== Description =====
The academic job interview factors prominently into faculty hiring decisions. It represents a public sample of your program of research and your style of teaching, as well as your critical thinking, responsiveness to feedback, and a whole range of non-specific variables, like your &quot;accessibility,&quot; &quot;collegiality,&quot; or &quot;likeability.&quot; Typically the academic job market &quot;opens up&quot; in June and July with applications being due September-December. The next stages involve screening interviews and then on-campus interviews with job offers, negotiations, and decisions happening December through April. In your application package, you will usually have a research statement, teaching statement, diversity statement, CV, cover letter, and references. To prepare for a interviews and job talks, you should attend as many of these as possible during graduate school, you should also research the institution and department in which you are applying to, and practice responses to questions they may ask. The screening interview is typically brief and standardized across candidates. 

Watch the YouTube Recording of the Workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iZLmNOOIDQ here]. 

=== '''''Preparing a Training Grant: Overview''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Stephen Becker, Ph.D. and Dr. Meghan Miller, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting a training grant involves considering multiple factors that focus on not only a proposed study but also a concrete plan for developing the skills needed to execute this study. By construction, these applications carry many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, we leverage our years of experience with extramural funding to clarify the process of submitting a training grant, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful training grant applications.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qbPoHiAmFk here]. 

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==
=== Jessie Greenlee ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder
* Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Wisonsin-Madson

==== About the award recipient ====
Jessie is a recipient of the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. Jessie completed a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in 2019. Jessie’s research investigates the mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors are associated with mental and physical health disparities in vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in understanding how families promote healthy social and emotional development in individuals with special healthcare needs. Jessie is currently working on several projects aimed at understanding how different sub-system family processes (e.g., marital conflict, co-parenting, parent-child relationship quality) impact outcomes for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Jessie is currently hold a position as an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lafayette College in PA. Learn more about Jessie's work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica&amp;#x20;Greenlee www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica_Greenlee]

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRggTSAhIW0 here].

=== Tyler McFayden ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Development
* Received Ph.D. at Virginia Tech

==== About the award recipient ====
Tyler received the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. She is a current predoctoral clinical intern at the University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill’s (UNC-CH) Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities. Tyler plans to remain at UNC-CH for her postdoctoral training to participate in the NIMH-funded T32 Postdoctoral Research Training Program focusing on intellectual and developmental disabilities. Tyler attended Virginia Tech’s Clinical and Developmental Psychological doctoral program under the mentorship of Dr. Thomas Ollendick, where she worked in a typically developing infant lab, studying early language development, and an autism lab investigating endophenotypes of social communication. Tyler is particularly interested in how language develops in early infancy and in groups without spoken language (e.g., Deaf/Hard of Hearing and minimally-verbal/partially speaking autistic youth) to best inform social communication interventions. Learn more about Tyler’s work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler&amp;#x20;Mcfayden www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler_Mcfayden] 

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_ebFjTEJXk here].</text>
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      <text bytes="22562" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Father Inclusion, Engagement, Retention, and Positive Outcomes in Child and Adolescent Research''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Greg Fabiano, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Greg Fabiano outlines future directions in the next generation of father-focused studies in the child and adolescent psychology literature, with an emphasis on improving the study of the parameters of inclusion, engagement, retention, and measurement of outcomes.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EogVEgi3n80&amp;feature=youtu.be here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Research and Intervention with Youths in Poverty''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Martha Wadsworth, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Martha Wadsworth integrates theory and empirical findings about understanding and fostering the process of resilience and adaptation in children and families who live in poverty.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj3bgzgXI6g here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Examination of Brain Networks in Neurodevelopmental Disorders''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Lucina Uddin discusses future directions for neuroscience researchers examining brain networks in neurodevelopmental disorders, highlighting gaps in the current literature.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CoSM8C2ucRE here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 4: the Treatment of Youth Mental Health''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Bruce Chorpita, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Bruce Chorpita discusses mental health care systems and presents ideas and examples of methods that may preserve the strengths of the two major paradigms in children’s mental health, evidence-based treatments, and individualized care models, but that also have the potential to extend their applicability and impact.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnKkc2iyeLo here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== '''''Selecting Mentors when Applying to Doctoral Programs''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Applying to doctoral programs marks an important life milestone for you and other undergraduate majors and post-baccalaureate trainees. Importantly, some of the considerations for choosing where to receive undergraduate training (e.g., faculty-to-student ratio, quality of institution) take a &quot;back seat&quot; to the key factor in doctoral training that most impacts your career: Identifying the person who will serve as your mentor. Undergraduate programs rarely offer formal instruction in choosing doctoral mentors, and some of the factors you might consider could vary from year-to-year and by mentor. Overall, when selecting a mentor you should consider who fits your needs and learning style. Because the quality of your doctoral training is mostly impacted by your mentor, you should think about who is going to fit best with your goals. When searching for mentors to apply to, you should first identify researchers who study topics similar to your interests. You can do this by reading research articles and looking for ones that align with your &quot;burning question&quot;. Other factors you should consider when selecting mentors include: the size of their lab, the time they devote to their mentees, the area in which their research encompasses, and the resources they have available. To determine what to look for in these factors, it is important to know your values and learning style. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXpO0FqAY9E here].

=== '''''Responding to Peer Review Commentary''''' ===
'''Presented by''' '''Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Publishing articles involves submitting scholarly manuscripts to peer-reviewed journals. A key component of publishing manuscripts involves receiving commentary about your work from peers in your field, and satisfactorily responding to such commentary. Yet, researchers rarely receive formal training on responding to peer review commentary. The first thing to know when submitting an article for peer review is that it can take several months to get feedback and the feedback among reviewers hardly converges. However, the good news is, typically if you receive a revise and resubmit, revise accordingly and resubmit the paper, the finished product will likely be of higher quality than when you first submitted for publication. When submitting a paper for publication, you should consider which journal you believe will give you a fair review and you should submit 2-4 reviewers in your cover letter that you think have the expertise to review your work. Once you get your decision from peer-review, you should wait a few days before working on revisions and/or responding. Next you should itemize the decision letter creating a to-do list of the revisions (this will become a template for the cover letter you send in response). If there are suggested revisions you cannot do, you need a solid reason as to why you are unable to and you should cite this if possible. If you need help, it is okay to reach out to the editor and/or colleagues for support and advice. If reviewers give conflicting advice, you should give a reason as to why you went with one reviewer's suggestion over the others. Lastly, you can sometimes get a reviewer who is particularly mean, in that case you should let the editor know about the review and if you consistently have a hard time with a reviewer, you can let the editor know in your cover letter that you wish for the person to not review your paper.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCIRuzD5sY here].

=== '''''Strategies for Developing a Research Program''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Research isn’t all elegant study designs, accurate data collection, and sophisticated equations. Researchers must also communicate their ideas and findings with scholarly audiences, and do so effectively. These audiences are no different from those found at your local theater: They understand each paper you write or talk you deliver insofar as it tells a compelling story. Yet, your storytelling doesn’t stop with a single paper or talk. Scholarly records span years and multiple pieces of work. Successful researchers learn to synthesize their records to tell a larger story: a research program. Finding your &quot;burning question&quot; will help when developing a research program. This can then be used to build the theoretical framework to which you begin to answer your &quot;burning question&quot;. The goal of developing a research program should be similar to that of making a film, you want to elicit positive emotion in your audience and make them think. The first three papers you write in your lab should have a role in building your research program and connect back to your &quot;burning question&quot;. Each paper should propel your next paper in this &quot;trilogy&quot; and the third paper should bring you back to the beginning one. Tailored to the lives of early career researchers, these tools reveal keen insights into nailing the job talk that launches your career.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRRvMJiI7zs here].

=== '''''New Models of Collaboration and Dissemination''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eric Youngstrom, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Wikipedia and Wikiversity offer powerful tools for disseminating knowledge to diverse audiences, including scientists and other key stakeholders (e.g., parents and policy makers). These tools greatly increase in utility if scientists receive training on how to leverage these tools for disseminating knowledge. In this workshop, Dr. Eric Youngstrom provides attendees with the know-how for using Wikipedia and Wikiversity, with a focus on how these tools help advance the mission of the open science movement. He begins by outlining copyright for open source information including a description of creative commons (CC) licensing that Wiki platforms use. There are several ways to use a CC license one of which is more high tech and involves registering your work on the CC website and the other which involves you placing CC BY 4.0 NAME on your work. Next Dr. Youngstrom describes how to use OSF to promote open access science. Housing materials on OSF allows others to easily access the work you are doing without having to go through paywalls. Lastly, Dr. Youngstrom describes the non-profit, Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) and the work that HGAPS is doing to promote open science. This includes utilizing free platforms such as OSF and Wiki platforms to disseminate information. He concludes with a discussion on the HGAPS Assessment Center and the free assessment resources housed there. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIrVr1RaOc here]. 

=== '''''Tools For Lab Building: Training Undergraduate Research Assistants''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Sarah Racz, Ph.D. and Dr. Yo Jackson, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
For many research teams, undergraduate research assistants (RA) form a core component of their personnel. A key challenge involves not only the varying motivations of these personnel and their ultimate career goals, but also their relative inexperience with research generally. Often, we found ourselves immersing these students in their first research experiences. In this workshop, Dr. Racz and Jackson discuss concrete strategies for providing standardized research training experiences for undergraduates, with a focus on developing personnel to assist in accurate data collection and creating a hospitable work environment for students, post-doctoral fellows, staff, and faculty. There are many benefits of having undergraduate research assistants in your lab such as showing you are invested in training students, building your lab, and bringing in new ideas to the lab. When recruiting undergrad RAs, your university may have systems in place to assign these students to your lab or you can have open recruitment usually by advertisement or word of mouth. You should also have an application for students to apply, screening criteria for applicants, and an interview process. Once RAs have been hired, you should set clear expectations from the beginning and they should be outlined in a contract that the RA signs. You should have documents outlining the lab processes that RAs can go through and you can also utilize advanced RAs to help train new ones. It is good to set a hours per week expectation for RAs and to have a policy for when they miss scheduled lab time. Give specific tasks to RAs and have regular meetings to discuss tasks and lab duties. It is good to provide a range of skills and experiences to RAs and to have a benchmark so they have something to work towards. You may want to require a specific commitment to the lab such as 2 semesters to ensure retention in the lab as well as reward good performance with more responsibilities. You should also have clear guidelines for publishing with undergrad RAs and these opportunities should be reserved for RAs who have been in the lab for a while and have shown good performance. 

Watch the YouTube Recording [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN1Jpg3_5do here]. 

=== '''''Building and Maintaining Research Partnerships with Schools''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Tim Cavell, Ph.D. and Dr. Elizabeth Talbott, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
A key component of research embedded in primary and secondary schools involves building long-term partnerships with key stakeholders in the school system. These stakeholders include administrators, teachers, classroom aids, school staff, and parents. In this workshop, Drs. Cavell and Talbott provide concrete advice on how to build lasting partnerships with school systems in an effort to conduct research with meaningful impacts on these systems. Schools are important and useful settings to conduct research in since they serve all children from pre-k to 21 years old. When thinking about partnering with a school for research, it is important to consider the culture and history of the school, the current events in the district, the geography of the schools you would like to partner with, and the district's needs. Before trying to partner with a school, you should familiarize yourself with the relationship the school may already have with researchers and whether your project would be better served in another community such as schools that primarily serve underrepresented students. You should also determine who has the authority to greenlight or stop your project and should contact that individual. Sometimes it is helpful to get a referral from someone who has a good relationship with that school or district. It is usually best to start with a phone call when trying to make contact. You should have an initial ask prepared and be ready to play the long game. It can be helpful to have the school identify a point of contact for you so you know who to communicate with. When thinking about conducting research in schools you should consider some key aspects of what will be required of schools. Your research should try to require little if any work from school staff, have minimal disruption to instructional time, be valuable to the teachers and staff, require minimal space in the school for your research team to conduct their work, among others. Obtaining consent is a very important aspect to conducting research in schools and you should think about how to best obtain it. Think about how you want to collect the data in schools considering both personnel needed and the measures you will use. Lastly, prepare your graduate students to conduct research in schools using your knowledge from working with schools.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LxkQ6X0aqQ here]. 

=== '''''Getting Your First Grant''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Deborah Drabick, Ph.D. and Dr. Katie Ehrlich, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting your first grant as a Ph.D. can appear on the surface to be a daunting task, with many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Drs. Drabick and Ehrlich leverage years of experience with extramural funding to explain the grant submission process, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful applications via multiple post-Ph.D. mechanisms, including project grants and K Series applications. First, they cover why it is valuable to apply for a training grant. These reasons include gaining opportunities that may not otherwise be available, getting additional mentorship, have protected research time, and career development. There are several types of funding grants to choose from including NIH T series, K series, F series, and R series, the National Science Foundation training grant, and grants from private agencies. Depending on which grant type you choose, there are different requirements you need to consider. When telling your story in a grant application, you should build off of your graduate school focus. You should also discuss what is missing/unresolved in the field, discuss how you will learn from this research, and how the goal of the grant is relevant for the field. Consider the big trends in the field and how your work could fill the gaps. In order to make your application successful, you will need to show some preliminary data usually in the form of a pilot project. You will typically need a &quot;track record&quot; i.e., few publications in your area of interest in order for your application to be successful. Next, consider whether or not your need to bring in more senior individuals to the team and what other personnel you will need for the grant. It is important to be clear up front in what you are asking your team members to do. The next step is to formulate the budget. Think about staffing costs, including hiring full time personnel, graduate students, and Co-PIs. Once your application is under review, there are typically 3 reviewers who will rate your application in 5 areas on a scale from 1 to 9. These scores are used to create an overall impact score which are then used to determine who to fund. It is ideal to have multiple grants under review at a time. Once you have written one grant, it is easier to use that as a template and modify for the requirements of other funding agencies. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcYjR9IznGo here]. 

=== '''''Demystifying Academic Job Interviewing''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Kathryn Humphreys and Dr. Jessica Schleider'''

===== Description =====
The academic job interview factors prominently into faculty hiring decisions. It represents a public sample of your program of research and your style of teaching, as well as your critical thinking, responsiveness to feedback, and a whole range of non-specific variables, like your &quot;accessibility,&quot; &quot;collegiality,&quot; or &quot;likeability.&quot; Typically the academic job market &quot;opens up&quot; in June and July with applications being due September-December. The next stages involve screening interviews and then on-campus interviews with job offers, negotiations, and decisions happening December through April. In your application package, you will usually have a research statement, teaching statement, diversity statement, CV, cover letter, and references. To prepare for a interviews and job talks, you should attend as many of these as possible during graduate school, you should also research the institution and department in which you are applying to, and practice responses to questions they may ask. The screening interview is typically brief and standardized across candidates. When in interviews, remember to keep your answers concise as time is usually short. Be prepared to answer questions about your research, don't be afraid to ask clarifying questions, and remember to show enthusiasm for the job. Always send a thank you after interviews. If invited fro a job talk, make sure to practice with people in and outside of your field. Familiarize yourself with the faculty you will be meeting and their research. Make sure to ask questions that show you are interested, but be careful not to come across as arrogant. Think about how your work might connect with other faculty in the department. Be prepared to answer personal questions and know what you are/aren't willing to disclose and how you will handle those types of questions.  

Watch the YouTube Recording of the Workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iZLmNOOIDQ here]. 

=== '''''Preparing a Training Grant: Overview''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Stephen Becker, Ph.D. and Dr. Meghan Miller, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting a training grant involves considering multiple factors that focus on not only a proposed study but also a concrete plan for developing the skills needed to execute this study. By construction, these applications carry many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, we leverage our years of experience with extramural funding to clarify the process of submitting a training grant, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful training grant applications.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qbPoHiAmFk here]. 

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==
=== Jessie Greenlee ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder
* Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Wisonsin-Madson

==== About the award recipient ====
Jessie is a recipient of the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. Jessie completed a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in 2019. Jessie’s research investigates the mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors are associated with mental and physical health disparities in vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in understanding how families promote healthy social and emotional development in individuals with special healthcare needs. Jessie is currently working on several projects aimed at understanding how different sub-system family processes (e.g., marital conflict, co-parenting, parent-child relationship quality) impact outcomes for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Jessie is currently hold a position as an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lafayette College in PA. Learn more about Jessie's work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica&amp;#x20;Greenlee www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica_Greenlee]

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRggTSAhIW0 here].

=== Tyler McFayden ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Development
* Received Ph.D. at Virginia Tech

==== About the award recipient ====
Tyler received the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. She is a current predoctoral clinical intern at the University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill’s (UNC-CH) Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities. Tyler plans to remain at UNC-CH for her postdoctoral training to participate in the NIMH-funded T32 Postdoctoral Research Training Program focusing on intellectual and developmental disabilities. Tyler attended Virginia Tech’s Clinical and Developmental Psychological doctoral program under the mentorship of Dr. Thomas Ollendick, where she worked in a typically developing infant lab, studying early language development, and an autism lab investigating endophenotypes of social communication. Tyler is particularly interested in how language develops in early infancy and in groups without spoken language (e.g., Deaf/Hard of Hearing and minimally-verbal/partially speaking autistic youth) to best inform social communication interventions. Learn more about Tyler’s work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler&amp;#x20;Mcfayden www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler_Mcfayden] 

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_ebFjTEJXk here].</text>
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      <text bytes="23847" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Father Inclusion, Engagement, Retention, and Positive Outcomes in Child and Adolescent Research''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Greg Fabiano, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Greg Fabiano outlines future directions in the next generation of father-focused studies in the child and adolescent psychology literature, with an emphasis on improving the study of the parameters of inclusion, engagement, retention, and measurement of outcomes.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EogVEgi3n80&amp;feature=youtu.be here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Research and Intervention with Youths in Poverty''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Martha Wadsworth, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Martha Wadsworth integrates theory and empirical findings about understanding and fostering the process of resilience and adaptation in children and families who live in poverty.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mj3bgzgXI6g here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Examination of Brain Networks in Neurodevelopmental Disorders''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Lucina Uddin discusses future directions for neuroscience researchers examining brain networks in neurodevelopmental disorders, highlighting gaps in the current literature.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CoSM8C2ucRE here]

=== '''''Future Directions Address 4: the Treatment of Youth Mental Health''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Bruce Chorpita, Ph.D.'''

====Description====
In this address, Dr. Bruce Chorpita discusses mental health care systems and presents ideas and examples of methods that may preserve the strengths of the two major paradigms in children’s mental health, evidence-based treatments, and individualized care models, but that also have the potential to extend their applicability and impact.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address enter link [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bnKkc2iyeLo here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== '''''Selecting Mentors when Applying to Doctoral Programs''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Applying to doctoral programs marks an important life milestone for you and other undergraduate majors and post-baccalaureate trainees. Importantly, some of the considerations for choosing where to receive undergraduate training (e.g., faculty-to-student ratio, quality of institution) take a &quot;back seat&quot; to the key factor in doctoral training that most impacts your career: Identifying the person who will serve as your mentor. Undergraduate programs rarely offer formal instruction in choosing doctoral mentors, and some of the factors you might consider could vary from year-to-year and by mentor. Overall, when selecting a mentor you should consider who fits your needs and learning style. Because the quality of your doctoral training is mostly impacted by your mentor, you should think about who is going to fit best with your goals. When searching for mentors to apply to, you should first identify researchers who study topics similar to your interests. You can do this by reading research articles and looking for ones that align with your &quot;burning question&quot;. Other factors you should consider when selecting mentors include: the size of their lab, the time they devote to their mentees, the area in which their research encompasses, and the resources they have available. To determine what to look for in these factors, it is important to know your values and learning style. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OXpO0FqAY9E here].

=== '''''Responding to Peer Review Commentary''''' ===
'''Presented by''' '''Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Publishing articles involves submitting scholarly manuscripts to peer-reviewed journals. A key component of publishing manuscripts involves receiving commentary about your work from peers in your field, and satisfactorily responding to such commentary. Yet, researchers rarely receive formal training on responding to peer review commentary. The first thing to know when submitting an article for peer review is that it can take several months to get feedback and the feedback among reviewers hardly converges. However, the good news is, typically if you receive a revise and resubmit, revise accordingly and resubmit the paper, the finished product will likely be of higher quality than when you first submitted for publication. When submitting a paper for publication, you should consider which journal you believe will give you a fair review and you should submit 2-4 reviewers in your cover letter that you think have the expertise to review your work. Once you get your decision from peer-review, you should wait a few days before working on revisions and/or responding. Next you should itemize the decision letter creating a to-do list of the revisions (this will become a template for the cover letter you send in response). If there are suggested revisions you cannot do, you need a solid reason as to why you are unable to and you should cite this if possible. If you need help, it is okay to reach out to the editor and/or colleagues for support and advice. If reviewers give conflicting advice, you should give a reason as to why you went with one reviewer's suggestion over the others. Lastly, you can sometimes get a reviewer who is particularly mean, in that case you should let the editor know about the review and if you consistently have a hard time with a reviewer, you can let the editor know in your cover letter that you wish for the person to not review your paper.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJCIRuzD5sY here].

=== '''''Strategies for Developing a Research Program''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Research isn’t all elegant study designs, accurate data collection, and sophisticated equations. Researchers must also communicate their ideas and findings with scholarly audiences, and do so effectively. These audiences are no different from those found at your local theater: They understand each paper you write or talk you deliver insofar as it tells a compelling story. Yet, your storytelling doesn’t stop with a single paper or talk. Scholarly records span years and multiple pieces of work. Successful researchers learn to synthesize their records to tell a larger story: a research program. Finding your &quot;burning question&quot; will help when developing a research program. This can then be used to build the theoretical framework to which you begin to answer your &quot;burning question&quot;. The goal of developing a research program should be similar to that of making a film, you want to elicit positive emotion in your audience and make them think. The first three papers you write in your lab should have a role in building your research program and connect back to your &quot;burning question&quot;. Each paper should propel your next paper in this &quot;trilogy&quot; and the third paper should bring you back to the beginning one. Tailored to the lives of early career researchers, these tools reveal keen insights into nailing the job talk that launches your career.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HRRvMJiI7zs here].

=== '''''New Models of Collaboration and Dissemination''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eric Youngstrom, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Wikipedia and Wikiversity offer powerful tools for disseminating knowledge to diverse audiences, including scientists and other key stakeholders (e.g., parents and policy makers). These tools greatly increase in utility if scientists receive training on how to leverage these tools for disseminating knowledge. In this workshop, Dr. Eric Youngstrom provides attendees with the know-how for using Wikipedia and Wikiversity, with a focus on how these tools help advance the mission of the open science movement. He begins by outlining copyright for open source information including a description of creative commons (CC) licensing that Wiki platforms use. There are several ways to use a CC license one of which is more high tech and involves registering your work on the CC website and the other which involves you placing CC BY 4.0 NAME on your work. Next Dr. Youngstrom describes how to use OSF to promote open access science. Housing materials on OSF allows others to easily access the work you are doing without having to go through paywalls. Lastly, Dr. Youngstrom describes the non-profit, Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) and the work that HGAPS is doing to promote open science. This includes utilizing free platforms such as OSF and Wiki platforms to disseminate information. He concludes with a discussion on the HGAPS Assessment Center and the free assessment resources housed there. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the video [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hIrVr1RaOc here]. 

=== '''''Tools For Lab Building: Training Undergraduate Research Assistants''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Sarah Racz, Ph.D. and Dr. Yo Jackson, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
For many research teams, undergraduate research assistants (RA) form a core component of their personnel. A key challenge involves not only the varying motivations of these personnel and their ultimate career goals, but also their relative inexperience with research generally. Often, we found ourselves immersing these students in their first research experiences. In this workshop, Dr. Racz and Jackson discuss concrete strategies for providing standardized research training experiences for undergraduates, with a focus on developing personnel to assist in accurate data collection and creating a hospitable work environment for students, post-doctoral fellows, staff, and faculty. There are many benefits of having undergraduate research assistants in your lab such as showing you are invested in training students, building your lab, and bringing in new ideas to the lab. When recruiting undergrad RAs, your university may have systems in place to assign these students to your lab or you can have open recruitment usually by advertisement or word of mouth. You should also have an application for students to apply, screening criteria for applicants, and an interview process. Once RAs have been hired, you should set clear expectations from the beginning and they should be outlined in a contract that the RA signs. You should have documents outlining the lab processes that RAs can go through and you can also utilize advanced RAs to help train new ones. It is good to set a hours per week expectation for RAs and to have a policy for when they miss scheduled lab time. Give specific tasks to RAs and have regular meetings to discuss tasks and lab duties. It is good to provide a range of skills and experiences to RAs and to have a benchmark so they have something to work towards. You may want to require a specific commitment to the lab such as 2 semesters to ensure retention in the lab as well as reward good performance with more responsibilities. You should also have clear guidelines for publishing with undergrad RAs and these opportunities should be reserved for RAs who have been in the lab for a while and have shown good performance. 

Watch the YouTube Recording [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pN1Jpg3_5do here]. 

=== '''''Building and Maintaining Research Partnerships with Schools''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Tim Cavell, Ph.D. and Dr. Elizabeth Talbott, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
A key component of research embedded in primary and secondary schools involves building long-term partnerships with key stakeholders in the school system. These stakeholders include administrators, teachers, classroom aids, school staff, and parents. In this workshop, Drs. Cavell and Talbott provide concrete advice on how to build lasting partnerships with school systems in an effort to conduct research with meaningful impacts on these systems. Schools are important and useful settings to conduct research in since they serve all children from pre-k to 21 years old. When thinking about partnering with a school for research, it is important to consider the culture and history of the school, the current events in the district, the geography of the schools you would like to partner with, and the district's needs. Before trying to partner with a school, you should familiarize yourself with the relationship the school may already have with researchers and whether your project would be better served in another community such as schools that primarily serve underrepresented students. You should also determine who has the authority to greenlight or stop your project and should contact that individual. Sometimes it is helpful to get a referral from someone who has a good relationship with that school or district. It is usually best to start with a phone call when trying to make contact. You should have an initial ask prepared and be ready to play the long game. It can be helpful to have the school identify a point of contact for you so you know who to communicate with. When thinking about conducting research in schools you should consider some key aspects of what will be required of schools. Your research should try to require little if any work from school staff, have minimal disruption to instructional time, be valuable to the teachers and staff, require minimal space in the school for your research team to conduct their work, among others. Obtaining consent is a very important aspect to conducting research in schools and you should think about how to best obtain it. Think about how you want to collect the data in schools considering both personnel needed and the measures you will use. Lastly, prepare your graduate students to conduct research in schools using your knowledge from working with schools.

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7LxkQ6X0aqQ here]. 

=== '''''Getting Your First Grant''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Deborah Drabick, Ph.D. and Dr. Katie Ehrlich, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting your first grant as a Ph.D. can appear on the surface to be a daunting task, with many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Drs. Drabick and Ehrlich leverage years of experience with extramural funding to explain the grant submission process, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful applications via multiple post-Ph.D. mechanisms, including project grants and K Series applications. First, they cover why it is valuable to apply for a training grant. These reasons include gaining opportunities that may not otherwise be available, getting additional mentorship, have protected research time, and career development. There are several types of funding grants to choose from including NIH T series, K series, F series, and R series, the National Science Foundation training grant, and grants from private agencies. Depending on which grant type you choose, there are different requirements you need to consider. When telling your story in a grant application, you should build off of your graduate school focus. You should also discuss what is missing/unresolved in the field, discuss how you will learn from this research, and how the goal of the grant is relevant for the field. Consider the big trends in the field and how your work could fill the gaps. In order to make your application successful, you will need to show some preliminary data usually in the form of a pilot project. You will typically need a &quot;track record&quot; i.e., few publications in your area of interest in order for your application to be successful. Next, consider whether or not your need to bring in more senior individuals to the team and what other personnel you will need for the grant. It is important to be clear up front in what you are asking your team members to do. The next step is to formulate the budget. Think about staffing costs, including hiring full time personnel, graduate students, and Co-PIs. Once your application is under review, there are typically 3 reviewers who will rate your application in 5 areas on a scale from 1 to 9. These scores are used to create an overall impact score which are then used to determine who to fund. It is ideal to have multiple grants under review at a time. Once you have written one grant, it is easier to use that as a template and modify for the requirements of other funding agencies. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KcYjR9IznGo here]. 

=== '''''Demystifying Academic Job Interviewing''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Kathryn Humphreys and Dr. Jessica Schleider'''

===== Description =====
The academic job interview factors prominently into faculty hiring decisions. It represents a public sample of your program of research and your style of teaching, as well as your critical thinking, responsiveness to feedback, and a whole range of non-specific variables, like your &quot;accessibility,&quot; &quot;collegiality,&quot; or &quot;likeability.&quot; Typically the academic job market &quot;opens up&quot; in June and July with applications being due September-December. The next stages involve screening interviews and then on-campus interviews with job offers, negotiations, and decisions happening December through April. In your application package, you will usually have a research statement, teaching statement, diversity statement, CV, cover letter, and references. To prepare for a interviews and job talks, you should attend as many of these as possible during graduate school, you should also research the institution and department in which you are applying to, and practice responses to questions they may ask. The screening interview is typically brief and standardized across candidates. When in interviews, remember to keep your answers concise as time is usually short. Be prepared to answer questions about your research, don't be afraid to ask clarifying questions, and remember to show enthusiasm for the job. Always send a thank you after interviews. If invited fro a job talk, make sure to practice with people in and outside of your field. Familiarize yourself with the faculty you will be meeting and their research. Make sure to ask questions that show you are interested, but be careful not to come across as arrogant. Think about how your work might connect with other faculty in the department. Be prepared to answer personal questions and know what you are/aren't willing to disclose and how you will handle those types of questions.  

Watch the YouTube Recording of the Workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8iZLmNOOIDQ here]. 

=== '''''Preparing a Training Grant: Overview''''' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Stephen Becker, Ph.D. and Dr. Meghan Miller, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Submitting a training grant involves considering multiple factors that focus on not only a proposed study but also a concrete plan for developing the skills needed to execute this study. By construction, these applications carry many expectations, requirements, and complicated forms. In this workshop, Dr. Becker and Miller leverage their years of experience with extramural funding to clarify the process of submitting a training grant, and provide attendees with concrete tools for submitting successful training grant applications. There are several reasons to apply to training grants including grant-writing experience, practice applying to a federal funding agency, opportunities gained, additional mentorship and/or consultation, protected time for independent research, and career advancement. The NIH has F and K grants available for training. The National Science Foundation and Institute for Education Services among others also offer training grant opportunities. Make sure to check the requirements for each grant. The presenters go into detail about the anatomy of each grant type in this presentation. When telling your story make sure to build on your graduate school focus, extend to a new area or skill set, discuss the gaps and how your research will allow you to learn, and how the goal/topic is relevant and important to the field. 3 reviewers rate your application on a scale from 1-9 and those scores are used to create an average impact score which is then used for the final decision. Each grant has specific areas in which they rate your application, so make sure to know those areas and address each one in your application. It is best to start on your application early and build a timeline for getting it done. Getting an example of a funded grant can also be helpful. 

Watch the YouTube recording of the workshop [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7qbPoHiAmFk here]. 

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==
=== Jessie Greenlee ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder
* Postdoctoral Fellow at the University of Wisonsin-Madson

==== About the award recipient ====
Jessie is a recipient of the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. Jessie completed a Postdoctoral Fellow at the Waisman Center at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. She received her Ph.D. in Developmental Psychology from Virginia Commonwealth University in 2019. Jessie’s research investigates the mechanisms through which individual and contextual factors are associated with mental and physical health disparities in vulnerable populations. She is particularly interested in understanding how families promote healthy social and emotional development in individuals with special healthcare needs. Jessie is currently working on several projects aimed at understanding how different sub-system family processes (e.g., marital conflict, co-parenting, parent-child relationship quality) impact outcomes for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Jessie is currently hold a position as an Assistant Professor of Psychology at Lafayette College in PA. Learn more about Jessie's work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica&amp;#x20;Greenlee www.researchgate.net/profile/Jessica_Greenlee]

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BRggTSAhIW0 here].

=== Tyler McFayden ===
* Award Winner in the area of Autism Spectrum Disorder and Language Development
* Received Ph.D. at Virginia Tech

==== About the award recipient ====
Tyler received the 2020 Future Directions Launch Award in Autism. She is a current predoctoral clinical intern at the University of North Carolina- Chapel Hill’s (UNC-CH) Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities. Tyler plans to remain at UNC-CH for her postdoctoral training to participate in the NIMH-funded T32 Postdoctoral Research Training Program focusing on intellectual and developmental disabilities. Tyler attended Virginia Tech’s Clinical and Developmental Psychological doctoral program under the mentorship of Dr. Thomas Ollendick, where she worked in a typically developing infant lab, studying early language development, and an autism lab investigating endophenotypes of social communication. Tyler is particularly interested in how language develops in early infancy and in groups without spoken language (e.g., Deaf/Hard of Hearing and minimally-verbal/partially speaking autistic youth) to best inform social communication interventions. Learn more about Tyler’s work here: [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler&amp;#x20;Mcfayden www.researchgate.net/profile/Tyler_Mcfayden] 

Watch the YouTube recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L_ebFjTEJXk here].</text>
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==Overview==
[[wikipedia:Body_image|Body image]] is an important part of our [[wikipedia:Self-concept|self-concept]] (Brichacek et al., 2018). It has been defined as &quot;the picture of our own body which we form in our mind, that is to say the way in which the body appears to ourselves&quot;, but it has been deemed more complex than just a picture in our minds (Selvi, 2018). [[wikipedia:Adolescence|Adolescents]] are more susceptible to having body image issues as this is a time of identity development. However, that isn't to say others won't experience body image issues. For example, research conducted in the [[United States]] showed that 25% of male children/adolescents were concerned about their muscularity and leanness and expressed a desire for having toned and defined muscles (Linardon, 2020). In a study conducted on [[Australia|Australian]] male children/adolescents, 17% were unhappy with their body (Linardon, 2020). Around 50% of young [[American]] females, around the age of 13, were unhappy with their body. This increased to around 80% by the time they were 17 years old (Linardon, 2020).  

Psychological need satisfaction emphasises that there are three innate and universal needs that are crucial for [[motivation]]. These needs include [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#Autonomy|autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#Competence|competence]], and [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#Relatedness|relatedness]] (Orkibi &amp; Ronen, 2017; Selvi, 2018).   

This chapter looks self-determination theory and self-discrepancy theory to explain the relationship between psychological needs and body image.
&lt;div style=&quot;background:hotpink;padding:0.5em 1.0em;{{round corners}}&quot;&gt;'''Focus questions'''&lt;br&gt;
* What psychological theory explains psychological need satisfaction?
* What is the relationship between psychological needs and body image?
* What psychological theory help us understand body image?
&lt;/div&gt;

==Psychological need satisfaction==
Psychological need satisfaction is a mini theory of [[self-determination theory]] and focuses on three needs. These three psychological needs include autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Selvi, 2018) and are classified as organismic needs (Reeve, 2018). The well-being of an organism depends on its environment as it offers resources that promote wellness such as food, water, [[social support]] and intellectual stimulation. When environments are supportive and provide what is needed, organisms thrive (Reeve, 2018), whereas, if the environment is not supportive and thwarts the fulfilment of the needs it can produce [[wikipedia:Maladaption|maladaptive]] behaviour (Selvi, 2018).

&quot;Just as plants need water and sunshine to grow, the satisfaction of the basic psychological needs is deemed essential to psychological thriving&quot; (Vansteenkiste &amp; Ryan, 2013)

[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.png|thumb|373x373px|''Figure 1.'' Self-determination theory: autonomy, competence, and relatedness. ]]

=== Self-determination theory ===
[[Self-determination theory]] (SDT) is a broad theory of human motivation and assumes that individuals have a natural tendency for psychological growth (Thomaes et al., 2017). SDT states that individuals have an innate tendency to adjust their behaviour based on choice and interest, and strive to grow and understand themselves by integrating new experiences, by promoting their [[Need|needs]], [[wikipedia:Desire|desires]], and interests, and by connecting with others and the outside world (Brichacek et al., 2018; Legault, 2017b). 

According to SDT, self-determined motivation results from the fulfilment of three fundamental needs; autonomy, competence, and relatedness (Thøgersen-Ntoumani &amp; Ntoumanis, 2007). 

==== Autonomy ====
[[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is a core psychological need. It can be explained as the sense of [[wikipedia:Freedom_of_choice|free choice]], having control over their behaviours and actions, rather than being coerced or pressured (Orkibi &amp; Ronen, 2017; Selvi, 2018). Everyone will naturally strive to have their need for autonomy to be fulfilled. This is done through being continuously involved in interacting with their environment and receiving the support they need in order to flourish and grow (Legault, 2016). Autonomy-supportive environments enable the development and satisfaction of the need for autonomy through offering them a choice and the opportunity for self-direction (Legault, 2016). 

When individuals produce actions and behaviours that are consistent with their [[Value (personal and cultural)|values]], interests, and beliefs, they experience autonomy as this need has been satisfied (Selvi, 2018). When this need is satisfied, individuals are more interested, engaged and overall happy (Legault, 2016). However, if an individual experiences a lack of autonomy need satisfaction, it produces a lack of control over one's life (Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010). When this need is neglected or thwarted, individuals feel alienated, helpless and in some cases, [[wikipedia:Hostility|hostile]] or destructive (Legault, 2016). 

==== Competence ====
[[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] is another core psychological need. It refers to the need to experience [[wikipedia:Efficacy|efficacy]], mastery and skilfulness (Orkibi &amp; Ronen, 2017). Humans have an innate tendency to develop themselves. This means they strive to interact efficiently with their environment to experience a sense of effectance and enhance their abilities in order to reach their [[Intrinsic motivation|intrinsic]] potential. Competent-supportive environments produce the satisfaction of the need for competence by allowing the individual the opportunity to make, and learn from, mistakes and [[wikipedia:Failure|failures]] (Legault, 2017a). 

When individuals feel effective in performing a task which is important for them and increases their perceived competence, interest and engagement is enhanced which produces increased [[wikipedia:Self-esteem|self-worth]] (Chen et al., 2015; Legault, 2017a). However, if they feel incompetence in their abilities and the environment diminishes their perceived competence, they will feel a sense of failure, and will produce doubts about their efficacy (Legault, 2017a; Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010).

==== Relatedness ====
[[wikipedia:Relatedness|Relatedness]] is the third core psychological need. It refers to experiencing a sense of belonging, closeness, connected to, caring for and being cared for by others, and accepted by important people in their lives (Kluwer et al., 2020; Orkibi &amp; Ronen, 2017). 

When individuals feel connected to others and their [[community]], experience a sense of belonging and closeness, and are accepted, it satisfies their need for relatedness and thus increases well-being and psychological thriving. However, if they are rejected by others and their community and the need is thwarted, individuals may feel excluded, disconnected, [[wikipedia:Isolation|isolated]] and [[wikipedia:Loneliness|lonely]] (Chen et al., 2015). 

==Body image==
Body image is important to our self-concept and is deemed more complex than just a picture in our minds (Brichacek at al., 2018; Selvi, 2018). Body image includes [[wikipedia:Perception|perceptual]], [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognitive]], [[wikipedia:Affect_(psychology)|affective]], and [[wikipedia:Behavior|behavioural]] aspects that interact with cultures, the [[media]], the individual’s [[social environment]], and individual factors. This interaction then leads to [[Positive psychology|positive]] and negative body image (Selvi, 2018). Having a positive body image is typically associated with higher [[self-esteem]], [[wikipedia:Self-acceptance|self-acceptance]], [[wikipedia:Quality_of_life|quality of life]], and healthy behaviours, whilst having a negative body image is associated with many negative consequences, such as body-dissatisfaction, low self-esteem, [[anxiety]], [[wikipedia:Depression_(mood)|depression]], [[Eating Disorders|eating disorders]] and, [[substance abuse]] (Selvi, 2018).

[[File:Pop Magazine Issue 14 Cover.jpg|thumb|320x320px|''Figure 2.'' Pop magazine cover. This shows how body image is reinforced through the media. ]]

Whilst body image is mostly an internal feeling, it can be influenced by external factors. According to the tripartite model, [[wikipedia:Parent|parents]], peers and the [[wikipedia:Mass media|mass media]] provide three pathways through which body image ideals are communicated and reinforced (Selvi, 2018). There are many cultural and societal influences that also effect body image and produce consequences. Most of these consequences include [[Eating Disorders|eating disorders]], body dissatisfaction, and [[mental health]] issues such as [[anxiety]] and [[LMCC/Depression|depression]].

=== Cultural and societal effects ===
Each [[culture]] has their own set of body ideals, and what is classed as [[wikipedia:Interpersonal_attraction|attractive]] varies from culture to culture. These ideals are enforced upon young girls and women; however, [[wikipedia:Male|male]] body image ideals do exist it just has received less attention (Stojcic, Dong, &amp; Ren, 2020). Over the last century, the desired [[wikipedia:Female|female]] body size and shape has changed (Bakhshi, 2011). For example, in the [[Western Culture|Western]] societies' past, the female body was characterised with a full stomach, rounded hips and breasts. This body ideal was desired as it represented [[wikipedia:Wealth|wealth]], [[wikipedia:Prosperity|prosperity]] and [[health]], and a symbol of fertility (Bakhshi, 2011). In modern society, women are now encouraged, but also somewhat expected, to be thin in order to be sexually attractive and successful (Bakhshi, 2011), and men are encouraged to be lean and muscular (Markland &amp; Ingledew, 2007).  

This emphasis on being thin in Western culture may be specific to that culture, as many non-Western cultures see no value in being thin and is often seen as [[wikipedia:Unattractiveness|unattractive]]. For example, [[wikipedia:Chinese_Americans|Chinese Americans]] who identify with more [[wikipedia:Chinese_people|Chinese]] values place more importance on [[psychological]] traits and behavioural manners when defining male and female [[wikipedia:Attractiveness|attractiveness]] (Dotse &amp; Asumeng, 2015). In [[wikipedia:Arab_culture|Arabic cultures]], thinness is considered socially undesirable and larger body sizes are a symbol of [[wikipedia:Fertility|fertility]] and [[wikipedia:Woman|womanhood]] (Bakhshi, 2011). Barroso et al (2010) found that [[wikipedia:African_american|African American]] men and women were more attracted to [[wikipedia:Overweight|overweight]] and larger individuals. Hispanic women value other aspects of their appearance such as style and grooming, which leads to accepting a variety of body shapes and sizes (Bakhshi, 2011). {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|title= Case study [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}

&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
Silverstein et al (1986) conducted a study that looked at the content of 33 television shows and 8 monthly magazines over the course of the year, along with fashion magazine photographs between 1901 and 1980 and films from 1932 to 1980. What they found through this study was that there was a shift toward a slimmer ideal and a greater emphasis was placed on women to be slimmer. Although this analysis was conducted quite a while ago, it still is relevant because this ideal is still very much present today. 

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

[[File:Wikimania 2017 by Ovedc - Wikimania 2017 post-conference - Barbie dolls - 14.jpg|left|thumb|324x324px|''Figure 3.'' Barbie dolls portray these unrealistic beauty standards]]

By adolescence, girls are more concerned with their looks and appearance than boys and consider themselves less attractive than boys do (Sujoldžić &amp; De Lucia, 2007). These feelings of pressure from society are enhanced through the use of [[Social Media|social media]] (Brichacek et al., 2018). Sites such as [[wikipedia:Facebook|Facebook]] and [[wikipedia:Instagram|Instagram]] can be quite powerful for body satisfaction because they are image-based and allow selective construction of an idealised self (Brichacek et al., 2018). [[wikipedia:Female|Females]] learn from a young age that their appearance is a pivotal part of their worth, this is through exposure to [[wikipedia:Barbie|barbie dolls]] which portray these unrealistic beauty ideals expected of girls (Anschutz &amp; Engels, 2010). Therefore it is more important to them to develop this image of themselves that is idealised by others, rather than developing an authentic self (Dorian &amp; Garfinkel, 2002).

=== Consequences ===
'''Body dissatisfaction'''

Body dissatisfaction is defined as &quot;a discrepancy between perceptions of reality vs. those of an ideal and is made up of an individual's own subjective experiences of their appearance&quot; (Bakhshi, 2011). The basic premise of body dissatisfaction lies within a discrepancy between the perceived self and the ideal self (Vartanian, 2012). 

Grabe and Hyde (2006) investigated body dissatisfaction levels among [[wikipedia:Asian_Americans|Asian American]], Black, Hispanic and White women. In regard to White women, they found that their body dissatisfaction levels didn't change when compared to Asians and Hispanics, however, they find increased levels of body dissatisfaction when they were compared with Black women. They also looked at Black women's body dissatisfaction levels compared to Hispanics and found the latter to have higher levels of body dissatisfaction. Hispanics and Asians levels were compared, and they found that they had similar levels of body dissatisfaction. 

'''Eating disorders'''

Having repeated exposure to these unrealistic standards of what makes females and males attractive that is encouraged and enforced produces an enormous amount of pressure on young men and women to [[wikipedia:Weight_loss|lose weight]] or gain more muscle (Mask, 2011).  

# '''Anorexia''': is an illness that is characterised by a restriction of food which leads to a low body weight that is dangerous, an intense fear of gaining weight, body image disturbance and the inability to see the life-threatening implications of thin state they are in (Phillipou, Castle, &amp; Rossell, 2018). [[wikipedia:Anorexia_nervosa|Anorexia]] has been found to be more common in females than males. The [[wikipedia:Prevalence#Lifetime_prevalence|lifetime prevalence]] of this disorder has been found to be 0.3% to 1%, although [[wikipedia:Europe|European]] studies have found the prevalence to be 2-4% (Moore &amp; Bakor, 2020).
# '''Bulimia''': is more common in adolescent females and is characterised by engaging in [[wikipedia:Binge_eating|binge-eating]] and inappropriate behaviours that prevent weight gain, such as vomiting (Jain &amp; Yilanli, 2020). The prevalence of this disorder in the United States is 0.9% among adolescents, 1.5% among women, and 0.5% among men. The prevalence in countries such as North America, Australia, and Europe has been found to range from 0.1% to 1.3% among males, and 0.5% to 2% among females (Jain &amp; Yilanli, 2020).
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|11}}}|title= Case study [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]] }}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

'''Skye''' 

“My eating disorder started when I was fourteen. I was significantly overweight and decided that it was time for a lifestyle change. It started out innocently, disguised as healthy eating and regular exercise.At that stage, I had lost enough weight to be considered healthy. But I became addicted to the number on the scale decreasing.

My healthy lifestyle was demolished. I began purging, absolutely everything that I ate, be it an apple or lasagna. My weight decreased even more, but I wasn’t satisfied with how I looked.

That’s when the restricting began. It was a very abrupt change, going from eating a lot of calories a day, to not eating for two days, to not eating more than a tablespoon of soup a week.

In October 2015, I reached my lowest weight. My parents took me to a general hospital where I was put on a drip, to try and make me gain some weight. I was then transferred to an inpatient facility for three weeks. Immediately after I was discharged, the behaviours snuck in again. My weight was dropping again, and I was put on a drip again for two days until my parents could secure a place for me at a long term inpatient facility. I was in treatment for six months.&quot;

Source: https://mhstories.com/2017/04/25/skye-16-south-africa/

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}
'''Mental illness'''

# '''Anxiety''' produces many unpleasant feelings for an individual. These feelings can include [[wikipedia:Worry|worry]], [[wikipedia:Mental_distress|distress]], [[wikipedia:Uncertainty|uncertainty]], [[wikipedia:Fear|fear]], and loss of control (Turel et al., 2018).
# '''Depression''' is characterised by a constant feeling of [[wikipedia:Sadness|sadness]] and lack of interest in activities that were once pleasurable (Manaf et al., 2016). 

=== Psychological theory ===
{{expand}}

==== Self-discrepancy theory ====
[[File:Self-Discrepancy Theory2.jpg|left|thumb|326x326px|''Figure 5''. Self-discrepancy theory. ]]

[[wikipedia:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] states that there are three domains of self (Vartanian, 2012). The actual self is made up of the individual's perceptions of their own qualities. The ideal self refers to the characteristics that the individual would like to have or aspire to have, and lastly, the ought self refers to the characteristics that the individual believes that have the right to possess (Vartanian, 2012). When individuals notice differences between their actual self and personal self-guides it can cause dissatisfaction, feelings of failure, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Shame|shame]], anxiety or depression (Yu &amp; Jung, 2018).  

Many researchers focusing on body image look at the discrepancy between how one sees themselves and how one would ideally like to be, whilst taking note that the ideal self might reflect an internalisation of society's standards of attractiveness (Vartanian, 2012).  

Self-discrepancy theory can be related to body image because of the cultural norms that are formed around the standards and expectations of what is attractive (Vartanian, 2012). It is important to note that these standards are unrealistic for the majority of the population to achieve without the help of cosmetic surgery or [[wikipedia:Starvation|self-starvation]] (Vartanian, 2012). Therefore, when an individual compares their actual self with the ideal that has been enforced from society, they will most likely not meet that standard which results in body-related self-discrepancy (Vartanian, 2012). When this discrepancy is surfaced, the individual links their failure to meet these body ideals with their self-concept (Bessenoff, 2006).  

== Psychological need satisfaction and body image ==
It has been suggested by Ryan and Deci that the preventing of need satisfaction can lead to feelings of [[wikipedia:Distress|distress]] and the production of self-defeating behaviours such as refraining from eating (Thøgersen-Ntoumani &amp; Ntoumanis, 2007; Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010). When an individual hasn’t satisfied their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, they are more likely to suffer from body image concerns that can include a drive for being thin and body dissatisfaction (Thøgersen-Ntoumani &amp; Ntoumanis, 2007).

Evidence suggests that unsatisfied psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness may be connected to the onset of disordered eating behaviours (Bégin et al., 2018). Satisfying the psychological needs has been shown to be related to eating a [[wikipedia:Healthy_diet|healthier diet]], whereas thwarting and neglecting the needs has been linked to unhealthy weight control behaviours and symptoms of disordered eating (Bégin et al., 2018).

Bégin et al (2018) found that women who are more self-determined are less likely to support the sociocultural pressures towards being thin, to be dissatisfied with their body image, and to adopt bulimic symptoms. In other words, self-determined women will not comply with the pressures to be thin, they won’t feel dissatisfied with their body image, thus not engaging in bulimic or other disordered eating symptoms.

=== Autonomy and body image ===
Autonomy satisfaction is produced when the individual has a choice and control over their behaviours and actions. This means, in relation to body image, that satisfying your need for autonomy is produced from not feeling a sense of pressure to conform to the set ideals around how you should look and having control on whether they want to change their body. It also means that the individual values and has an interest in eating a healthy diet therefore, leading to this need being satisfied as this behaviour coincides with their beliefs, values and interests (Mask, 2011). However, autonomy need prevention can lead to a struggle to control one’s appearance which is established by body image concerns (Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010). This also means that if the individual has no free choice and is coerced, they may participate in behaviours that are considered maladaptive to gain that control and free choice back into their life. For example, they may engage in disordered eating to reach the desired body image that has been pressured on them to gain that control again and feel as if they are 'choosing' to engage in this behaviour, and it is their decision. 

=== Competence and body image ===
Competence satisfaction is produced when an individual experiences effectance. In relation to body image, this need is met when an individual performs a task that is important to them and enhances their intrinsic potential. &amp;nbsp;For example, engaging in exercise may be an important task to someone because it makes them feel good, so they continue to partake in this activity for their own personal enjoyment, rather than exercising to meet their desired body image. This will increase the individual’s self-worth, and well-being.

The thwarting of the competence need reflects feelings of inadequacy. Therefore, when an individual doesn’t eat due to body image concerns, they have a sense of control which can lead them to feeling competent (Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010). &amp;nbsp;Someone who wants to satisfy this need but has experienced a discrepancy between how they look and how they want to look, will partake in activities such as disordered eating, excessive exercise, and may even go through cosmetic changes to meet these set ideals they have produced for themself. By engaging in these behaviours, the individual is more likely to experience low self-esteem and ill-being because the environment they are in produces feelings of incompetence.

=== Relatedness and body image ===
Relatedness satisfaction is produced when an individual feels accepted, close and significant to others. In relation to body image, this need will be met when the individual is accepted by others and their community for who they are, and don’t expect them to conform to the society’s standards of beauty. However, if this need is not satisfied the individual will feel isolated and lonely. Experiencing these feelings can lead to a struggle for body control in an attempt to gain [[wikipedia:Acceptance#Social_acceptance|social acceptance]] and approval by meeting societal standards of ideal beauty (Thøgersen-Ntoumani et al., 2010).

Being rejected by close friends and family about their body image can lead to maladaptive behaviours in order to conform to these standards in the hopes of gaining their approval on how they look. If they continue to be rejected it can lead to many negative outcomes such as anxiety and depression. These outcomes can also delay the need for relatedness to be satisfied because they may not feel comfortable leaving their house because of how they look, which leads to further isolating themselves and thus they are unable to form these close bonds they so deeply desire.

== Quiz questions ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Does the media have a significant effect on how people think they should look?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No
- Unsure

{Sophie is unsatisfied with how she looks and her close friends have rejected her appearance. Sophie now has lost contact with her friends and rarely leaves the house anymore. She is completely isolated. Sophie constantly looks at photos of celebrities and magazines and wishes that she looked like them. In order to do that, Sophie has started engaging in restrictive eating. Sophie’s environment is thwarting which psychological need?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Autonomy
- Competence
+ Relatedness
- Unsure
&lt;/quiz&gt;

== Conclusion ==
Psychological need satisfaction is a useful part of our motivation, and self-determination theory helps with the understanding of how satisfying these needs will produce growth, integrity and overall well-being. We are constantly driven to fulfil the needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness; however, this is only achieved when our environment is supportive of these needs.

For example, fulfilling the need for autonomy requires the environment to allow the individual to make their own choices, and in relation to body image that could be deciding to eat healthier to maintain their body image perceptions in a positive light. To fulfil the competence need, the environment is required to allow for mistakes to be made but doesn’t enforce incompetence or inadequacy onto the individual, so in relation to body image that could mean not continuously reminding the individual how they don’t look a certain way as this can produce feelings of being inadequate which subsequently can lead to many dangerous behaviours, such as restrictive eating. Being accepted by our friends and family for how we are, and not forced to conform to the many unrealistic beauty standards we see throughout our lives will fulfil the need for relatedness, as we will feel close to those around us and not isolated because of our appearance.

It is important to note however, that if an individual has persistent body image concerns and the environment promotes the thwarting and neglect of the basic psychological needs, then the individual will constantly feel down about themselves, and can produce maladaptive behaviour, rather than growing and feeling a sense of well-being. 

== See also ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Body image and emotional well-being|Body image and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Body image and emotional well-being|Body image and emotional well-being]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Psychological need satisfaction and body image|Psychological need satisfaction and body image]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-discrepancy_theory|Self-discrepancy theory]] (Wikipedia)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=
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Barroso, C. S., Peters, R.J., Johnson, R.J., Kelder, S.H., &amp; Jefferson, T. (2010). Beliefs and perceived norms concerning body image among African-American and Latino teenagers. ''Journal of Health Psychology,'' ''15''(6), 858-870. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105309358197 

Bégin, C., Fecteau, A., Côté, M., Bédard, A., Senécal, C., &amp; Ratté, C. (2018). Disordered eating behaviours through the lens of self-determination theory. ''Europe's Journal of Psychology'', ''14''(3), 571. 

Bessenoff, G. R. (2006). Can the media affect us? Social comparison, self-discrepancy, and the thin ideal. ''Psychology of women quarterly'', ''30''(3), 239-251. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.2006.00292.x

Brichacek, A., Neill, J., &amp; Murray, K. (2018). The effect of basic psychological needs and exposure to idealised Facebook images on university students' body satisfaction. ''Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace'' ''12''(3). http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/CP2018-3-2

Chen, B., Vansteenkiste, M., Beyers, W., Boone, L., Deci, E. L., Van der Kaap-Deeder, J., Mouratidis, A. (2015). Basic psychological need satisfaction, need frustration, and need strength across four cultures. ''Motivation and emotion'',''39''(2), 216-236.

Dorian, L &amp; Garfinkel, P. (2002). Culture and body image in Western society. ''Eating and weight disorders: EWD''.7. 1-19.

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Orkibi, H., &amp; Ronen, T. (2017). Basic psychological needs satisfaction mediates the association between self-control skills and subjective well-being. ''Frontiers in psychology'', ''8'', 936. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00936

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Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding Motivation and Emotion'' (7th ed.). Korea University: Wiley.

Selvi, K. (2018). Exploring men's body image concerns and predisposing factors for muscle dysmorphia in the framework of self-determination theory. ''Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.''

Silverstein, B., Perdue, L., Peterson, B., &amp; Kelly, E. (1986). The role of the mass media in promoting a thin standard of bodily attractiveness for women. ''Sex roles'', ''14''(9-10), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00287452

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Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C., &amp; Ntoumanis, N.(2007). A self-determination theory approach to the study of body image concerns, self-presentation and self-perceptions in a sample of aerobic instructors. ''Journal of Health Psychology'', ''12''(2), 301-315. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105307074267

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Vansteenkiste, M., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2013). On psychological growth and vulnerability: basic psychological need satisfaction and need frustration as a unifying principle. ''Journal of psychotherapy integration'', ''23''(3), 263. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0032359

Vartanian, L. R. (2012). Self-discrepancy theory and body image. ''Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance'', ''2''(1), 711-717.

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https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12284
}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5mP5RveA_tk Girls ages 6-18 talk about body image] (YouTube)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y4ipUdS8Td4&amp;t=273s How women's perfect body types changed throughout history] (YouTube)
* [https://www.mentalhealth.org.uk/publications/body-image-report/ethnic-background Body image and ethnic background] (mentalhealth.org.uk)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xrp0zJZu0a4 Women's ideal body types throughout history] (YouTube)

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== Overview ==
According to the basic psychological need theory (BPNT), people have a limited number of psychological needs. It is important for these needs to be satisfied for the wellbeing of the individual. The psychological needs that individuals posses{{sp}} have often been revised but there are generally three that have been agreed upon: [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] (Gunnell, Crocker, Wilson, Mack, &amp; Zumbo, 2013). Basic psychological theory is the consideration of the satisfaction or lack of, and if the needs have been frustrated. The frustration of the needs results in{{gr}} a riskier experience than when the satisfaction is not satisfied.

[[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] refers to the capacity to make informed and independent decisions. This is crucial in human psychology because its satisfaction results in a sense of integrity. After all, the thoughts and actions of the individual are authentic. However, when frustrated, pressure and conflict can easily be felt because one is being pushed in a direction they are not willing to go. [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] refers to the fact of being connected which is satisfied through bonding and care. The satisfaction of [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] makes the individual feel significant to others. Its frustration, however, causes social alienation, exclusion, and the feeling of loneliness. [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] refers to the ability to do something effectively and efficiently. [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] improves one's performance at a task because of the mastery of the task. This is satisfied by engaging in activities where one can make use of their skills and expertise. Frustration causes feelings of failure and helplessness.

The basic psychological need theory is supported by outside research and theories such as; [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]], Consistency theory, and [[self-determination theory]].

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Key points
* The basic psychological need theory is based on the argument that individuals have limited basic psychological needs.
* BPNT is supported by other theories; Maslow's theory, Consistency theory, and self-determination theory.&amp;nbsp; 
* There are criteria for psychological needs determination
* Psychological needs satisfaction has a social contribution
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Basic criteria for basic psychological needs theory ==
The focus of BPNT is on psychological needs. However, this does not mean that other basic needs like food, water and shelter should be ignored within the theory. There is an interrelation between psychological and physiological needs and different researchers have done studies on dynamic relations. For instance, to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle are {{gr}} affected by the satisfaction of needs and also frustrations. The healthy lifestyle feeds back on the need-based experiences of the individual.{{fact}}

Additionally, this is similar to the way that physiological needs have to be fulfilled for physical growth and wellbeing then psychological needs have to be satisfied for psychological growth and wellness to occur. The frustration of these needs, on the other hand, reduces flourishing and also increases the probability of feeling ill about the self and psychopathology. This proves that under BPNT there are psychological nutrients that must be satisfied to achieve growth and wellness and adjustment should be done to improve the outcomes where needed. The psychological needs result in functional costs when they are frustrated because the level of happiness is lowered and maladjustment begins to occur.{{fact}}

BPNT recognises that there are drivers of human action that are essential for psychological growth and activity. Every fully functioning individual has [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]] needs that must be met. This is an assumption of this theory which has been supported by different studies that identify the mechanistic correlation of needs and experiences{{fact}}. A study by Lee and Reeve (2020) indicates that the brain morphometry of an individual, particularly the ventral striatum grey matter volume, correlates needs satisfaction with the experiences of participants{{explain}}.

Further, basic psychological needs in BPNT should be distinguishable from other basic needs. This is true for both the experimental level and dynamic levels. At the experimental level, each need is associated with different experience sets. Dynamically, if a need is satisfied through the frustration of another then that need is not basic but rather derivative. Such needs which arise from the frustration of basic psychological needs are need-substitutes or compensatory preferences. For instance, in the need for security, [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] is frustrated because one is in conditions that are controlled which makes them feel caged and unable to express their thoughts and ideas. {{fact}}

Another criterion for the determination of basic needs is the universal nature of needs. Psychological needs are intrinsic and therefore, are universally applicable. They affect all people across their different demographic traits, i.e.{{inline comment|spell out - online use i.e. and e.g. within parentheses}} [[wikipedia:age|age]], [[gender]], [[wikipedia:nationality|nationality]], etc. This, therefore, raises the question of whether a need has to be desired for satisfaction or frustration to be derived from it. The concept of individual differences in need strengths has been subject to attention regarding other theories such as the motive disposition theory{{fact}}. The claim on universality by BPNT suggests that the differences are insignificant in influencing the need satisfaction or frustration compared to the expected effects. It is also important to note that this universality claim cannot be interpreted too rigidly because there are factors that will affect need fulfilment like culture, history, and personality.{{fact}}

== Self-determination theory ==
[[File:Venn diagram.pdf|thumb|Self-determination theory]]

Self-determination theory is a psychological framework for understanding human motivation. It was developed by psychologists Richard Ryan and Edward Deci and grew out of research on intrinsic motivation, or the internal desire to do something for its own sake, not for an external reward. Self-determination theory states that people are driven by three basic psychological needs: autonomy, competence, and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]].{{fact}}

Self-determination is an important concept in psychology because it represents the ability of an individual to make choices in their lives for their health and wellbeing. With self-determination, people have control over their life choices which influences their [[motivation]]. When people feel that they have more control over the outcome, they are more willing to take action. Having high self-determination is important in different aspects of life. According to the self-motivation theory, [[motivation]] comes from three innate and universal psychological needs; [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], connection, and [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]]. This theory is, therefore, based on the concept of intrinsic [[motivation]] brought about by engaging in rewarding activities. This theory was developed from the work of Edward Deci and Richard Ryan in their 1985 book &quot;Self-Determination and Intrinsic [[Motivation]] in Human Behaviour&quot; (Deci and Ryan, 2000). In this book, they developed a theory suggesting that people are motivated by the need to grow and gain a level of self-fulfilment. It, however, has two key assumptions; that the behaviour of individuals is driven by the need for growth and that autonomous [[motivation]] is essential for human progress.

== Other psychological theory ==
Other theories also mention the basic psychological need.{{fact}}

===Maslow's theory ===
[[File:Maslows hierarchy of needs.JPG|thumb|Maslow theory ]]

[[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]] is a psychological motivational theory that is made up of a five-level model of human needs. The model is depicted as a pyramid at the needs that are arranged in levels. According to [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]], the needs at the lowest level of the pyramid are more basic than the others and therefore, must be satisfied first, then an individual can move on to other needs. From the bottom of the hierarchy, human needs are; physiological needs, safety needs, [[love]], and belonging needs, esteem needs, and [[wikipedia:self-actualization|self-actualisation]]. The model is also divided into two where the first four levels are known as deficiency needs and the topmost is a growth need.{{fact}}

===Consistency theory===
Consistency theory suggests that people are mostly influenced by the need to maintain a level of congruence among their cognitions. This theory was originally introduced by Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger among others{{fact}}. It was first applied to the work behaviour theory by Abraham Korman in 1970. This work behaviour theory is based on two premises; balance notion and self-image standard. In this theory, workers will do and find it more satisfying if the work maximises their sense of cognitive balance and is consistent with their self-image. This theory is, therefore, a motivational theory based on psychological needs.{{fact}}

== Associated criteria for psychological need determination ==
Additional criteria can be derived to explain how the psychological needs work better. One such derived criterion is the costs and benefits of satisfaction or frustration of needs are pervasive which makes them relevant in different outcomes. This is to means {{gr}} that different behavioural, cognitive, or [[motivation]] outcomes should follow the pattern of satisfaction or frustration of needs. This should also be applicable at different levels such as personal and societal or conscious to unconscious. This is important for understanding the behaviour of a toddler in exploration driven by a curiosity about their environment (Klassen, Perry, &amp; Frenzel, 2012). The outcomes from such exploration are different and this is influenced by the satisfaction and frustration of their curiosity needs. 

Another associated criterion is the concrete nature of the experiences and behaviours associated with need satisfaction and frustration. The content must be specified to ensure that it is clear whether the psychological need has been met or not. For instance, in the formation of harmonious relationships, or extension of one's skills, there are specific behaviours that portray a psychological need to be satisfied. On the other hand, if one experiences failure or is lonely then this meets that the need has been frustrated. The understanding of these concrete behaviour should be based on the natural language of people when they reflect on an experience they have undergone. Different qualitative studies have been done to examine the needs-based experiences people have{{fact}}. A semi-structured interview on Singaporean youth showed that they highly valued [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] but noted that they often experienced the frustration of these needs{{fact}}. This study has helped to solidify the concept of concrete presentation of the outcomes of need satisfaction and frustration{{fact}}.

The third derived criteria are that the basic needs should influence the actions of an individual. This means that the needs should help people to prefer doing certain activities over others. This is in line with the growth-oriented character of the basic psychological needs in BPNT. People are more attracted to activities, goals, and relationships that promote their sense of volition, mastery, and connection. Additionally, people are also drawn to contexts that support the satisfaction of their needs. Such contexts serve to make the satisfaction of needs easier as opposed to frustration{{gr}}. Need frustration also plays an important role in influencing behaviour because it mobilises corrective behaviour change and the development of coping responses (Deci &amp; Vansteenkiste, 2003). 

Lastly, basic needs in BPNT are essential in the explanation of social contexts and their effects on developmental outcomes. BPNs are influenced by context which means they will vary depending on the context{{vague}}. The social environment as well as the individual's psychological adjustment are important in understanding the expected development outcomes as a result of need satisfaction and frustration (Evelein, Korthagen, &amp; Brekelmans, 2008). 

== Extension of the list of basic psychological needs ==
The issue of whether the current list of basic psychological needs in BPNT needs extension or not has been an ongoing debate over time{{fact}}. Different studies have revealed that there are other sets on{{gr}} needs beyond the three current ones. However, these studies{{fact}} also show that the three are the most important needs because of their effects upon satisfaction or frustration. A study by Sheldon et al (2001) examining the roles of {{what}} candidates needs to include other needs such as security, popularity, pleasure, self-actualisation, luxury, physical thriving, and self-worth. This study revealed that the three basic needs in BPNT have an important role because they ranked top in both satisfaction and frustration cases. A similar pattern was seen in a study by Jang et al. (2009) in which Korean and American students were examined for the most satisfying needs in the school setting. [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Cometence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]] are seen to be associated which means they remain significant even without the satisfaction of other needs such as shelter and respect.

Other studies have focused on specific alternative psychological needs. However, even for these studies, some of these recommended needs cannot be included because they do not satisfy several criteria. For example, self-esteem is a need that is often mentioned as basic because of the experience of the individual upon satisfaction. However, it is still not considered a basic need in BPNT because it does not operate independently of the other ARC ([[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]]) needs. Then the ARC needs are frustrated then there are concerns about self-worth as well which supports that the dynamics of self-esteem are dependent on the basic needs (Klassen, Perry, &amp; Frenzel, 2012){{awkward}}. 

Some of the proposed new candidate needs are thought-provoking such as adding the need for novelty, novelty-variety, morality, and beneficence. They help to sharpen thinking on the criteria of selecting basic needs. The evidence provided by different researchers is promising but is based on the premise of the evidence of proposed candidate needs. Advancements in this research{{fact}} have shown that they can be incorporated into new basic needs if they are well described. Novelty-variety refers to the perception of an individual when he or she does something new. This includes the possibility of combining the activities into different groups for different experiences. A study by Bagheri &amp; Milyavskaya (2020) showed {{how}} that novelty-variety can be analytically separated from the other basic needs which is one of the essential criteria for determining a basic need. Additionally, it comes with a cost to well-being when frustrated experimentally and lastly its impact does not depend on the demographic characteristics of the individual. This specific need, therefore, meets three of the five criteria for basic psychological needs.{{fact}}

In another study, Gonzalez-Cutre et al. (2020), novelty is defined as the need to experience something different from one's daily routine. This study revealed that novelty satisfaction influenced the [[motivation]] of individuals in exercising which contributed to growth in their well-being. Its frustration, on the other hand, resulted in a decline in well-being. The findings of this study differ from Bagheri and Milyavskaya (2020) because it includes the role played by openness in novelty satisfaction and its contribution to wellbeing.

Morality is defined as {{gr}} a study by Prentice et al (2020) as a viable fourth need based on initial empirical evidence. An earlier study by the same researchers{{fact}} had shown that the satisfaction of moral needs was evident when the participants were asked to talk about events where they had different experiences of satisfaction or frustration. From this study, morality satisfaction revealed that it had a unique variance above and beyond that of BPNT's basic needs. Additionally, its contribution to the social issue shows that it is related to the enactment of moral behaviours and wellness which satisfies the criterion on [[intrinsic motivation]]. The need, therefore, satisfies at least two of the BPNT criteria for basic psychological needs.{{fact}}

From these studies, it is evident that the needs of novelty, novelty-variety, and morality satisfy some of the criteria for basic psychological needs. This means they can start to be examined further if they fit into the shortlist for an addition. This examination is done through the determination of beneficence satisfaction or frustration. Beneficence satisfaction refers to the feeling of impacting others positively while beneficence frustration is affecting others negatively (Olafsen, Deci, &amp; Halvari, 2018). Even though beneficence frustration is often associated with ill-being, it cannot predict the incremental variance above the frustration of [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]], and [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]]. From understanding the criterion on essentialness, both satisfaction and frustration affect enhancing well-being.{{fact}}

== Importance of needs ==
All humans have certain basic needs that drive their behaviour as they want to achieve these needs. As such, basic [[psychological needs]] are important motivational tools for all humans as popularised by Abraham Maslow. Maslow stated that these needs are not all satisfied at the same time which resulted in the need for a hierarchy known as the [[wikipedia:Maslow's theory|Maslow's theory]] (Ryan &amp; La Guardia, 2000). Maslow, therefore, lists the needs from the most basic to the most complex under the assumption that one level must be satisfied before moving on to the next. The social importance of these needs varies depending on their satisfaction or frustration.{{fact}}

=== Needs satisfaction ===
One important social application of the basic [[psychological needs]] is the sense of security that individuals [[achieve]]. The satisfaction of the three needs makes individuals feel secure in their environment and with life. This includes physical security which entails protection from physical harm and having enough food and water to live. There is also emotional security and financial security which also influences the thoughts and behaviour of an individual.{{fact}}

The second important social application is the provision of comfort in the given environment. This can only be achieved after one has achieved a sense of security in their lives. Comfort also occurs in different levels such as physical comfort, emotional, and financial comfort (Van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang, &amp; Rosen, 2016). This is beyond just having enough to survive which motivates people to work towards having that level of comfort. 

Leisure is also a social benefit of basic needs [[satisfaction]]. This comes from the need by humans to take time away from the usual routine to relax and have fun either alone or with others. Leisure is only achieved after satisfying security and comfort but is not an absolute basic need for survival. Spending too much leisure time can hurt the individual's life such as achieving their future goals (López Walle, Balaguer Solá, Castillo Fernádez, &amp; Tristán Rodríguez, 2012). This is not to negate the importance of leisure in the promotion of health and wellness. Leisure time also improves the productivity of an individual because it prevents burnout{{fact}}.

The last importance of satisfaction of these needs is [[love]] which is arguably one of the most important basic needs. [[Love]] occurs in two levels, self-love and love for others. [[Self-love]] is crucial because if a person does not [[love]] him or herself, he or she can engage in behaviours that are self-destructive such as the use of drugs and alcohol. This stops the person from reaching higher levels of needs like respect and life’s purpose. [[Love]] for others, on the other hand, is essential for the creation of long-term and meaningful relationships. Not loving others may cause a person to do things that make other people not [[love]] them as well and one will experience loneliness. {{fact}}

For example, set-top box providers like Tata Sky, Sun Direct etc. follow need satisfaction selling. They have different packages so as to meet the needs of different types of customers. They also have special packages where the customer can choose the channels they want based on their interest and that particular package will be provided to the customer.{{fact}}

=== Needs frustration ===
Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment. Need frustration is referred to as perception of the basic [[psychological needs]] are being thwarted, which is undermining, alienating and pathogenic.{{fact}}
 
[[File:Frustration (18454943).jpeg|thumb|Frustration is a common emotional response to opposition, related to anger, annoyance and disappointment.]]

Need frustration is a separate psychological process than need satisfaction{{fact}}. There are some neuroscience studies that could be related to relatedness frustration{{fact}}, though there are few neuroscience studies about either [[wikipedia:Cometence|Competence]] need frustration or [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] need frustration. For example, Eisenberger, Lieberman, and Williams (2003) conducted a neuroscience study about social rejection. In this study, the feeling of social rejection was manipulated as participants played a game of cyber ball but were for a time socially excluded. During episodes of social exclusion, participants showed activations in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), anterior insular cortex (AIC), and ventral prefrontal cortex. These findings suggest that the ACC and AIC play key roles, not only when people experience satisfaction from social interactions, but also when they experience frustration from social interactions. This neural pattern is understandable because the AIC is a well-known brain region for the processes of [[emotion]], feeling, and [[motivation]] of both positive valence and negative valence (Damasio et al., 2000) and because it is frequently observed that the neural signals from the AIC are rapidly relayed to the ACC (Allman et al., 2010).

There is an example of the frustration that might be following the death or bankruptcy of either party{{fact}}{{gr}}. If you have drafted the contract so that it contains provisions that cause the contract to become frustrated because of certain events occurring, this may also be a ground for enlivening the doctrine of frustration{{explain}}. {{fact}}

==Conclusion ==
BPNT is an important theory in the social setting{{ic|also in non-social settings?}}. It contributes to the advancement of society through helping in the advancement of individuals within a society{{vague}}. The satisfaction of the three basic needs is important in the social setting because society as a whole benefits from people who have the [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]], [[wikipedia:relatedness|relatedness]], and [[wikipedia:Competence|Competence]]. The progress of society depends on its ability to have costs and benefits of needs satisfaction because it guides the behaviour of people.

Secondly, BPNT is essential for the success of a community through the [[motivation]] of the people to work towards achieving and satisfying these needs. The behaviour of individuals is influenced by the goals they aim to achieve within a given time. Individual [[motivation]] translates to the [[motivation]] of the entire society and consequently its success. However, this cannot be achieved without people working together for a common purpose. The third social contribution is that BPNT helps people in the formation of meaningful relationships and friendships within their environment (Li, Wang, &amp; Kee, 2013). These relationships make life better because needs such as love are satisfied with such an [[environment]].

==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Cognitive_evaluation_theory|Cognitive evaluation theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Positive_psychology|Positive psychology]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{Hanging indent|1=

Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., Park, S., Goubert, V. &amp; Hof, P. R. (2010). The von Economo neurons in frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans. ''Brain Structure and Function, 214,''(5-6), 495– 517. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0254-0. 

Bagheri, L., &amp; Milyavskaya, M. (2020). Novelty–variety as a candidate basic psychological need: New evidence across three studies. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 32-53. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-019-09807-4]]

Damasio, A. R., Grabowski, T. J., Bechara, A., Damasio, H., Ponto, L. L. B., Parvizi, J., &amp; Hichwa, R. D. (2000). Subcortical and cortical brain activity during the feeling of self-generated emotions. ''Nature Neuroscience, 3''(10), 1049–1056.  https://doi.org/10.1038/79871. 

Deci, E. L. &amp; Vansteenkiste, M., Ricerche di Psichologia. (2003). ''Self-determination theory and basic need satisfaction: Understanding human development in positive psychology.''logy. KUL. Research centre for motivation and time perspective, Leuven.

Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., &amp; Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. ''Science, 302''(5643), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134.

Evelein, F., Korthagen, F., &amp; Brekelmans, M. (2008). Fulfilment of the basic psychological needs of student teachers during their first teaching experiences. ''Teaching and teacher Education'', ''24''(5), 1137-1148. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.tate.2007.09.0011148.]] 

González-Cutre, D., Jiménez-Loaisa, A., Alcaraz-Ibáñez, M., Romero-Elías, M., Santos, I., &amp; Beltrán-Carrillo, V. J. (2020). Motivation and physical activity levels in bariatric patients involved in a self-determination theory-based physical activity program. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''51'', 101975. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.1017951795.]]

Gunnell, K. E., Crocker, P. R., Wilson, P. M., Mack, D. E., &amp; Zumbo, B. D. (2013). Psychological need satisfaction and thwarting: A test of basic psychological needs theory in physical activity contexts. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''14''(5), 599. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.03.007-607.]]

Jang, H., Reeve, J., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Kim, A. (2009). Can self-determination theory explain what underlies the productive, satisfying learning experiences of collectivistically oriented Korean studnts?. ''Journal of educational Psychology'', ''101''(3), 644-661. [[DOI: 10.1037/a0014241 644.]]

Klassen, R. M., Perry, N. E., &amp; Frenzel, A. C. (2012). Teachers' relatedness with students: An underemphasized component of teachers' basic psychological needs. ''Journal of Educational Psychology'', ''104''(1), 150-165. [[DOI: 10.1037/a0026253  150.]]

Korman, A. K. (1970). Toward an hypothesis of work behaviour. ''Journal of Applied psychology'', ''54''(1p1), 31-41. [[DOI: 10.1037/h0028656, 31.]]

Lee, W., &amp; Reeve, J. (2020). Brain gray matter correlates of general psychological need satisfaction: A voxel-based morphometry study. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 151-158. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-019-09799-1 -158.]]

Li, C., Wang, C. J., &amp; Kee, Y. H. (2013). Burnout and its relations with basic psychological needs and motivation among athletes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. ''Psychology of Sport and Exercise'', ''14''(5), 692-700. [[DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2013.04.009-700.]]

López Walle, J. M., Balaguer Solá, I., Castillo Fernádez, I., &amp; Tristán Rodríguez, J. L. (2012). Autonomy support, basic psychological needs and well-being in Mexican athletes. ''The Spanish journal of psychology'', ''15''(3), 1283. [[ISSN: 1138-74161292.]]

Olafsen, A. H., Deci, E. L., &amp; Halvari, H. (2018). Basic psychological needs and work motivation: A longitudinal test of directionality. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''42''(2), 178-189. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-017-9646-2-189.]]

Prentice, M., Jayawickreme, E., &amp; Fleeson, W. (2020). An experience sampling study of the momentary dynamics of moral, autonomous, competent, and related need satisfactions, moral enactments, and psychological thriving. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44'', 244-256. [[DOI: 10.1007/s11031-020-09829-3-256.]]

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. ''American psychologist'', ''55''(1), 68-78. [[DOI: 10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68,]] 

Ryan, R. M., &amp; La Guardia, J. G. (2000). ''What is being optimized?: Self-determination theory and basic psychological needs.'' In S. H. Qualls &amp; N. Abeles (Eds.), ''Psychology and the aging revolution: How we adapt to longer life'' (p. 145–172). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10363-008

Ryan, R. M., &amp; La Guardia, J. G. (2000). What is being optimized?: Self-determination theory and basic psychological needs. ''APA Psycnet''. https://doi.org/10.1037/10363-008

Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., &amp; Kasser, T. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. ''Journal of personality and social psychology'', ''80''(2), 325. [[DOI: 10.1037//O022-3514.80.2.325]]

Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C. H., &amp; Rosen, C. C. (2016). A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. ''Journal of Management'', ''42''(5), 1195-1229. [[DOI: 10.1177/0149206316632058]]

}}

==External links==
* [http://selfdeterminationtheory.org Self-determination theory] (selfdeterminationtheory.org)
*[https://conceptually.org/concepts/dual-processing-theory  Dual Process Theory - Explanation and examples] (conceptually.org)

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==Overview==
Have you ever considered what motivates you to tune into your favourite TV show every week? Why you spend hours scrolling through social media? Even though it may feel mindless or automatic, this behaviour is intentional and motivated. We may not be aware of it, but our decision to turn on the radio, pick up a newspaper or flick through are all choices we make motivated by certain social or psychological needs.

Uses and Gratifications Theory seeks to understand the needs that motivate us to seek out media, and how well these needs are satisfied.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Uses and Gratifications Theory?
* What motivates audiences to consume media?
* What are the implications of understanding this motivation?
* What are the major criticisms of the theory?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is uses and gratifications theory?==
Katz, Blumler, &amp; Gurevitch, (1973) define Uses and Gratifications Theory as the study of:

{{block indent |1=(1) the social  and psychological   origins of  (2) needs, which   generate  (3)  expectations  of  (4) the  mass   media or  other sources,  which lead  to (5)  differential  patterns  of media  exposure (or engagement  in other  activities),  resulting in  (6) need   gratifications and  (7) other consequences,  perhaps  mostly unintended  ones (p.510).}}

Put simply, UGT is the study of the needs that motivate an individual to interact with different types of media, how successful that media is at satisfying the need, and the potential consequences or opportunities of this needs/gratifications process.

Katz et al. (1973) outline five assumptions, or foundations, of UGT:

{{block indent|1=

1.   The audience is active, and intentionally chooses media based on expectations of what that media and its content will offer them. An individual experiences a need, want or desire, and selects the media channel they expect to best be able to fulfil this need, want or desire.

2.   The link between need gratification and media choice is determined by the individual and therefore it is difficult to theorise about the effects of media on the behaviour of a whole population. Everyone holds different expectations of different medias and will select different medias to fulfil their needs. Therefore, it is difficult to tie a specific need to a specific media and generalise this to a wider population.

3.   Media must compete with other communication alternatives which can provide the same gratifications. For example, while you may choose television to satisfy the need for entertainment, this need may also be satisfied through conversation with friends, exercise or engaging in a hobby.

4.   Audience members understand their own goals when consuming media, therefore self-reporting is a valid research method. UGT research methods are based heavily in self-reports such as surveys and interviews. While the validity of these research methods is often questioned, individuals have enough understanding of why they seek out media to be effectively guided through these methods.

5.   Audience needs and orientation should be examined fully before making judgements regarding the cultural significance of mass communication. Researchers need to disregard their own assumptions about the cultural and social impacts of mass media and focus on the insights from their sample of the audience.

}}

Rubin (2008) identifies another important assumption; that there are external and internal factors shaping the needs of individuals and their expectations of media. Your social and cultural environment, predispositions and interpersonal relationships can affect what you expect from media. For example, if a friend recommends an article to you, you may be more likely to turn to that media next time you are seeking information. Similarly, the influence media messages may have on you is filtered through your personality, the availability of the media, the likelihood of your interaction with a media and other social and psychological circumstances. 

== What needs does media gratify? ==
[[File:Land on the Moon 7 21 1969-repair.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Newspapers and Television &amp; Radio broadcasts can help fulfill the cognitive need for information]]

In the context of UGT, [[wiktionary:gratification|Gratification]] is the fulfillment of a psychological need through interaction with media. Gratification frameworks vary across the field. Early studies focused on describing {{missing}} audience’s reasons for using individual media types. For example, Berelson (1949, in Rubin 2008) determined audiences use newspapers to interpret public affairs and to increase social prestige. Research moved away from description in the 1950’s{{gr}}, when researchers began identifying motivational needs (Rubin, 2008). 

Lasswell (1948, in O′Donohoe, 1994) identifies surveillance, transmission of social heritage and interpretation of information as the major needs fulfilled by mass media. Wright (1959, in O′Donohoe, 1994) added entertainment to this list, which led to the later inclusions of pleasure, escapism, and fantasy (O’Donohoe, 1994).  McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972, in Katz et al., 1973) consider four categories of needs: diversion, personal relationship, personal identity and surveillance.

This model became the basis of one of the more popular models of media gratifications, and was adapted by Blumler into a version that is relatively straightforward. Blumler (1979) identifies three major categories of needs that media consumption fulfills:

# Cognitive needs: media can fulfill both an information seeking need known as surveillance through informative programs such as news and current affairs, and a reality exploration need through fictitious media.
# Diversion needs: Media can act as a diversion, fulfilling psychological needs for both entertainment and excitement, providing stimulation and an escape from boredom.
# Personal Identity: media that reflects daily experiences or values of the audience can fulfill a need for reinforcement, which strengthens identity.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''UGT Survey:'''

Now that you have a basic understanding of UGT, try the survey below to experience a very basic example of how data can be collected. 

Survey Monkey https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/NPLJJVN

Please note, this survey is merely an example of the types of questions used in a UGT study. The real thing would have a focus on a specific media or gratification, and would produce much more specific questions. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== History and development of UGT ==
UGT emerged during the 1940's{{gr}} in response to other mass communication models, such as the [[wikipedia:Hypodermic_needle_model|hypodermic needle model]], which saw audiences as passive receivers of messages (Bracken &amp; Lombard, 2001). It began to truly develop as a theory during the late 1950's{{gr}}, and came from the &quot;desire to understand audience involvement in mass communication in terms more faithful to the individual user's own experience and perspective&quot; (Blumler, 1979, p. 10). During the 1970's{{gr}}, researchers sought to address earlier criticisms by defining the social and psychological needs satisfied by media and explored how these needs relate to other factors that influence media use (Ruggiero, 2000).

Interest in UGT was reinvigorated around the turn of the century with the introduction and mainstream adoption of the internet (Ruggiero, 2000). The flood of new technology, devices and channels such as smartphones, internet and social media made it very difficult for researchers to study a single channel or type of media. Instead, research into new media is moving toward the study of uses and gratifications tied to new variables tied to the new media (Sundar &amp; Limperos, 2013) . Ruggiero (2000) outlines three key variables introduced by new media: 

# [[wikipedia:Interactivity|Interactivity]] describes the “the degree to which participants in the communication process have control over, and can exchange roles in their mutual discourse&quot; (Williams, Rice, &amp; Rogers, 1988, p. 10, in Liu, 2015). Internet interactivity strengthens the core UGT concept of the active user, as the internet, by nature forces audiences to intentionally engage with content (Ruggiero, 2000).
# [[wiktionary:demassification|Demassification]] in UGT refers to &quot;the ability of the media user to select from a wide menu&quot; (Ruggiero, 2000, p.16). Unlike traditional mass media, whose content is usually consolidated into a few channels, content on the internet is decentralised and numerous. Audiences have greater choice over what media content they believe will satisfy their needs (Liu, 2015).
# Asynchronicity refers to the way internet content is available at any time, compared to the scheduled nature of television and radio media (Ruggiero, 2000). Internet users are able to access content whenever it is convenient to them (Ruggiero, 2000), which allows researchers to consider time as a factor in media motivation.

While the three variables present interesting new directions to be considered in UGT research, the three major areas of study in UGT are outlined below.

=== Gratifications sought vs gratifications obtained ===
Katz et al. (1973, in Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979) draws a distinction between &quot;a) expectations about content formed in advance of exposure and b) satisfactions subsequently secured from consumption of it&quot;. This distinction is now referred to as gratifications sought - the needs the audience believes they are seeking from the media - and gratifications obtained - the needs that are actually being fulfilled by the media choice (Tewksbury &amp; Althaus, 2000). 

Palmgreen and Rayburn (1982) developed a model of gratifications sought which demonstrates that a specific gratification will only be sought from X media if the individual perceives that X media has the related attributes to fulfill the sought gratification. 

The correlation between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained is also important. Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) discovered that smaller differences between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained was linked to an individuals{{gr}} repeat exposure to the chosen media. 

=== Media expectations ===
One of the cornerstones of UGT is the concept of an active audience that chooses the media which will best satisfy their needs. In order to make this choice, audiences must have some expectation of what the media can provide them with (Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979). These expectations are developed over time, reinforced by successful gratification of identified needs and can be effected{{gr}} by factors such as personality, social interaction and environmental circumstances (Ruggiero, 2000). The concept of media expectations is closely linked to [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory#Psychology,_health,_communications,_marketing,_and_economics_model|expectancy value theory]].

=== Social determinants of media exposure ===
In any study of the motivations that drive media use behaviours, researchers must take into account non-motivational forces that may also be influencing these behaviours. Bogart (1965, in Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979) identifies work schedule, availability of television channels and family viewing habits as circumstances that may affect television use behaviour in particular. While these factors may not have a direct impact on gratifications sought, they can affect the gratifications obtained. Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn (1979) found that family members who were unable to control the television, and therefore unable to make their own media choice, were less satisfied then the family members who were able to choose.

== Applications of UGT ==
UGT is a broad field of study with applications in multiple disciplines. In the communications field it may be used to understand why audiences engage with various media, and therefore how to encourage their engagement. In the field of psychology it is of particular interest to behaviourists, as a way to examine the motivations that lead to media consumption behaviour.

Rubin (2008) outlines six key directions of UGT research, which each have their own applications in both communications and psychological research:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Direction
!Description
!Example of Application
!Key Research
|-
|Development of typologies of gratifications
|Investigation of the links between motivations for media use and their associated media usage behaviours has led to the categorisation of media gratifications. For example, Lometti, Reeves and Bybee (1977) categorised media gratifications into surveillance, entertainment, affective/emotional and behavioural guidance 
|Better categorisation of media gratifications simplifies the area of study, and allows for more cross-examination of different studies since the categories are similar and comparable
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Lometti, Reeves, and Bybee  1977&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Perse 1986 &amp;1990

- A. M. Rubin 1983, 1984 &amp;1985

- A. M. Rubin &amp; Bantz, 1989
|-
|Comparison of motives across media types
|This direction of research asks: can different media types fulfill the same needs? Does new media such as internet and social media fit into established gratification typologies? (Rubin, 2008)
|This direction of research can be used to discover how the use of similar media differs based on need, {{gr}} for example, Courtright (1993) observed that personal interaction needs were better met through interpersonal channels (telephone) when compared to other channels (computer) 
|  -Elliott   and   Quattlebaum 1979
-Cowles 1989

-Ko, Cho, and Roberts 2005

-Westmyer,   DiCioccio, &amp; Rubin,   1998
|-
|Examination of the circumstances of media use
|Examination of how factors such as life position, lifestyle, personality, loneliness, isolation, need for cognition, religion, media deprivation, family-viewing environment etc. influence media use (Rubin, 2008).
|This direction provides further opportunity for psychological researchers to examine the effect of external factors on motivation, and whether changing these variables impacts media use.
| -  Dimmick,  McCain,  &amp;  Bolton  1979
- Finn  &amp;Gorr,  1988 

- A. M. Rubin &amp; Rubin 1982 &amp; 1989 

- Windahl, Hojerback, &amp; Hedinsson, 1986
|-
|How are media use motives satisfied?
|Research into gratifications sought and obtained. Development of [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory#Psychology,_health,_communications,_marketing,_and_economics_model|expectancy-value]], discrepancy and [[wikipedia:Models_of_communication#Barnlund|transactional]] models of media uses and gratifications (Rubin, 2008).
|Understanding how media use motives are satisfied allows researchers and communications professionals to anticipate needs and tailor media content to better increase its chances of audience engagement. 
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Babrow &amp; Swanson 1988&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Galloway &amp; Meek 1981

- Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn  1979, 1982 &amp; 1985;  

-Wenner 1982 &amp; 1986
|-
|How do background variables affect media use outcomes?
|This direction of research examines how the background variables and secondary motives of the individual may affect the outcomes of their media use behaviour, such as their satisfaction, involvement in the content, etc.
|Television watching motivation, personality and experience with crime are all predictors of viewer aggression (Haridakis,2002; Haridakis &amp; Rubin, 2003, in Rubin, 2008)
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Alexander 1985&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Garramone 1984

- Perse &amp; Rubin 1988

- A. M. Rubin 1985

- R. B. Rubin &amp; McHugh, 1987
|-
|Further development of UGT and its applications
|This line of research focuses both on refining the methods used in UGT studies, as well as linking UGT to other psychological and communication theories to deepen the area of study.
|Slater's (2007) research attempts to link UGT with positive feed back loops, identifying that outcomes of media use feed back into selection and attention to media.
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Babrow 1988&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Banning 2007

- Bilandzic &amp; Rossler 2004

- Dobos &amp; Dimmick 1988

- Haridakis &amp; Rubin 2005
|}

Thanks to its many areas of study, it is difficult to outline the many applications of UGT, as it can be applied to almost any mass media for a number of reasons. Previous topics of study in the field have included: the gratifications of listening to radio (Herzog, 1942, 1944), motivation for and functions of reading newspapers (Berelson, 1949; Elliot &amp; Rosenberg, 1987; McCombs, 1979; Payne, Severn, &amp; Dozier, 1988), gratifications of telephone use (Dimmick, Sikand, &amp; Patterson, 1994), media behaviour of children and teens (Lin, 1993, Schramm, Lyle, &amp; Parker, 1961), impact of race on media use (Gerson, 1966; Greenberg &amp; Dominick, 1969), and comparisons of uses and gratifications across different media (Elliot &amp; Quattlebaum, 1979; Katz, Blumler, &amp; Gurevitch, 1974; Katz, Gurevitch, &amp; Haas,1973)(from Bracken &amp; Lombard, 2001). Rather than summarising the entire history of UGT applications, several examples of UGT studies, their methods and their applications have been included below.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Advertising Uses and Gratifications'''

O'Donohue (1994)

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; this study attempted to classify advertising uses and gratifications, and adds to the body of research that addresses what consumers do with advertising, rather then what advertising does to them.

&lt;b&gt;Method: &lt;/b&gt;The study sampled 82 participants aged 18-24, through a mix of small group discussions and one-on-one interviews.

&lt;b&gt;Findings:&lt;/b&gt; The study identified a range of uses and gratifications of advertising, including both marketing and non-marketing gratifications. The table below shows the many uses identified by the sample group and how they were categorised into gratifications by the researcher
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Need fulfilled (Gratification)
!Uses identified in sample
|-
|Marketing Uses
|Information

Choice, competition and convenience

Quality assurance/reassurance

Consumption stimulation

Vicarious consumption

Added value
|-
|Structuring Time
|Structuring Time
|-
|Enjoyment
|Entertainment

Diversion

Escapism

Play
|-
|Scanning the Environment
|Surveillance

Familiarity

Checking out the opposite sex

Education
|-
|Social Interaction
|Family relationships

Peer relationships
|-
|Self-affirmation/transformation
|Reinforcement of attitudes and values

Ego enhancement

Aspirations and role models
|}

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; The research determined that the uses and gratifications identified by the consumers offers insight into why audiences become engaged with certain advertisements over others. This insight would be very useful to advertising professionals, who could then design their advertisements to anticipate the gratifications audiences are seeking.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
''' An examination of motivations for using the World Wide Web '''

Tewksbury &amp; Althaus (2000)

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; To examine how well gratifications of traditional media map onto the use of the internet.

&lt;b&gt;Method: &lt;/b&gt; 520 University of Illinois students were completed questionaries{{gr}}{{sp}}. Students from this university were chosen since this community was perceived to be well connected to the internet at a time when much of the general population was not.

&lt;b&gt;Findings:&lt;/b&gt;

- Beliefs about what the media could offer and the gratifications sought were substantial predictors of internet use

-The reported gratifications obtained matched with the content that was consumed, e.g. individuals who claimed they obtained surveillance gratifications visited news and political sites.

- Traditional UGT models are useful in predicting the uses and gratifications of the internet 

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; in proving that traditional UGT models can be used for internet media, this study expanded the field of UGT from traditional media into new media. Knowing that gratifications sought maps directly to the websites chosen by individuals also has many applications in the communications field, including driving website traffic, advertising and website optimisation.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

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'''One size doesn’t fit all: a uses and gratifications analysis of social media platforms.''' 

Pelletier et al. (2020). 

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; to investigate the motivation behind the use of Facebook, Twitter and Instagram and to provide insight into user’s co-creation behaviour with brands.

&lt;b&gt;Method:&lt;/b&gt; 363 American social media users were engaged in a qualitative study that was used to determine the distribution of users across platforms and why they used the platform. 1050 social media users were then surveyed with regard to their interaction with branded content on the three platforms. The gratifications of information, social interaction and entertainment were highlighted.

&lt;b&gt;Findings: &lt;/b&gt;

- Twitter was the most preferred platform for informational gratifications

- Twitter and Instagram were tied as the most preferred platforms for social interactions

- Instagram was the most preferred platform when it came to entertainment gratifications

- Instagram was also the most used platform in brand co-creation

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; the major applications for this study apply to the field of advertising and corporate communication. This study proves that audiences use social media platforms to obtain different gratifications, and suggests that brands should align their messages to meet the different gratifications sought on various platforms.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Criticism ==
The majority of criticisms of UGT were presented during its early development as a theory, and have since been addressed by researchers (Rubin, 2008). However, it is still worthwhile to acknowledge these criticisms.

Early criticism focused on the validity of the self reporting method, the vagueness of several major concepts, unclear explanatory frameworks and a failure to consider the audience's perception of media (Ruggiero, 2000). Each of these criticisms was addressed by multiple responses:

{{block indent |1= - Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973), developed a list of needs that could be satisfied by mass media (Ruggiero, 2000).
- Rosengren (1974) explored the interaction between needs and other factors and its effect on media use motivation (Ruggiero, 2000).
- Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) identified other factors that, when added to gratifications theory, would contributed to a more rounded media consumption theory
}}Rubin (1983), acknowledged that researchers in the field of UGT were making stronger attempts to conduct studies using existing frameworks, refine their methodology and compare and analyse the findings of multiple studies.

== Conclusion ==
Uses and Gratifications theory is an attempt to understand what motivates media use behaviour by studying the needs that motivate media use, the expectations of various media, the ability of various media to satisfy needs, and the potential outcome of this satisfaction. There are many needs that motivate media consumption, but they can broadly be categorised as cognitive, diversion and identity needs. Understanding the needs that motivate media consumption, along with how these needs are met can illustrate how, why, and when individuals use media, and what affects this motivation. This has broad-reaching implications in both communications and psychology fields, including advertising, media creation and behavioural studies. Criticisms of UGT focus on its general vagueness as a theory and the validity of its experiments. However, researchers in the field of UGT have continually taken steps to face and resolve these criticisms.

== See also ==

# [[wikipedia:Gratification|Gratification]] (Wikipedia)
# [[wikipedia:Hypodermic needle model|Hypodermic needle model of mass media communication]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation]] (Wikiversity)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blumler, J. G. (1979). The Role of Theory in Uses and Gratifications Studies. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 6&lt;/i&gt;(1), 9–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365027900600102 

Bracken, C., &amp; Lombard, M. (2001). Uses and gratifications: A classic methodology revisited. &lt;i&gt;The New Jersey Journal of Communication, 9&lt;/i&gt;(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870109367401

Katz, E., Blumler, J., &amp; Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and Gratifications Research. &lt;i&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 37&lt;/i&gt;(4), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1086/268109 

Liu, W. (2015). A historical overview of uses and gratifications theory. &lt;i&gt;Cross-Cultural Communication, 11&lt;/i&gt;(9), 71-78.

O′Donohoe, S. (1994). Advertising Uses and Gratifications. &lt;i&gt;European Journal of Marketing, 28&lt;/i&gt;(8), 52–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569410145706

Palmgreen, P., &amp; Rayburn, J. (1982). GRATIFICATIONS SOUGHT AND MEDIA EXPOSURE An Expectancy Value Model. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 9&lt;/i&gt;(4), 561–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365082009004004

Palmgreen, P., &amp; Rayburn, J. (1979). Uses and Gratifications and Exposure To Public Television: A Discrepancy Approach. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 6&lt;/i&gt;(2), 155–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365027900600203

Pelletier, M., Krallman, A., Adams, F., &amp; Hancock, T. (2020). One size doesn’t fit all: a uses and gratifications analysis of social media platforms. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 14&lt;/i&gt;(2), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-10-2019-0159

Rubin, A. (1983). Television uses and gratifications: The interactions of viewing patterns and motivations. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Broadcasting, 27&lt;/i&gt;(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838158309386471

Rubin A. M. (2008). Uses and Gratifications Perspective on Media Effects. In Bryant, J., &amp; Oliver, M. (Eds). Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research 3rd ed (pp. 165-184). Taylor &amp; Francis. 

Ruggiero, T. (2000). Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century.&lt;i&gt; Mass Communication &amp; Society, 3&lt;/i&gt;(1), 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0301_02

Sundar, S., &amp; Limperos, A. (2013). Uses and Grats 2.0: New Gratifications for New Media. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Broadcasting &amp; Electronic Media, 57&lt;/i&gt;(4), 504–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2013.845827

Tewksbury, D., &amp; Althaus, S. (2000). An examination of motivations for using the World Wide Web. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research Reports, 17&lt;/i&gt;(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090009388759 

}}

== External Links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aopqPs7rb_Q Uses and Gratifications Theory Explained] (The Media Insider)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkWJHZyT14M What is Media Psychology] (Fielding Graduate University)

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==Overview==
Have you ever considered what motivates you to tune into your favourite TV show every week? Why you spend hours scrolling through social media? Even though it may feel mindless or automatic, this behaviour is intentional and motivated. We may not be aware of it, but our decision to turn on the radio, pick up a newspaper or flick through are all choices we make motivated by certain social or psychological needs.

Uses and Gratifications Theory seeks to understand the needs that motivate us to seek out media, and how well these needs are satisfied.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is Uses and Gratifications Theory?
* What motivates audiences to consume media?
* What are the implications of understanding this motivation?
* What are the major criticisms of the theory?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is uses and gratifications theory?==
Katz, Blumler, &amp; Gurevitch, (1973) define Uses and Gratifications Theory as the study of:

{{block indent |1=(1) the social  and psychological   origins of  (2) needs, which   generate  (3)  expectations  of  (4) the  mass   media or  other sources,  which lead  to (5)  differential  patterns  of media  exposure (or engagement  in other  activities),  resulting in  (6) need   gratifications and  (7) other consequences,  perhaps  mostly unintended  ones (p.510).}}

Put simply, UGT is the study of the needs that motivate an individual to interact with different types of media, how successful that media is at satisfying the need, and the potential consequences or opportunities of this needs/gratifications process.

Katz et al. (1973) outline five assumptions, or foundations, of UGT:

{{block indent|1=

1. &amp;nbsp; The audience is active, and intentionally chooses media based on expectations of what that media and its content will offer them. An individual experiences a need, want or desire, and selects the media channel they expect to best be able to fulfil this need, want or desire.

2. &amp;nbsp; The link between need gratification and media choice is determined by the individual and therefore it is difficult to theorise about the effects of media on the behaviour of a whole population. Everyone holds different expectations of different medias and will select different medias to fulfil their needs. Therefore, it is difficult to tie a specific need to a specific media and generalise this to a wider population.

3. &amp;nbsp; Media must compete with other communication alternatives which can provide the same gratifications. For example, while you may choose television to satisfy the need for entertainment, this need may also be satisfied through conversation with friends, exercise or engaging in a hobby.

4. &amp;nbsp; Audience members understand their own goals when consuming media, therefore self-reporting is a valid research method. UGT research methods are based heavily in self-reports such as surveys and interviews. While the validity of these research methods is often questioned, individuals have enough understanding of why they seek out media to be effectively guided through these methods.

5. &amp;nbsp; Audience needs and orientation should be examined fully before making judgements regarding the cultural significance of mass communication. Researchers need to disregard their own assumptions about the cultural and social impacts of mass media and focus on the insights from their sample of the audience.

}}

Rubin (2008) identifies another important assumption; that there are external and internal factors shaping the needs of individuals and their expectations of media. Your social and cultural environment, predispositions and interpersonal relationships can affect what you expect from media. For example, if a friend recommends an article to you, you may be more likely to turn to that media next time you are seeking information. Similarly, the influence media messages may have on you is filtered through your personality, the availability of the media, the likelihood of your interaction with a media and other social and psychological circumstances. 

== What needs does media gratify? ==
[[File:Land on the Moon 7 21 1969-repair.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Newspapers and Television &amp; Radio broadcasts can help fulfill the cognitive need for information]]

In the context of UGT, [[wiktionary:gratification|Gratification]] is the fulfillment of a psychological need through interaction with media. Gratification frameworks vary across the field. Early studies focused on describing {{missing}} audience’s reasons for using individual media types. For example, Berelson (1949, in Rubin 2008) determined audiences use newspapers to interpret public affairs and to increase social prestige. Research moved away from description in the 1950’s{{gr}}, when researchers began identifying motivational needs (Rubin, 2008). 

Lasswell (1948, in O′Donohoe, 1994) identifies surveillance, transmission of social heritage and interpretation of information as the major needs fulfilled by mass media. Wright (1959, in O′Donohoe, 1994) added entertainment to this list, which led to the later inclusions of pleasure, escapism, and fantasy (O’Donohoe, 1994). &amp;nbsp;McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972, in Katz et al., 1973) consider four categories of needs: diversion, personal relationship, personal identity and surveillance.

This model became the basis of one of the more popular models of media gratifications, and was adapted by Blumler into a version that is relatively straightforward. Blumler (1979) identifies three major categories of needs that media consumption fulfills:

# Cognitive needs: media can fulfill both an information seeking need known as surveillance through informative programs such as news and current affairs, and a reality exploration need through fictitious media.
# Diversion needs: Media can act as a diversion, fulfilling psychological needs for both entertainment and excitement, providing stimulation and an escape from boredom.
# Personal Identity: media that reflects daily experiences or values of the audience can fulfill a need for reinforcement, which strengthens identity.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''UGT Survey:'''

Now that you have a basic understanding of UGT, try the survey below to experience a very basic example of how data can be collected. 

Survey Monkey https://www.surveymonkey.com/r/NPLJJVN

Please note, this survey is merely an example of the types of questions used in a UGT study. The real thing would have a focus on a specific media or gratification, and would produce much more specific questions. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== History and development of UGT ==
UGT emerged during the 1940's{{gr}} in response to other mass communication models, such as the [[wikipedia:Hypodermic_needle_model|hypodermic needle model]], which saw audiences as passive receivers of messages (Bracken &amp; Lombard, 2001). It began to truly develop as a theory during the late 1950's{{gr}}, and came from the &quot;desire to understand audience involvement in mass communication in terms more faithful to the individual user's own experience and perspective&quot; (Blumler, 1979, p. 10). During the 1970's{{gr}}, researchers sought to address earlier criticisms by defining the social and psychological needs satisfied by media and explored how these needs relate to other factors that influence media use (Ruggiero, 2000).

Interest in UGT was reinvigorated around the turn of the century with the introduction and mainstream adoption of the internet (Ruggiero, 2000). The flood of new technology, devices and channels such as smartphones, internet and social media made it very difficult for researchers to study a single channel or type of media. Instead, research into new media is moving toward the study of uses and gratifications tied to new variables tied to the new media (Sundar &amp; Limperos, 2013) . Ruggiero (2000) outlines three key variables introduced by new media: 

# [[wikipedia:Interactivity|Interactivity]] describes the “the degree to which participants in the communication process have control over, and can exchange roles in their mutual discourse&quot; (Williams, Rice, &amp; Rogers, 1988, p. 10, in Liu, 2015). Internet interactivity strengthens the core UGT concept of the active user, as the internet, by nature forces audiences to intentionally engage with content (Ruggiero, 2000).
# [[wiktionary:demassification|Demassification]] in UGT refers to &quot;the ability of the media user to select from a wide menu&quot; (Ruggiero, 2000, p.16). Unlike traditional mass media, whose content is usually consolidated into a few channels, content on the internet is decentralised and numerous. Audiences have greater choice over what media content they believe will satisfy their needs (Liu, 2015).
# Asynchronicity refers to the way internet content is available at any time, compared to the scheduled nature of television and radio media (Ruggiero, 2000). Internet users are able to access content whenever it is convenient to them (Ruggiero, 2000), which allows researchers to consider time as a factor in media motivation.

While the three variables present interesting new directions to be considered in UGT research, the three major areas of study in UGT are outlined below.

=== Gratifications sought vs gratifications obtained ===
Katz et al. (1973, in Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979) draws a distinction between &quot;a) expectations about content formed in advance of exposure and b) satisfactions subsequently secured from consumption of it&quot;. This distinction is now referred to as gratifications sought - the needs the audience believes they are seeking from the media - and gratifications obtained - the needs that are actually being fulfilled by the media choice (Tewksbury &amp; Althaus, 2000). 

Palmgreen and Rayburn (1982) developed a model of gratifications sought which demonstrates that a specific gratification will only be sought from X media if the individual perceives that X media has the related attributes to fulfill the sought gratification. 

The correlation between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained is also important. Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) discovered that smaller differences between gratifications sought and gratifications obtained was linked to an individuals{{gr}} repeat exposure to the chosen media. 

=== Media expectations ===
One of the cornerstones of UGT is the concept of an active audience that chooses the media which will best satisfy their needs. In order to make this choice, audiences must have some expectation of what the media can provide them with (Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979). These expectations are developed over time, reinforced by successful gratification of identified needs and can be effected{{gr}} by factors such as personality, social interaction and environmental circumstances (Ruggiero, 2000). The concept of media expectations is closely linked to [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory#Psychology,_health,_communications,_marketing,_and_economics_model|expectancy value theory]].

=== Social determinants of media exposure ===
In any study of the motivations that drive media use behaviours, researchers must take into account non-motivational forces that may also be influencing these behaviours. Bogart (1965, in Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn, 1979) identifies work schedule, availability of television channels and family viewing habits as circumstances that may affect television use behaviour in particular. While these factors may not have a direct impact on gratifications sought, they can affect the gratifications obtained. Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn (1979) found that family members who were unable to control the television, and therefore unable to make their own media choice, were less satisfied then the family members who were able to choose.

== Applications of UGT ==
UGT is a broad field of study with applications in multiple disciplines. In the communications field it may be used to understand why audiences engage with various media, and therefore how to encourage their engagement. In the field of psychology it is of particular interest to behaviourists, as a way to examine the motivations that lead to media consumption behaviour.

Rubin (2008) outlines six key directions of UGT research, which each have their own applications in both communications and psychological research:
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Direction
!Description
!Example of Application
!Key Research
|-
|Development of typologies of gratifications
|Investigation of the links between motivations for media use and their associated media usage behaviours has led to the categorisation of media gratifications. For example, Lometti, Reeves and Bybee (1977) categorised media gratifications into surveillance, entertainment, affective/emotional and behavioural guidance 
|Better categorisation of media gratifications simplifies the area of study, and allows for more cross-examination of different studies since the categories are similar and comparable
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Lometti, Reeves, and Bybee  1977&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Perse 1986 &amp;1990

- A. M. Rubin 1983, 1984 &amp;1985

- A. M. Rubin &amp; Bantz, 1989
|-
|Comparison of motives across media types
|This direction of research asks: can different media types fulfill the same needs? Does new media such as internet and social media fit into established gratification typologies? (Rubin, 2008)
|This direction of research can be used to discover how the use of similar media differs based on need, {{gr}} for example, Courtright (1993) observed that personal interaction needs were better met through interpersonal channels (telephone) when compared to other channels (computer) 
|  -Elliott   and   Quattlebaum 1979
-Cowles 1989

-Ko, Cho, and Roberts 2005

-Westmyer,   DiCioccio, &amp; Rubin,   1998
|-
|Examination of the circumstances of media use
|Examination of how factors such as life position, lifestyle, personality, loneliness, isolation, need for cognition, religion, media deprivation, family-viewing environment etc. influence media use (Rubin, 2008).
|This direction provides further opportunity for psychological researchers to examine the effect of external factors on motivation, and whether changing these variables impacts media use.
| -  Dimmick,  McCain,  &amp;  Bolton  1979
- Finn  &amp;Gorr,  1988 

- A. M. Rubin &amp; Rubin 1982 &amp; 1989 

- Windahl, Hojerback, &amp; Hedinsson, 1986
|-
|How are media use motives satisfied?
|Research into gratifications sought and obtained. Development of [[wikipedia:Expectancy-value_theory#Psychology,_health,_communications,_marketing,_and_economics_model|expectancy-value]], discrepancy and [[wikipedia:Models_of_communication#Barnlund|transactional]] models of media uses and gratifications (Rubin, 2008).
|Understanding how media use motives are satisfied allows researchers and communications professionals to anticipate needs and tailor media content to better increase its chances of audience engagement. 
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Babrow &amp; Swanson 1988&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Galloway &amp; Meek 1981

- Palmgreen &amp; Rayburn  1979, 1982 &amp; 1985;  

-Wenner 1982 &amp; 1986
|-
|How do background variables affect media use outcomes?
|This direction of research examines how the background variables and secondary motives of the individual may affect the outcomes of their media use behaviour, such as their satisfaction, involvement in the content, etc.
|Television watching motivation, personality and experience with crime are all predictors of viewer aggression (Haridakis,2002; Haridakis &amp; Rubin, 2003, in Rubin, 2008)
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Alexander 1985&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Garramone 1984

- Perse &amp; Rubin 1988

- A. M. Rubin 1985

- R. B. Rubin &amp; McHugh, 1987
|-
|Further development of UGT and its applications
|This line of research focuses both on refining the methods used in UGT studies, as well as linking UGT to other psychological and communication theories to deepen the area of study.
|Slater's (2007) research attempts to link UGT with positive feed back loops, identifying that outcomes of media use feed back into selection and attention to media.
|&lt;nowiki&gt;- Babrow 1988&lt;/nowiki&gt;

- Banning 2007

- Bilandzic &amp; Rossler 2004

- Dobos &amp; Dimmick 1988

- Haridakis &amp; Rubin 2005
|}

Thanks to its many areas of study, it is difficult to outline the many applications of UGT, as it can be applied to almost any mass media for a number of reasons. Previous topics of study in the field have included: the gratifications of listening to radio (Herzog, 1942, 1944), motivation for and functions of reading newspapers (Berelson, 1949; Elliot &amp; Rosenberg, 1987; McCombs, 1979; Payne, Severn, &amp; Dozier, 1988), gratifications of telephone use (Dimmick, Sikand, &amp; Patterson, 1994), media behaviour of children and teens (Lin, 1993, Schramm, Lyle, &amp; Parker, 1961), impact of race on media use (Gerson, 1966; Greenberg &amp; Dominick, 1969), and comparisons of uses and gratifications across different media (Elliot &amp; Quattlebaum, 1979; Katz, Blumler, &amp; Gurevitch, 1974; Katz, Gurevitch, &amp; Haas,1973)(from Bracken &amp; Lombard, 2001). Rather than summarising the entire history of UGT applications, several examples of UGT studies, their methods and their applications have been included below.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Advertising Uses and Gratifications'''

O'Donohue (1994)

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; this study attempted to classify advertising uses and gratifications, and adds to the body of research that addresses what consumers do with advertising, rather then what advertising does to them.

&lt;b&gt;Method: &lt;/b&gt;The study sampled 82 participants aged 18-24, through a mix of small group discussions and one-on-one interviews.

&lt;b&gt;Findings:&lt;/b&gt; The study identified a range of uses and gratifications of advertising, including both marketing and non-marketing gratifications. The table below shows the many uses identified by the sample group and how they were categorised into gratifications by the researcher
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Need fulfilled (Gratification)
!Uses identified in sample
|-
|Marketing Uses
|Information

Choice, competition and convenience

Quality assurance/reassurance

Consumption stimulation

Vicarious consumption

Added value
|-
|Structuring Time
|Structuring Time
|-
|Enjoyment
|Entertainment

Diversion

Escapism

Play
|-
|Scanning the Environment
|Surveillance

Familiarity

Checking out the opposite sex

Education
|-
|Social Interaction
|Family relationships

Peer relationships
|-
|Self-affirmation/transformation
|Reinforcement of attitudes and values

Ego enhancement

Aspirations and role models
|}

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; The research determined that the uses and gratifications identified by the consumers offers insight into why audiences become engaged with certain advertisements over others. This insight would be very useful to advertising professionals, who could then design their advertisements to anticipate the gratifications audiences are seeking.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
''' An examination of motivations for using the World Wide Web '''

Tewksbury &amp; Althaus (2000)

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; To examine how well gratifications of traditional media map onto the use of the internet.

&lt;b&gt;Method: &lt;/b&gt; 520 University of Illinois students were completed questionaries{{gr}}{{sp}}. Students from this university were chosen since this community was perceived to be well connected to the internet at a time when much of the general population was not.

&lt;b&gt;Findings:&lt;/b&gt;

- Beliefs about what the media could offer and the gratifications sought were substantial predictors of internet use

-The reported gratifications obtained matched with the content that was consumed, e.g. individuals who claimed they obtained surveillance gratifications visited news and political sites.

- Traditional UGT models are useful in predicting the uses and gratifications of the internet 

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; in proving that traditional UGT models can be used for internet media, this study expanded the field of UGT from traditional media into new media. Knowing that gratifications sought maps directly to the websites chosen by individuals also has many applications in the communications field, including driving website traffic, advertising and website optimisation.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=9}}
'''One size doesn’t fit all: a uses and gratifications analysis of social media platforms.''' 

Pelletier et al. (2020). 

&lt;b&gt;Purpose:&lt;/b&gt; to investigate the motivation behind the use of Facebook, Twitter and Instagram and to provide insight into user’s co-creation behaviour with brands.

&lt;b&gt;Method:&lt;/b&gt; 363 American social media users were engaged in a qualitative study that was used to determine the distribution of users across platforms and why they used the platform. 1050 social media users were then surveyed with regard to their interaction with branded content on the three platforms. The gratifications of information, social interaction and entertainment were highlighted.

&lt;b&gt;Findings: &lt;/b&gt;

- Twitter was the most preferred platform for informational gratifications

- Twitter and Instagram were tied as the most preferred platforms for social interactions

- Instagram was the most preferred platform when it came to entertainment gratifications

- Instagram was also the most used platform in brand co-creation

&lt;b&gt;Applications:&lt;/b&gt; the major applications for this study apply to the field of advertising and corporate communication. This study proves that audiences use social media platforms to obtain different gratifications, and suggests that brands should align their messages to meet the different gratifications sought on various platforms.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Criticism ==
The majority of criticisms of UGT were presented during its early development as a theory, and have since been addressed by researchers (Rubin, 2008). However, it is still worthwhile to acknowledge these criticisms.

Early criticism focused on the validity of the self reporting method, the vagueness of several major concepts, unclear explanatory frameworks and a failure to consider the audience's perception of media (Ruggiero, 2000). Each of these criticisms was addressed by multiple responses:

{{block indent |1= - Katz, Gurevitch and Haas (1973), developed a list of needs that could be satisfied by mass media (Ruggiero, 2000).
- Rosengren (1974) explored the interaction between needs and other factors and its effect on media use motivation (Ruggiero, 2000).
- Palmgreen and Rayburn (1979) identified other factors that, when added to gratifications theory, would contributed to a more rounded media consumption theory
}}Rubin (1983), acknowledged that researchers in the field of UGT were making stronger attempts to conduct studies using existing frameworks, refine their methodology and compare and analyse the findings of multiple studies.

== Conclusion ==
Uses and Gratifications theory is an attempt to understand what motivates media use behaviour by studying the needs that motivate media use, the expectations of various media, the ability of various media to satisfy needs, and the potential outcome of this satisfaction. There are many needs that motivate media consumption, but they can broadly be categorised as cognitive, diversion and identity needs. Understanding the needs that motivate media consumption, along with how these needs are met can illustrate how, why, and when individuals use media, and what affects this motivation. This has broad-reaching implications in both communications and psychology fields, including advertising, media creation and behavioural studies. Criticisms of UGT focus on its general vagueness as a theory and the validity of its experiments. However, researchers in the field of UGT have continually taken steps to face and resolve these criticisms.

== See also ==

# [[wikipedia:Gratification|Gratification]] (Wikipedia)
# [[wikipedia:Hypodermic needle model|Hypodermic needle model of mass media communication]] (Wikipedia)
# [[Motivation]] (Wikiversity)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blumler, J. G. (1979). The Role of Theory in Uses and Gratifications Studies. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 6&lt;/i&gt;(1), 9–36. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365027900600102 

Bracken, C., &amp; Lombard, M. (2001). Uses and gratifications: A classic methodology revisited. &lt;i&gt;The New Jersey Journal of Communication, 9&lt;/i&gt;(1), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/15456870109367401

Katz, E., Blumler, J., &amp; Gurevitch, M. (1973). Uses and Gratifications Research. &lt;i&gt;Public Opinion Quarterly, 37&lt;/i&gt;(4), 509–523. https://doi.org/10.1086/268109 

Liu, W. (2015). A historical overview of uses and gratifications theory. &lt;i&gt;Cross-Cultural Communication, 11&lt;/i&gt;(9), 71-78.

O′Donohoe, S. (1994). Advertising Uses and Gratifications. &lt;i&gt;European Journal of Marketing, 28&lt;/i&gt;(8), 52–75. https://doi.org/10.1108/03090569410145706

Palmgreen, P., &amp; Rayburn, J. (1982). GRATIFICATIONS SOUGHT AND MEDIA EXPOSURE An Expectancy Value Model. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 9&lt;/i&gt;(4), 561–580. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365082009004004

Palmgreen, P., &amp; Rayburn, J. (1979). Uses and Gratifications and Exposure To Public Television: A Discrepancy Approach. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research, 6&lt;/i&gt;(2), 155–179. https://doi.org/10.1177/009365027900600203

Pelletier, M., Krallman, A., Adams, F., &amp; Hancock, T. (2020). One size doesn’t fit all: a uses and gratifications analysis of social media platforms. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, 14&lt;/i&gt;(2), 269–284. https://doi.org/10.1108/JRIM-10-2019-0159

Rubin, A. (1983). Television uses and gratifications: The interactions of viewing patterns and motivations. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Broadcasting, 27&lt;/i&gt;(1), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838158309386471

Rubin A. M. (2008). Uses and Gratifications Perspective on Media Effects. In Bryant, J., &amp; Oliver, M. (Eds). Media Effects Advances in Theory and Research 3rd ed (pp. 165-184). Taylor &amp; Francis. 

Ruggiero, T. (2000). Uses and Gratifications Theory in the 21st Century.&lt;i&gt; Mass Communication &amp; Society, 3&lt;/i&gt;(1), 3–37. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327825mcs0301_02

Sundar, S., &amp; Limperos, A. (2013). Uses and Grats 2.0: New Gratifications for New Media. &lt;i&gt;Journal of Broadcasting &amp; Electronic Media, 57&lt;/i&gt;(4), 504–525. https://doi.org/10.1080/08838151.2013.845827

Tewksbury, D., &amp; Althaus, S. (2000). An examination of motivations for using the World Wide Web. &lt;i&gt;Communication Research Reports, 17&lt;/i&gt;(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1080/08824090009388759 

}}

== External Links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aopqPs7rb_Q Uses and Gratifications Theory Explained] (The Media Insider)
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vkWJHZyT14M What is Media Psychology] (Fielding Graduate University)

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{{MECR3|1=Replace this text with the URL}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Alderfer's ERG Theory.svg|alt=image of ERG THeory|thumb|''Figure 1. ERG Theory'']]
[[File:Alderfer’s ERG Theory.png|thumb|''Figure 2. ERG and Maslow'']]
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|''Figure 3. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs'']]
Alderfer's Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is a multi-directional revision of Malsow's Hierarchy of Needs.  ERG separates Maslow's pyramid into three components that a individual is motivated by to transcend or transgress dependent on there emotional position. Further, Alderfer's ERG model allows for individuals to focus on more than one need at a time, allowing more flexibility in the framework (Snow, 2019).

This book chapter illustrates:

* What is ERG Theory, 
* The current research and operationtialism of ERG,
* And the applications of ERG to the real world.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the three sections of ERG?
* How does ERG motivate people? 
* Where has ERG Theory been applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is ERG theory==
The ERG model is a movement between, its three classifications, using the processes of satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression (Snow, 2019).  
# Existence, the first level of needs. comprised of survival, the safety and basic physiological needs of the individual (Snow, 2019).
# Relatedness, social motivations, interpersonal and intrapersonal needs, the ability to shear feelings and thoughts for example being accepted (Snow, 2019).
# Growth, is locked into the development of ones potential. it involves the needs of productive and creative efforts within the environment to capitalise on opportunities (Snow, 2019).

==Research and operationalism==
Although a relatively old theory in psychology, ERG theory has not held much interest in comparison to other motivation models.
# What it has to do with motivation (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Snow, 2019)
# Measures (Alderfer, Kaplan &amp; Smith, 1974; Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020; Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002)
# Lack of academic literature (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)

==Application of ERG theory==
There are many applications that ERG theory has been applied too.
* Development (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Poulou &amp; Norwich, 2019)
* Job performance/productivity (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)
* Travel (Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020)
* Leadership (Sosik et al., 2013)

==Conclusion==


==See also==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Motivation measurement|Motivation measurement]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alderfer, C. P., Kaplan, R. E., &amp; Smith, K. K. (1974). The effect of variations in relatedness need satisfaction on relatedness desires. ''Administrative Science Quarterly, 19''(4), 507–532. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.2307/2391808

Arnolds, C. A., &amp; Boshoff, C. (2002). Compensation, esteem valence and job performance: An empirical assessment of Alderfer’s ERG theory. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13''(4), 697–719. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09585190210125868
Bláfoss Ingvardson, J., Kaplan, S., de Abreu e Silva, J., di Ciommo, F., Shiftan, Y., &amp; Nielsen, O. (2020). Existence, relatedness and growth needs as mediators between mode choice and travel satisfaction: evidence from Denmark. ''Transportation (Dordrecht), 47''(1), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-018-9886-3

Caulton, J. R. (2012). The development and use of the theory of ERG: A literature review. ''Emerging Leadership Journeys, 5''(1), 2-8.

David Snow. (2019). The Big Picture: How the New Use of an Old Theory will Enhance Leaders’ Perspective on Management. ''The Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 21''(1), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.33423/jabe.v21i1.662

Poulou, M., &amp; Norwich, B. (2019). Adolescent students’ psychological needs: Development of an existence, relatedness, and growth needs scale. ''International Journal of School &amp; Educational Psychology: IJSEP Supplemental Issue 2019, 7''(sup1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2018.1479320

Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Blair, A. L., &amp; Fitzgerald, N. A. (2013). Possible selves in the lives of transformational faith community leaders. ''Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5''(4), 283–293. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0032646}}

== External links ==
*[https://study.com/academy/lesson/alderfers-erg-theory-employee-motivation-in-the-workplace.html ERG theory in the work place]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upBHae2J-LI YouTube video about ERG Theory]

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[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]
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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Alderfer's ERG Theory.svg|alt=image of ERG THeory|thumb|''Figure 1. ERG Theory'']]
[[File:Alderfer’s ERG Theory.png|thumb|''Figure 2. ERG and Maslow'']]
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|''Figure 3. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs'']]
Alderfer's Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is a multi-directional revision of Malsow's Hierarchy of Needs.  ERG separates Maslow's pyramid into three components that a individual is motivated by to transcend or transgress dependent on there emotional position. Further, Alderfer's ERG model allows for individuals to focus on more than one need at a time, allowing more flexibility in the framework (Snow, 2019).

This book chapter illustrates:

* What is ERG Theory, 
* The current research and operationtialism of ERG,
* And the applications of ERG to the real world.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the three sections of ERG?
* How does ERG motivate people? 
* Where has ERG Theory been applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is ERG theory==
The ERG model is a movement between, its three classifications, using the processes of satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression (Snow, 2019).  
# Existence, the first level of needs. comprised of survival, the safety and basic physiological needs of the individual (Snow, 2019).
# Relatedness, social motivations, interpersonal and intrapersonal needs, the ability to shear feelings and thoughts for example being accepted (Snow, 2019).
# Growth, is locked into the development of ones potential. it involves the needs of productive and creative efforts within the environment to capitalise on opportunities (Snow, 2019).

==Research and operationalism==
Although a relatively old theory in psychology, ERG theory has not held much interest in comparison to other motivation models.
# What it has to do with motivation (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Snow, 2019)
# Measures (Alderfer, Kaplan &amp; Smith, 1974; Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020; Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002)
# Lack of academic literature (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)

==Application of ERG theory==
There are many applications that ERG theory has been applied too.
* Development (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Poulou &amp; Norwich, 2019)
* Job performance/productivity (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)
* Travel (Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020)
* Leadership (Sosik et al., 2013)

==Conclusion==


==See also==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Motivation measurement|Motivation measurement]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alderfer, C. P., Kaplan, R. E., &amp; Smith, K. K. (1974). The effect of variations in relatedness need satisfaction on relatedness desires. ''Administrative Science Quarterly, 19''(4), 507–532. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.2307/2391808

Arnolds, C. A., &amp; Boshoff, C. (2002). Compensation, esteem valence and job performance: An empirical assessment of Alderfer’s ERG theory. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13''(4), 697–719. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09585190210125868
Bláfoss Ingvardson, J., Kaplan, S., de Abreu e Silva, J., di Ciommo, F., Shiftan, Y., &amp; Nielsen, O. (2020). Existence, relatedness and growth needs as mediators between mode choice and travel satisfaction: evidence from Denmark. ''Transportation (Dordrecht), 47''(1), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-018-9886-3

Caulton, J. R. (2012). The development and use of the theory of ERG: A literature review. ''Emerging Leadership Journeys, 5''(1), 2-8.

David Snow. (2019). The Big Picture: How the New Use of an Old Theory will Enhance Leaders’ Perspective on Management. ''The Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 21''(1), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.33423/jabe.v21i1.662

Poulou, M., &amp; Norwich, B. (2019). Adolescent students’ psychological needs: Development of an existence, relatedness, and growth needs scale. ''International Journal of School &amp; Educational Psychology: IJSEP Supplemental Issue 2019, 7''(sup1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2018.1479320

Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Blair, A. L., &amp; Fitzgerald, N. A. (2013). Possible selves in the lives of transformational faith community leaders. ''Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5''(4), 283–293. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0032646}}

== External links ==
*[https://study.com/academy/lesson/alderfers-erg-theory-employee-motivation-in-the-workplace.html ERG theory in the work place]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upBHae2J-LI YouTube video about ERG Theory]

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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Alderfer's ERG Theory.svg|alt=image of ERG THeory|thumb|''Figure 1. ERG Theory'']]
[[File:Alderfer’s ERG Theory.png|thumb|''Figure 2. ERG and Maslow'']]
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|''Figure 3. Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs'']]
Alderfer's Existence, Relatedness and Growth (ERG) theory is a multi-directional revision of Malsow's Hierarchy of Needs.  ERG separates Maslow's pyramid into three components that a individual is motivated by to transcend or transgress dependent on there emotional position. Further, Alderfer's ERG model allows for individuals to focus on more than one need at a time, allowing more flexibility in the framework (Snow, 2019).

This book chapter illustrates:

* What is ERG Theory, 
* The current research and operationtialism of ERG,
* And the applications of ERG to the real world.
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are the three sections of ERG?
* How does ERG motivate people? 
* Where has ERG Theory been applied?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is ERG theory==
The ERG model is a movement between, its three classifications, using the processes of satisfaction-progression and frustration-regression (Snow, 2019).  
# Existence, the first level of needs. comprised of survival, the safety and basic physiological needs of the individual (Snow, 2019).
# Relatedness, social motivations, interpersonal and intrapersonal needs, the ability to shear feelings and thoughts for example being accepted (Snow, 2019).
# Growth, is locked into the development of ones potential. it involves the needs of productive and creative efforts within the environment to capitalise on opportunities (Snow, 2019).

==Research and operationalism==
Although a relatively old theory in psychology, ERG theory has not held much interest in comparison to other motivation models.
# What it has to do with motivation (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Snow, 2019)
# Measures (Alderfer, Kaplan &amp; Smith, 1974; Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020; Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002)
# Lack of academic literature (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)

==Application of ERG theory==
There are many applications that ERG theory has been applied too.
* Development (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Poulou &amp; Norwich, 2019)
* Job performance/productivity (Arnolds &amp; Boshoff, 2002; Caulton, 2012)
* Travel (Bláfoss Ingvardson et al., 2020)
* Leadership (Sosik et al., 2013)

==Conclusion==


==See also==

*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Motivation measurement|Motivation measurement]] (Book chapter, 2019)
*[[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alderfer, C. P., Kaplan, R. E., &amp; Smith, K. K. (1974). The effect of variations in relatedness need satisfaction on relatedness desires. ''Administrative Science Quarterly, 19''(4), 507–532. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.2307/2391808

Arnolds, C. A., &amp; Boshoff, C. (2002). Compensation, esteem valence and job performance: An empirical assessment of Alderfer’s ERG theory. ''The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 13''(4), 697–719. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1080/09585190210125868
Bláfoss Ingvardson, J., Kaplan, S., de Abreu e Silva, J., di Ciommo, F., Shiftan, Y., &amp; Nielsen, O. (2020). Existence, relatedness and growth needs as mediators between mode choice and travel satisfaction: evidence from Denmark. ''Transportation (Dordrecht), 47''(1), 337–358. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-018-9886-3

Caulton, J. R. (2012). The development and use of the theory of ERG: A literature review. ''Emerging Leadership Journeys, 5''(1), 2-8.

David Snow. (2019). The Big Picture: How the New Use of an Old Theory will Enhance Leaders’ Perspective on Management. ''The Journal of Applied Business and Economics, 21''(1), 117–130. https://doi.org/10.33423/jabe.v21i1.662

Poulou, M., &amp; Norwich, B. (2019). Adolescent students’ psychological needs: Development of an existence, relatedness, and growth needs scale. ''International Journal of School &amp; Educational Psychology: IJSEP Supplemental Issue 2019, 7''(sup1), 75–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/21683603.2018.1479320

Sosik, J. J., Chun, J. U., Blair, A. L., &amp; Fitzgerald, N. A. (2013). Possible selves in the lives of transformational faith community leaders. ''Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 5''(4), 283–293. https://doi-org.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/10.1037/a0032646}}

== External links ==
*[https://study.com/academy/lesson/alderfers-erg-theory-employee-motivation-in-the-workplace.html ERG theory in the work place]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=upBHae2J-LI YouTube video about ERG Theory]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Motivation]]
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      <text bytes="3114" xml:space="preserve">==Comments==
I would love to see this applied to an example of a real life case study, to see how it worked in the real world.--[[User:JulesCro|JulesCro]] ([[User talk:JulesCro|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/JulesCro|contribs]]) 18:11, 30 August 2020 (UTC)

== Heading casing ==

{| style=&quot;float: center; background:transparent;&quot;
|-
| [[File:Crystal Clear app ktip.svg|48px|left]]
| {{#if:|Hi [[User:{{{1}}}|{{{1}}}]].|}} FYI, the convention on [[Wikiversity]] is for [[w:Letter case#Sentence_case|sentence casing]]. For example, the [[w:Help:Wikitext|wikitext]] should be:
&lt;nowiki&gt;== Cats and mice ==&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
rather than&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
&lt;nowiki&gt;== Cats and Mice ==&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;br&gt;&lt;br&gt;
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:31, 21 September 2020 (UTC)
|}
&lt;!-- Official topic development feedback --&gt;
{{METF/2020
|1=
&lt;!-- Title and sub-title --&gt;
# None
# I have added the title and sub-title
# Authorship details removed - authorship is as per the page's editing history
|2=
&lt;!-- User page --&gt;
# Minimal, sufficient
# Consider linking to your [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/ eportfolio] page and/or any other professional online profile or resume such as [https://www.linkedin.com/ LinkedIn]. This is not required, but it can be useful to interlink your professional networks.
|3=
&lt;!-- Social contribution --&gt;
# Excellent - summarised with direct link(s) to evidence.
|4=
&lt;!-- Section headings --&gt;
# Basic, 1-level heading structure - could benefit from further development, perhaps using a 2-level structure.
# Aim for 3 to 6 top-level headings between the Overview and Conclusion, with up to a similar number of sub-headings for large sections.
# See earlier comment about [[#heading casing|Heading casing]].
|5=
&lt;!-- Key points--&gt;
# Overview - Consider:
## introducing an example or case study
## using one rather than two images
# Expand theory and research.
# Basic development of key points for each section, with relevant citations.
# Include in-text [[m:Help:Interwiki linking|interwiki links]] for the first mention of key terms to relevant Wikipedia articles and/or to other relevant book chapters.
# Consider including more examples/case studies.
# Conclusion (the most important section):
## hasn't been developed
## what might the take-home, practical messages be?
## in a nutshell, what are the answer(s) to the question in the sub-title?
|6=
&lt;!-- Image --&gt;
# An image (figure) is presented.
# Caption
## does not use APA style (check italics).
## could better explain how the image connects to key points being made in the main text.
# Cite each figure at least once in the main text.
# Consider increasing image size from default to make it easier to view.
|7=
&lt;!-- References --&gt;
# Excellent
|8=
&lt;!-- Resources --&gt;
# See also
## Very good
## Made minor changes
# External links
## Rename links so that they are more user friendly
## Include source in brackets after link
}}
-- [[User:Jtneill|Jtneill]] - &lt;small&gt;[[User talk:Jtneill|Talk]] - [[Special:Contributions/Jtneill|c]]&lt;/small&gt; 10:31, 21 September 2020 (UTC)</text>
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| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached to the carbon at a particular position, rather than a group with an additional carbon atom, therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>3o0h35qdx95xyg7koxdlu5sgtzgxd12</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410776</id>
      <parentid>2410775</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T10:42:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
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      <comment>/* Nomenclature and Background */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136038" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4 which serve as precursors, since about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410777</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T11:04:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136211" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4, which serve as precursors. It should also be noted that about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore the decline of 11-oxygenated androgens - steroids of adrenal origin - may be in line with their adrenal androgen precursors - DDEA and A4.

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
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| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4, which serve as precursors. It should also be noted that about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore the decline of 11-oxygenated androgens - steroids of adrenal origin - may be in line with their adrenal androgen precursors - DHEA and A4.

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>5m8kxokc4i5aqotnm6e30jt9n78r79l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410779</id>
      <parentid>2410778</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T11:05:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136227" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4, which serve as precursors. It should also be noted that about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore the decline of 11-oxygenated androgens - steroids of adrenal origin - may be in line with a decline with their adrenal androgen precursors - DHEA and A4.a

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410780</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T11:06:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="136226" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgens in health and disease |journal=Nat Rev Endocrinol |volume=16 |issue=5 |pages=284–296 |year=2020 |pmid=32203405 |pmc=7881526 |doi=10.1038/s41574-020-0336-x|last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Rege |first2=Juilee |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Rainey |first4=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=du Toit|first2=Therina|last3=Swart|first3=Amanda C.|title=Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539964|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|year=2021 |volume=525|pages=111189|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189|issn=1872-8057|pmid=33539964|s2cid=231776716 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  

The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. 

11-Oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the conversion of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and continue to a lattice of transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. All the steroid products of this pathway have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on circulating levels, e.g., it may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but the levels do not decline with age.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== From Androstenedione or Testosterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
Of the pathways from A4 and T to 11-oxygenated androgens, A4 is the main initial substrate. Therefore, 11OHA4 is the first major metabolite, biosythesized as a result of 11β-hydroxylation of A4. Although some 11OHT originates from the 11β-hydroxylation of T, this probably makes a very small contribution. &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt; 11OHA4 is not a substrate for AKR1C3 and thus requires the conversion to 11KA4 by HSD11B2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;/&gt; Given that AKR1C3 catalyses the conversion of 11KA4 to 11KT even more efficiently than the conversion of A4 to T,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=183 |issue= |pages=192–201 |year=2018 |pmid=29936123 |pmc=6283102 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Quanson |first2=Jonathan L. |last3=Mostaghel |first3=Elahe |last4=Pretorius |first4=Elzette |last5=Snoep |first5=Jacky L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes |journal=Endocrinology |volume=163 |issue=7 |year=2022 |pmid=35560164 |doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068 |last1=Paulukinas |first1=Ryan D. |last2=Mesaros |first2=Clementina A. |last3=Penning |first3=Trevor M. |s2cid=248776966 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it is therefore believed that more 11KT is produced from 11KA4 than from 11OHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot; /&gt; As such, while all the routes from A4 and T can be seen on Figure 4, given that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; the predominant route in normal conditions in humans to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35560164&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Paulukinas|first1=Ryan D.|last2=Mesaros|first2=Clementina A.|last3=Penning|first3=Trevor M.|year=2022|title=Conversion of Classical and 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Insulin-Induced AKR1C3 in a Model of Human PCOS Adipocytes|journal=Endocrinology|volume=163|issue=7|doi=10.1210/endocr/bqac068|pmid=35560164|s2cid=248776966}}&lt;/ref&gt; {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}

==== From Progesterone and 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Towards 11-Oxygenated Androgens ====
The pathways from P4 and 17-OHP to 11-oxygenated androgens can be described as follows.

The 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is needed to cleave a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus to convert an initial pregnane to a final androgen. Human CYP17A1 cannot efficiently catalyze this reaction for steroids that have the oxo- functional group at carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; Examples of such steroids are 11OHPdione or 11KPdione. Therefore, such C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid should be 3α-reduced by AKR1C4 before it can be converted to a C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid by CYP17A1. After the side-chain cleavage by CYP17A1, the oxo- group at position 3 is restored back in a 3α-oxidation reaction (by an enzyme such as AKR1C4 or HSD17B6) to convert an inactive androgen such as 11K-3αdiol to the active one such as 11KDHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;/&gt;

As you see, the order of steps in metabolic routes from P4 and 17-OHP towards 11-oxygenated androgens (11KDHT and 11OHDHT) is similar to the conversion of P4 and 17-OHP to DHT in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot; /&gt;

==Clinical Significance ==
=== Biological Role of 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
11-oxygenated androgens are produced in physiological quantities in healthy primate organisms (including humans).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot; /&gt; 

Humans have two isozymes with 11β-hydroxylase activity, encoded by the genes ''CYP11B1'' (regulated by the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)) and ''CYP11B2'' (regulated by angiotensin II).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22217826&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|name-list-style=vanc|title=Molecular biology of 11β-hydroxylase and 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase enzymes |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=43 |issue=8 |pages=827–35  |pmid=22217826 |doi=10.1016/0960-0760(92)90309-7 |s2cid=19379671 |last1=White |first1=Perrin C. |last2=Pascoe |first2=Leigh |last3=Curnow |first3=Kathleen M. |last4=Tannin |first4=Grace |last5=Rösler |first5=Ariel |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Since the first step in the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated androgens involves 11β-hydroxylation of a steroid substrate by CYP11B1/2 isozymes that are generally associated with their expression in the adrenal gland, 11-oxygenated androgens are considered androgens of adrenal origin. They follow the circadian rhythm of cortisol but correlate very weakly with T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=751191 |pmid=34867794 |pmc=8636728 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191 |doi-access=free |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Nella |first3=Aikaterini A. |last4=Chen |first4=Xuan |last5=Zhao |first5=Lili |last6=Nanba |first6=Aya T. |last7=Byrd |first7=James Brian |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |last9=Merke |first9=Deborah P. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34324429&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Circadian rhythms of 11-oxygenated C19 steroids and ∆5-steroid sulfates in healthy men |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=185 |issue=4 |pages=K1–K6  |pmid=34324429 |doi=10.1530/EJE-21-0348 |pmc=8826489 |pmc-embargo-date=August 27, 2022 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Zhao |first2=Lili |last3=Chen |first3=Xuan |last4=Yang |first4=Rebecca |last5=Rege |first5=Juilee |last6=Rainey |first6=William E. |last7=Veldhuis |first7=Johannes D. |last8=Auchus |first8=Richard J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens raise after ACTH stimulation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13211802&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=DOBRINER K, KAPPAS A, GALLAGHER TF |title=Studies in steroid metabolism. XXVI. Steroid isolation studies in human leukemia |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=1481–6 |date=November 1954 |pmid=13211802 |pmc=1072573 |doi=10.1172/JCI103026 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; that further supports their adrenal origin.   However, in addition to the adrenal glands, CYP11B1 is also expressed in Leydig cells and ovarian theca cells, albeit at far lower levels, so the production of 11KT precursors may be one of the most important functions of 11β-hydroxylase activity in the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27428878&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone Is a Major Androgen Produced in Human Gonads |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=101 |issue=10 |pages=3582–3591  |pmid=27428878 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2311 |last1=Imamichi |first1=Yoshitaka |last2=Yuhki |first2=Koh-Ichi |last3=Orisaka |first3=Makoto |last4=Kitano |first4=Takeshi |last5=Mukai |first5=Kuniaki |last6=Ushikubi |first6=Fumitaka |last7=Taniguchi |first7=Takanobu |last8=Umezawa |first8=Akihiro |last9=Miyamoto |first9=Kaoru |last10=Yazawa |first10=Takashi |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In an in vitro study by Strushkevich et al. published in 2013, both isozymes have been shown to convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (P4, 17-OHP, A4 and T), but they are very specific to the configuration of the A-ring (carbon positions 1 to 5) of steroids, i.e., they cannot convert Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; steroids with a hydroxy group at the carbon position 3.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23322723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |pmc=5417327|year=2013|last1=Strushkevich|first1=N.|last2=Gilep|first2=A. A.|last3=Shen|first3=L.|last4=Arrowsmith|first4=C. H.|last5=Edwards|first5=A. M.|last6=Usanov|first6=S. A.|last7=Park|first7=H. W.|title=Structural Insights into Aldosterone Synthase Substrate Specificity and Targeted Inhibition|journal=Molecular Endocrinology (Baltimore, Md.)|volume=27|issue=2|pages=315–324|doi=10.1210/me.2012-1287|pmid=23322723}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The relative biological significance of the 11-oxygenated androgens has been subject to some debate. There have been enough studies to establish that 11OHA4 itself does not have any androgenic activity but an important precursor to 11KT and 11KDHT.{{cn}} Androgen activity has been established for 11KT, 11KDHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt; as well as 11OHT and 11OHDHT but circulating levels of all of these androgens have not been firmly established. 11KT may serve as a primary androgen for healthy women,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Nikolaou|first2=Nikolaos|last3=Louw|first3=Carla|last4=Schiffer|first4=Lina|last5=Gibson|first5=Hylton|last6=Gilligan|first6=Lorna C.|last7=Gangitano|first7=Elena|last8=Snoep|first8=Jacky|last9=Arlt|first9=Wiebke|year=2020|title=The A-ring reduction of 11-ketotestosterone is efficiently catalysed by AKR1D1 and SRD5A2 but not SRD5A1|url=|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=202|pages=105724|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105724|pmid=32629108|s2cid=220323715|last10=Tomlinson|first10=Jeremy W.|last11=Storbeck|first11=Karl-Heinz}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; as it circulates at similar levels to T, but unlike T, the levels of 11KT are stable across the menstrual cycle.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt; There are conflicting reports on whether 11-oxygenated androgens decline in women with age, and whether the relative contribution of 11KT as compared with T is higher in postmenopausal women than in younger ones — 
Nanba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot; /&gt; and Davio et al. (2020)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32498089&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Davio|first1=Angela|last2=Woolcock|first2=Helen|last3=Nanba|first3=Aya T.|last4=Rege|first4=Juilee|last5=o'Day|first5=Patrick|last6=Ren|first6=Jianwei|last7=Zhao|first7=Lili|last8=Ebina|first8=Hiroki|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard|year=2020|title=Sex Differences in 11-Oxygenated Androgen Patterns Across Adulthood|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=105|issue=8|pages=e2921–e2929|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa343|pmc=7340191|pmid=32498089|last10=Rainey|first10=William E.|last11=Turcu|first11=Adina F.}}&lt;/ref&gt; found that 11KT do not decline with age in women, however, Skiba et al. (2019)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot; /&gt; reported that the levels do decline. The decline of circulating 11-androgens with age may be associated with declining levels of DHEA and A4, which serve as precursors. It should also be noted that about half of circulating A4 quantities and almost all DHEA quantities are of adrenal origin.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25428847&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Turcu A, Smith JM, Auchus R, Rainey WE |title=Adrenal androgens and androgen precursors-definition, synthesis, regulation and physiologic actions |journal=Compr Physiol |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=1369–81 |date=October 2014 |pmid=25428847 |pmc=4437668 |doi=10.1002/cphy.c140006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore the decline of 11-oxygenated androgens - steroids of adrenal origin - may be in line with a decline with their adrenal androgen precursors - DHEA and A4.

Studies to date also strongly suggest that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen. Notably, 11KDHT has been found to circulate at substantially lower levels than DHT at least in prostate cancer&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;/&gt; suggesting that the 5α-reduction of 11KT is not as physiologically relevant in that condition. While early studies did show that 11KT and other 11-oxygenated androgens are substrates for SRD5A1 and SRD5A2, these did not perform full kinetic analyses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;. Barnard et al., in a study published in 2020 showed that SRD5A1 does not efficiently catalyze the 5α-reduction of 11KT or 11KA4,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32629108&quot;/&gt; confirming that 11KT may be the more relevant active 11-oxygenated androgen given the abundant peripheral expression of SRD5A2. While this does not rule out the potential for 11KDHT to be produced by SRD5A2 (or to a lesser degree by SRD5A1) in specific tissues, current evidence does suggest that the emphasis should be taken off the production of 11KDHT and rather placed on 11KT. 

As for the measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=184 |issue=3 |pages=353–363 |pmid=33444228 |pmc=7923147 |doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077| last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021 |issn=1479-683X}}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report |journal=Int J Mol Sci |year=2020 |volume=21 |issue=13 |pmid=32610579 |pmc=7369945 |doi=10.3390/ijms21134622 |doi-access=free |last1=Sumińska |first1=Marta |last2=Bogusz-Górna |first2=Klaudia |last3=Wegner |first3=Dominika |last4=Fichna |first4=Marta |page=4622 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Yildiz | first1=Bulent O. | title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=20 | issue=2 | year=2006 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=16772149 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004 | pages=167–176}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Peigné | first1=Maëliss | last2=Villers-Capelle | first2=Anne | last3=Robin | first3=Geoffroy | last4=Dewailly | first4=Didier | title=Hyperandrogénie féminine | journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France) | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=42 | issue=11 | year=2013 | issn=0755-4982 | pmid=24184282 | doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016 | pages=1487–1499 | s2cid=28921380 | language=fr}}&lt;/ref&gt; Relying on T levels alone in conditions associated with hyperandrogenism may read to diagnostic pitfalls and confusion.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;/&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens |journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=252–259  |pmid=28234803 |pmc=5819755 |doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J. |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Reprod Biomed Online |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=734–742  |pmid=32912651 |doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013 |s2cid=221625488 |last1=Yang |first1=Yabo |last2=Ouyang |first2=Nengyong |last3=Ye |first3=Yang |last4=Hu |first4=Qin |last5=Du |first5=Tao |last6=Di |first6=Na |last7=Xu |first7=Wenming |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo |last9=Yang |first9=Dongzi |last10=Zhao |first10=Xiaomiao |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;/&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by very potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Balsamo | first1=Antonio | last2=Baronio | first2=Federico | last3=Ortolano | first3=Rita | last4=Menabo | first4=Soara | last5=Baldazzi | first5=Lilia | last6=Di Natale | first6=Valeria | last7=Vissani | first7=Sofia | last8=Cassio | first8=Alessandra | title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant | journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics | year=2020 | publisher=Frontiers Media SA | volume=8 | page=593315 | issn=2296-2360 | pmid=33415088 | pmc=7783414 | doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Kamrath | first1=Clemens | last2=Wettstaedt | first2=Lisa | last3=Boettcher | first3=Claudia | last4=Hartmann | first4=Michaela F. | last5=Wudy | first5=Stefan A. | title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia | journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=178 | year=2018 | issn=0960-0760 | pmid=29277706 | doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016 | pages=221–228| s2cid=3709499 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Another issue with the use of T as a biomarker of androgen excess is the low circulating levels in women and the specificity and sensitivity of the assays used.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29306916&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Falsely elevated plasma testosterone concentrations in neonates: importance of LC-MS/MS measurements |journal=Clin Chem Lab Med |volume=56 |issue=6 |pages=e141–e143 |pmid=29306916 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2017-1028 |last1=Hamer |first1=Henrike M. |last2=Finken |first2=Martijn J.J. |last3=Van Herwaarden |first3=Antonius E. |last4=Du Toit |first4=Therina |last5=Swart |first5=Amanda C. |last6=Heijboer |first6=Annemieke C. |year=2018 |hdl=10019.1/106715 |s2cid=13917408 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30753518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nanba|first1=Aya T.|last2=Rege|first2=Juilee|last3=Ren|first3=Jianwei|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|last5=Rainey|first5=William E.|last6=Turcu|first6=Adina F.|year=2019|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Decline With Age in Women|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=7|pages=2615–2622|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-02527|pmc=6525564|pmid=30753518}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterised, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women |journal=Fertil Steril |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=148–52  |pmid=1623996 |doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8 |last1=Carmina |first1=E. |last2=Stanczyk |first2=F. Z. |last3=Chang |first3=L. |last4=Miles |first4=R. A. |last5=Lobo |first5=R. A. |year=1992 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=20 |issue= 2|pages=180–6  |pmid=14417423 |doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|last1=Lipsett |first1=Mortimer B. |last2=Riter |first2=Barbara |year=1960 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=66 |issue=5 |pages=946–50  |pmid=3129451 |doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946 |last1=Polson |first1=D. W. |last2=Reed |first2=M. J. |last3=Franks |first3=S. |last4=Scanlon |first4=M. J. |last5=James |first5=V. H. T. |year=1988 }}&lt;/ref&gt; However, due to to conflicting reports ratios did not find a firm footing in the clinical as a diagnostic tool.

=== On The Aromatization of Androgens ===
Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are unlikely to be converted by aromatase into estrogens ''in vivo'',&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;  that was first predicted in 2016 by Imamichi at al. in an ''in vitro'' study.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women when not taking into account DHEA. However, DHEA has a very low affinity for the androgen receptor and thus should not be an important contributor, if at all, for receptor activation under normal conditions.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study, Barnard et al., incubating ''in vitro'' three different aromatase-expressing cell cultures and ''ex vivo'' human placenta explant cultures with normal and radiolabeled steroids, detected conversion of 11-oxygenated and conventional androgens into 11-oxygenated estrogens; however, 11-oxygenated estrogens were not detected ''in vivo'': neither in pregnant women who have high aromatase expression nor in patients who have high 11-androgens levels due to CAH or adrenocortical carcinoma, probably due to relatively low aromatase activity towards 11-oxygenated androgens compared to conventional androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;/&gt; However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt; Therefore, the role of DHT and 11-oxygenated androgens should be seriously considered in women patients.

=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Since both the canonical and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis towards DHT lead to early male sexual differentiation&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = e3000198 | pmid = 30943210 | pmc = 6464227 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198 | last1 = Miller | first1 = Walter L. | last2 = Auchus | first2 = Richard J. |year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot; /&gt; and are required for normal human male genital development,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of male fetuses,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

Flück et al. described in 2011 a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. These findings confirmed that DHT produced in a backdoor pathway, while not necessary for the sexual development of females, is important for that of males. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were enough to disrupt it.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). As such, this syndrome leads to DSD in both sexes, while affected girls go usually unrecognized until puberty, when they show amenorrhea. This syndrome is also rare with only a few cases reported.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, 11-oxygenated androgens may play previously overlooked role in DSD.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia ===
Another cause of androgen excess is congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Lancet |volume=390 |issue=10108 |pages=2194–2210 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28576284 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC |title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=349 |issue=8 |pages=776–88 |date=August 2003 |pmid=12930931 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | volume = 103 | issue = 11 | pages = 4043–4088 | year = 2018 | pmid = 30272171 | pmc = 6456929 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2018-01865 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Such deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of a respective cortisol precursor, that becomes to serve as a substrate to androgens. In CYP21A2 deficiency&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; including the mild forms (which are not always diagnosed)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32966723&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Merke DP, Auchus RJ |title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency |journal=N Engl J Med |volume=383 |issue=13 |pages=1248–1261 |date=September 2020 |pmid=32966723 |doi=10.1056/NEJMra1909786 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31499506&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Hyperandrogenism in Women|last1=Pignatelli|first1=Duarte|last2=Pereira|first2=Sofia S.|last3=Pasquali|first3=Renato|year=2019|isbn=978-3-318-06470-4|series=Frontiers of Hormone Research|volume=53|pages=65–76|chapter=Androgens in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|doi=10.1159/000494903|pmid=31499506|s2cid=202412336}}&lt;/ref&gt; or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; elevated 17-OHP levels starts the backdoor pathway to DHT. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt; The reason why 17-OHP serves as a prerequisite substrate for DHT within the backdoor pathway roundabout of T rather then an immediate substrate within the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway for A4, and then T, is because the catalytic activity 17,20-lyase reaction (which cleaves a side-chain from the steroid nucleus converting a pregnane to an androstane (androgen), i.e., from 17OPH5 to DHEA; from 17-OHP to A4) performed by CYP17A1 in humans is approximately 100 times more efficient in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway than in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway. Therefore, the catalytic efficiency of CYP17A1 for 17-OHP is about 100 times lower than for 17OHP5, resulting in negligible A4 being produced from 17-OHP in the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; reaction pathway in humans.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8325965&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Swart|first1=P.|last2=Swart|first2=A. C.|last3=Waterman|first3=M. R.|last4=Estabrook|first4=R. W.|last5=Mason|first5=J. I.|year=1993|title=Progesterone 16 alpha-hydroxylase activity is catalyzed by human cytochrome P450 17 alpha-hydroxylase|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=77|issue=1|pages=98–102|doi=10.1210/jcem.77.1.8325965|pmid=8325965}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12915666&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Miller|first2=Walter L.|last3=Auchus|first3=Richard J.|year=2003|title=The 17, 20-lyase activity of cytochrome CYP17A1 from human fetal testis favors the delta5 steroidogenic pathway|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12915666|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=88|issue=8|pages=3762–3766|doi=10.1210/jc.2003-030143|issn=0021-972X|pmid=12915666}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15774560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2005|title=Minireview: regulation of steroidogenesis by electron transfer|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15774560|journal=Endocrinology|volume=146|issue=6|pages=2544–2550|doi=10.1210/en.2005-0096|issn=0013-7227|pmid=15774560}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt; The accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency in CAH can be attributed to the fact that the primary enzyme for 17-OHP in normal conditions is CYP21A2, that is expressed in the adrenal and not the gonads.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|year=2019 |volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;/&gt; In a 1998 study, Auchus et al. demonstrated that human CYP17A1 efficiently catalyzed the conversion of P4 to 17-OHP, but the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 was much less efficient than the corresponding conversion of 17OHP5 to DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;/&gt; In rodents, quite contrary, the conversion of 17-OHP to A4 is very efficient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9452426&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Auchus | first1=Richard J. | last2=Lee | first2=Tim C. | last3=Miller | first3=Walter L. | title=Cytochrome b 5 Augments the 17,20-Lyase Activity of Human P450c17 without Direct Electron Transfer | journal=The Journal of Biological Chemistry | year=1998 | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=273 | issue=6 | issn=0021-9258 | pmid=9452426 | doi=10.1074/jbc.273.6.3158 | pages=3158–3165| doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; This explains significant accumulation of 17-OHP in CYP21A2 deficiency or POR deficiency in humans, so that 17-OHP, while not 21-hydroxylated in sufficient quantities, and being better a substrate for 5α-reductase than for CYP17A1, is 5α-reduced serving as the prerequisite for this backdoor pathway. Hence, fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may provoke activation of this pathway to DHT and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls, thus explaining DSD in girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;

P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE |title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=181 |issue=5 |pages=481–488 |date=November 2019 |pmid=31505456 |doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M |title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=946–950 |date=May 2017 |pmid=28188961 |doi=10.1111/jog.13288 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;

17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Turcu | first1=Adina F | last2=Mallappa | first2=Ashwini | last3=Elman | first3=Meredith S | last4=Avila | first4=Nilo A | last5=Marko | first5=Jamie | last6=Rao | first6=Hamsini | last7=Tsodikov | first7=Alexander | last8=Auchus | first8=Richard J | last9=Merke | first9=Deborah P | title = 11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency | journal = The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2017 | volume = 102 | issue = 8 | pages = 2701–2710  | pmid = 28472487 | pmc = 5546849 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2016-3989}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Eur J Endocrinol |volume=174 |issue=5 |pages=601–9  |pmid=26865584 |pmc=4874183 |doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181 |last1=Turcu |first1=Adina F. |last2=Nanba |first2=Aya T. |last3=Chomic |first3=Robert |last4=Upadhyay |first4=Sunil K. |last5=Giordano |first5=Thomas J. |last6=Shields |first6=James J. |last7=Merke |first7=Deborah P. |last8=Rainey |first8=William E. |last9=Auchus |first9=Richard J. |year=2016 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency | journal = Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity | volume = 25 | issue = 3 | pages = 178–184  | pmid = 29718004 | doi = 10.1097/MED.0000000000000402 | s2cid = 26072848 |last1 = White |first1 = Perrin C. |year = 2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;/&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to devlopment of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|pmc=4454804|year=2015|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmid=25850025}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=107 |issue=1 |pages=e272–e280  |pmid=34390337 |pmc=8684463 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598 |last1=Schröder |first1=Mariska A M. |last2=Turcu |first2=Adina F. |last3=o'Day |first3=Patrick |last4=Van Herwaarden |first4=Antonius E. |last5=Span |first5=Paul N. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Sweep |first7=Fred C G J. |last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten |first8=Hedi L. |year=2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from P4 and 21dF from 17-OHP by CYP11B1/2 in CAH may be attributed to CYP21A2 deficiency resulting in increased P4 and 17-OHP concentrations and, together with the unavailability of CYP11B1/2's main substrates, 11-deoxycortisol (11dF) and 11-deoxycorticosterone (DOC), drive the production of 11-oxygenated pregnanes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; We have reasons to believe that this may be aggravated by elevated ACTH due to a feedback loop in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis caused by impaired cortisol synthesis associated with CYP21A2 deficiency; higher ACTH causes higher CYP11B1 expression. Multiple studies demonstrated that in CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, both 21dF levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid4372245&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Plasma 17-hydroxyprogesterone, 21-deoxycortisol and cortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=39 |issue=6 |pages=1099–102 |year=1974 |pmid=4372245 |doi=10.1210/jcem-39-6-1099 |last1=Franks |first1=Robert C. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid476971&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rapid assay of plasma 21-deoxycortisol and 11-deoxycortisol in congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=367–75 |year=1979 |pmid=476971 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2265.1979.tb02091.x |url=|last1=Fukushima |first1=D. K. |last2=Nishina |first2=T. |last3=Wu |first3=R. H. K. |last4=Hellman |first4=L. |last5=Finkelstein |first5=J. W. |s2cid=2979354 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid6090811&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Development of plasma 21-deoxycortisol radioimmunoassay and application to the diagnosis of patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=185–91 |year=1984 |pmid=6090811 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(84)90382-0 |last1=Milewicz |first1=A. |last2=Vecsei |first2=P. |last3=Korth-Schütz |first3=S. |last4=Haack |first4=D. |last5=Rösler |first5=A. |last6=Lichtwald |first6=K. |last7=Lewicka |first7=S. |last8=Mittelstaedt |first8=G.v. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2986404&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Radioimmunoassay for 21-deoxycortisol: clinical applications |journal=Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) |volume=108 |issue=4 |pages=537–44 |year=1985 |pmid=2986404 |doi=10.1530/acta.0.1080537 |last1=Gueux |first1=B. |last2=Fiet |first2=J. |last3=Pham-Huu-Trung |first3=M. T. |last4=Villette |first4=J. M. |last5=Gourmelen |first5=M. |last6=Galons |first6=H. |last7=Brerault |first7=J. L. |last8=Vexiau |first8=P. |last9=Julien |first9=R. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt; and 11OPH4 levels&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Gueux |first1=Bernard |last2=Fiet |first2=Jean |last3=Galons |first3=Hervé |last4=Boneté |first4=Rémi |last5=Villette |first5=Jean-Marie |last6=Vexiau |first6=Patrick |last7=Pham-Huu-Trung |first7=Marie-Thérèse |last8=Raux-Eurin |first8=Marie-Charles |last9=Gourmelen |first9=Micheline |last10=Brérault |first10=Jean-Louis |last11=Julien |first11=René |last12=Dreux |first12=Claude |title=The measurement of 11β-hydroxy-4-pregnene-3,20-dione (21-Deoxycorticosterone) by radioimmunoassay in human plasma |journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry  |year=1987 |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=145–150 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(87)90043-4 |pmid=3546944 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2537337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Gueux |first2=Bernard |last3=Rauxdemay |first3=Marie-Charles |last4=Kuttenn |first4=Frederique |last5=Vexiau |first5=Patrick |last6=Brerault |first6=Jeanlouis |last7=Couillin |first7=Philippe |last8=Galons |first8=Herve |last9=Villette |first9=Jeanmarie |last10=Julien |first10=Rene |last11=Dreux |first11=Claude |title=Increased Plasma 21-Deoxycorticosterone (21-DB) Levels in Late-Onset Adrenal 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Suggest a Mild Defect of the Mineralocorticoid Pathway |journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism |year=1989 |volume=68 |issue=3 |pages=542–547 |doi=10.1210/jcem-68-3-542 |pmid=2537337 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29264476&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Fiet |first1=Jean |last2=Le Bouc |first2=Yves |last3=Guéchot |first3=Jérôme |last4=Hélin |first4=Nicolas |last5=Maubert |first5=Marie-Anne |last6=Farabos |first6=Dominique |last7=Lamazière |first7=Antonin |title=A Liquid Chromatography/Tandem Mass Spectometry Profile of 16 Serum Steroids, Including 21-Deoxycortisol and 21-Deoxycorticosterone, for Management of Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=Journal of the Endocrine Society  |year=2017 |volume=1 |issue=3 |pages=186–201 |doi=10.1210/js.2016-1048 |pmid=29264476 |pmc=5686660 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31821037&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Interaction between accumulated 21-deoxysteroids and mineralocorticoid signaling in 21-hydroxylase deficiency |journal=Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab |volume=318 |issue=2 |pages=E102–E110 |year=2020 |pmid=31821037 |doi=10.1152/ajpendo.00368.2019 |last1=Travers |first1=Simon |last2=Bouvattier |first2=Claire |last3=Fagart |first3=Jérôme |last4=Martinerie |first4=Laetitia |last5=Viengchareun |first5=Say |last6=Pussard |first6=Eric |last7=Lombès |first7=Marc |s2cid=209314028 }}&lt;/ref&gt; are increased. It was Robert Franks in who first published a study, in 1974, that compared 21dF levels of CAH patients with those of healthy controls. He measured 21dF plasma levels in twelve CAH patients before treatment, three after treatment, and four healthy controls following ACTH administration. Mean values of 21dF in CAH patients was 88 ng/ml while in healthy controls it was not detected. In untreated patients, values decreased after therapy. Even that, there were earlier reports about unique cases where 21dF was detected in CAH patients, but without direct comparison to healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid5845501&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Detection of 21-deoxycortisol in blood from a patient with congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Metabolism |year=1965 |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1276–81 |pmid=5845501 |doi=10.1016/s0026-0495(65)80008-7|last1=Wieland |first1=Ralph G. |last2=Maynard |first2=Donald E. |last3=Riley |first3=Thomas R. |last4=Hamwi |first4=George J. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13271547&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and 21-desoxyhydrocortisone; their metabolism and possible role in congenital adrenal virilism |journal=J Clin Invest |volume=34 |issue=11 |pages=1639–46 |year=1955 |pmid=13271547 |pmc=438744 |doi=10.1172/JCI103217|last1=Jailer |first1=Joseph W. |last2=Gold |first2=Jay J. |last3=Vande Wiele |first3=Raymond |last4=Lieberman |first4=Seymour }}&lt;/ref&gt; As for 11OHP4, it were Gueux et al. who first demonstrated, in 1987, elevated plasma levels of 11OHP4 in CAH. In that study, in treated classical CAH patients, some of which had salt-wasting form, mean levels of 11OHP4 (5908.7 pmol/l) were 332 times higher than in healthy controls (17.8 pmol/l). There was no difference in 11OHP4 in healthy controls depending on sex or phase of a menstrual cycle; ACTH stimulation in those control increased 11OHP4 four- to six-fold, while dexamethasone 1 mg at midnight decreased 11OHP4 to almost undetectable levels 12 hours later. Therefore, the authors hypothesized that at least in healthy people 11OHP4 is biosythesized exclusively in the adrenal, while gonads are not involved.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3546944&quot; /&gt; Nevertheless, in studies focusing on CAH caused by CYP21A2 deficiency, 11OHP4 received less attention than 21dF.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt; However, it was not until 2017 when 11OHP4 or 21dF were viewed as potential substrates in pathways towards potent 11-ogygenated androgens in ''in vitro'' studies.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;/&gt;

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al. showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency, in male and female patients who received glucocorticoid therapy, both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold compared to healthy controls. The exceptions were dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEA-S), and androstenediol sulfate (A5-S), whose levels were 6.0, 7.5, and 9.4 times lower, respectively, in the patients with the condition compared to healthy controls, due to suppression by glucocorticoid treatment. The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in a backdoor pathway from 17-OHP or P4 as consequence of abnormally upregulated SRD5A1.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group. Besides that, the levels of 11OHA4 and 11KA4 correlated with the levels of markers of insulin resistance; therefore, the study suggests that androgen excess precedes androgen-driven insulin resistance in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot; /&gt; While earlier studies had commonly only measured 11OHA4 or 11OHAST and 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (11OHEt), urinary metabolites of 11OHA,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33539964&quot; /&gt; while 11OHEt is also a metabolite of cortisol,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31362062&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title=Human steroid biosynthesis, metabolism and excretion are differentially reflected by serum and urine steroid metabolomes: A comprehensive review |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=194 |issue= |pages=105439 |year=2019 |pmid=31362062 |pmc=6857441 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105439 |url=|last1=Schiffer |first1=Lina |last2=Barnard |first2=Lise |last3=Baranowski |first3=Elizabeth S. |last4=Gilligan |first4=Lorna C. |last5=Taylor |first5=Angela E. |last6=Arlt |first6=Wiebke |last7=Shackleton |first7=Cedric H.L. |last8=Storbeck |first8=Karl-Heinz }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27845856&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Modified-Release and Conventional Glucocorticoids and Diurnal Androgen Excretion in Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=6 |pages=1797–1806 |year=2017 |pmid=27845856 |pmc=5470768 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-2855|last1=Jones |first1=Christopher M. |last2=Mallappa |first2=Ashwini |last3=Reisch |first3=Nicole |last4=Nikolaou |first4=Nikolaos |last5=Krone |first5=Nils |last6=Hughes |first6=Beverly A. |last7=o'Neil |first7=Donna M. |last8=Whitaker |first8=Martin J. |last9=Tomlinson |first9=Jeremy W. |last10=Storbeck |first10=Karl-Heinz |last11=Merke |first11=Deborah P. |last12=Ross |first12=Richard J. |last13=Arlt |first13=Wiebke }}&lt;/ref&gt; more recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Another study reported that 11OHT was the only significantly elevated 11-oxygeated androgen in PCOS and together with 11KT, correlated with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;/&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;

=== Premature Adrenarche ===
In a 2018 study, Rege et al. demonstrated that levels of 11KT in girls aged between 4 and 7 years during normal adrenarche (healthy controls) exceeded those of T by 2.43 times, and in those with premature adrenarche by 3.48 times. However, the levels of T in girls with premature adrenarche were higher by just 13% compared to age-matched healthy controls.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30137510&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Rege | first1=Juilee | last2=Turcu | first2=Adina | last3=Kasa-Vubu | first3=Josephine Z | last4=Lerario | first4=Antonio M | last5=Auchus | first5=Gabriela C | last6=Auchus | first6=Richard J | last7=Smith | first7=Joshua M | last8=White | first8=Perrin C | last9=Rainey | first9=William E | title=11KT is the dominant circulating bioactive androgen during normal and premature adrenarche | journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism | year=2018 | publisher=The Endocrine Society | volume=103 | issue=12  | pages=4589–4598 | issn=0021-972X | pmid=30137510 | pmc=6226603 | doi=10.1210/jc.2018-00736 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Prostate Cancer ===
In some cases of advanced prostate cancer, androgen deprivation therapy related to gonadal T depletion does not produce long-term effects, and metastatic tumors may develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC).

The development of CRPC depends on adrenal precursor steroids to produce DHT in the tumor in a metabolic pathway called the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway - the pathway in which T is not involved. SRD5A1, the expression of which increases in CRPC, reduces A4 to 5α-dione, which is then converted to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the DHT produced within the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway hampers the androgen deprivation therapy. Although blood levels of T are decreased by 90-95% in men whose testicles have been removed, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, thus indicating the presence of a metabolic pathway in the prostate that does not require testicular T to produce DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Luu-The | first1=Van | last2=Bélanger | first2=Alain | last3=Labrie | first3=Fernand | title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate | journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism | publisher=Elsevier BV | volume=22 | issue=2 | year=2008 | issn=1521-690X | pmid=18471780 | doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008 | pages=207–221}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Chang et al., incubating six established human prostate cancer cell lines from patients with CRPC in the presence of radiolabeled A4, showed in their experiment published in 2011&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang | first1=K.-H. | last2=Li | first2=R. | last3=Papari-Zareei | first3=M. | last4=Watumull | first4=L. | last5=Zhao | first5=Y. D. | last6=Auchus | first6=R. J. | last7=Sharifi | first7=N. | title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer | journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |year=2011 | publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume=108 | issue=33 | issn=0027-8424 | pmid=21795608 | pmc=3158152 | doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108 | pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C |doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; the presence of this pathway to DHT which bypasses T and they called this the &quot;alternative&quot; pathway, that became later commonly called as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt; The authors demonstrated that this was the dominant pathway in prostate cancer (over the direct conversion of A4 to T) with SRD5A1 (which is upregulated in prostate cancer) first converting A4 to androstanedione (5α-dione), also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione, and then HSD17B3 / AKR1C3 converting 5α-dione to DHT (not necessarily via AST and 3α-diol). The study also found that the SRD5A2 is not involved in this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; Therefore, the study showed the importance of taking into consideration this &quot;alternative&quot; pathway in selecting drugs that inhibit 5α-reductase activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21901017&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prostate cancer: DHT bypasses testosterone to drive progression to castration resistance |journal=Nat Rev Urol |volume=8 |issue=9 |pages=470 |year=September 2011 |pmid=21901017 |doi=10.1038/nrurol.2011.122 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22336886&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis from adrenal precursors does not involve testosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=Cancer Biol Ther |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=237–8 |year=2012 |pmid=22336886 |doi=10.4161/cbt.19608}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Another pathway that may be activated in CRPC, which may also hamper the androgen deprivation therapy, is the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT. Chen et al. in a study published in 2014&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Chen EJ, Sowalsky AG, Gao S, Cai C, Voznesensky O, Schaefer R, Loda M, True LD, Ye H, Troncoso P, Lis RL, Kantoff PW, Montgomery RB, Nelson PS, Bubley GJ, Balk SP, Taplin ME |title=Abiraterone treatment in castration-resistant prostate cancer selects for progesterone responsive mutant androgen receptors |journal=Clin Cancer Res |volume=21 |issue=6 |pages=1273–80 |date=March 2015 |pmid=25320358 |pmc=4359958 |doi=10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-14-1220 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; predicted that abiraterone, a CYP17A1 inhibitor, with about 6-fold more selective for inhibition of 17α-hydroxylase over 17,20-lyase,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28890368&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=de Mello Martins AGG, Allegretta G, Unteregger G, Haupenthal J, Eberhard J, Hoffmann M, van der Zee JA, Junker K, Stöckle M, Müller R, Hartmann RW, Ohlmann CH |title=CYP17A1-independent production of the neurosteroid-derived 5α-pregnan-3β,6α-diol-20-one in androgen-responsive prostate cancer cell lines under serum starvation and inhibition by Abiraterone |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=174 |issue= |pages=183–191 |date=November 2017 |pmid=28890368 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.09.006 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28373265&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Petrunak EM, Rogers SA, Aubé J, Scott EE |title=Structural and Functional Evaluation of Clinically Relevant Inhibitors of Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 |journal=Drug Metab Dispos |volume=45 |issue=6 |pages=635–645 |date=June 2017 |pmid=28373265 |pmc=5438109 |doi=10.1124/dmd.117.075317 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29710837&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV |title=Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency |journal=Pharmaceuticals (Basel) |volume=11 |issue=2 |pages= |date=April 2018 |pmid=29710837 |pmc=6027421 |doi=10.3390/ph11020037 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt; although disrupting canonical androgen biosynthesis, while lowering levels of T, causes elevation of P4, that can be 5α-reduced hence start a backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT with roundabout of T.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25320358&quot;/&gt;

Besides that, in CRPC, 11-oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;/&gt; 11-oxygenated androgens play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in CRPC,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; because after eliminating testicular T biosynthesis by chemical or physical castration, CRPC has been shown to develop the ability to convert inactive circulating adrenal androgen precursors, DHEA and A4, to potent 11-oxygenated androgens in the 11-oxygenated pathway in addition to the 5α-dione pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31672619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The role of adrenal derived androgens in castration resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=197 |issue= |pages=105506 |year=2020 |pmid=31672619 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105506|last1=Barnard |first1=Monique |last2=Mostaghel |first2=Elahe A. |last3=Auchus |first3=Richard J. |last4=Storbeck |first4=Karl-Heinz |pmc=7883395 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot; /&gt; In a 2021 study, Snaterse et al. demonstrated that 11KT is the most circulating active androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool. They also demonstrated that 11KT levels are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a 2018 study by du Toit et al., the full range of androgen pathway metabolites have been shown in normal prostate and various prostate cancer cell models. 11OHA4 and 11OHT were both converted to potent androgens, 11KT and 11KDHT. Compared to T and DHT, 11-oxygenated androgens were the most predominant androgens. High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant. Furthermore, glucuronidation of the 11-oxygenated androgens is hampered by the presence of an oxo- or a hydroxy- group at position 11 of androgens in prostate cancer cell models while in prostate cancer patients' plasma 11KDHT was present only in the unconjugated form, with 11KT also predominantly unconjugated.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;/&gt; 

Of all 11-oxygenated androgens in prostate cancer, it may be that 11KT is the primary active 11-oxygenated androgen, rather than 11KDHT, as observed in experiments on prostate tissue homogenates by Häkkinen et al. published in 2018&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30472582&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Häkkinen|first1=Merja R.|last2=Murtola|first2=Teemu|last3=Voutilainen|first3=Raimo|last4=Poutanen|first4=Matti|last5=Linnanen|first5=Tero|last6=Koskivuori|first6=Johanna|last7=Lakka|first7=Timo|last8=Jääskeläinen|first8=Jarmo|last9=Auriola|first9=Seppo|year=2019|title=Simultaneous analysis by LC-MS/MS of 22 ketosteroids with hydroxylamine derivatization and underivatized estradiol from human plasma, serum and prostate tissue|journal=J Pharm Biomed Anal|volume=164|issue=|pages=642–652|doi=10.1016/j.jpba.2018.11.035|pmid=30472582|s2cid=53729550}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Ventura-Bahena et al., in a 2021 study, describing results of epidemiological studies related to androgens and prostate cancer that focused on specific androgen concentrations (such as T, A4, and DHEA) as inconsistent, hypothesized that the differences in androgen biosynthetic pathways rather than differences in specific androgen levels are associated with prostate cancer development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;/&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but also in clinical conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

The contribution of the 11-oxygenated androgens, as well as the biosynthesis of 11-oxygenated pregnanes to active androgens via a backdoor pathway, have also been demonstrated in BPH cell models showing the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 in the backdoor pathway resulting in the production of 11KDHT. Backdoor pathway intermediates were also detected in BPH tissue as well as in circulation in BPH patients.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In a paper published in 2008, Dimitrakov et al. hypothesized that CP/CPPS may be associated with a mild CYP21A2 deficiency, a cause of non-classic CAH that leads to androgen excesses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;/&gt; Non-classic CAH was generally thought to be asymptomatic in men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28582566&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Non-classic congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency revisited: an update with a special focus on adolescent and adult women |journal=Hum Reprod Update |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=580–599 |year=2017 |pmid=28582566 |doi=10.1093/humupd/dmx014 |last1=Carmina |first1=Enrico |last2=Dewailly |first2=Didier |last3=Escobar-Morreale |first3=Héctor F. |last4=Kelestimur |first4=Fahrettin |last5=Moran |first5=Carlos |last6=Oberfield |first6=Sharon |last7=Witchel |first7=Selma F. |last8=Azziz |first8=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid20671993&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia |journal=Int J Pediatr Endocrinol |volume=2010 |pages=625105 |year=2010 |pmid=20671993 |pmc=2910408 |doi=10.1155/2010/625105|doi-access=free |last1=Witchel |first1=Selma Feldman |last2=Azziz |first2=Ricardo }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors of that 2008 paper, therefore, concluded that CP/CPPS may be a consequence of a systemic condition of androgen excess but not a disease that originates in the prostate such as a localized prostate infection, inflammation, or dysfunction. We hypothesize that CYP21A2 deficiency in CP/CPPS may be associated with elevated androgens produced by pathways activated by such deficiency, i.e.  backdoor pathway from P4 or 17-OHP to DHT and the pathways towards 11-oxygenated androgens.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Quasi-minimal prime</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>271693</id>
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      <id>2410739</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T06:27:53Z</timestamp>
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        <ip>2402:7500:92E:35E9:3848:BA59:D07A:E2F9</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Base 21 */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1954182" xml:space="preserve">A '''quasi-minimal prime''' is a [[w:Prime number|prime number]] for which there is no shorter [[w:Subsequence|subsequence]] of its [[w:Numerical digit|digit]]s in a given [[w:Radix|base]] ''b'' that form a prime &gt; ''b''. For example, 857 is a quasi-minimal prime in [[w:Decimal|decimal]] because there is no prime &gt; 10 among the shorter subsequences of the digits: 8, 5, 7, 85, 87, 57. The subsequence does not have to consist of consecutive digits, so 149 is not a quasi-minimal prime in decimal (because 19 is prime and 19 &gt; 10). But it does have to be in the same order; so, for example, 991 is still a quasi-minimal prime in decimal even though a subset of the digits can form the shorter prime 19 &gt; 10 by changing the order.

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35)

For the quasi-minimal primes in bases up to 36, I have only solved (found all quasi-minimal primes and proved that these are all such primes) bases 2~12, 14~15, 18, 20, 22, 24, 30 (bases 11, 22, 30 need primality proving of the probable primes). For the remain bases 13, 16~17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36, there are some ''x''{''d''}''y'' (with ''x'', ''y'' strings (may be [[w:Empty string|empty]]) with digits in base ''b'', ''d'' digit in base ''b'') families which are not solved (not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')).

I left as a challenge to readers the task of solving (finding all quasi-minimal primes and proving that these are all such primes) bases 13, 16~17, 19, 21, 23, 25~29, 31~36 (this will be a hard problem, e.g. base 23 has a quasi-minimal prime 9E&lt;sub&gt;800873&lt;/sub&gt;, and base 36 has quasi-minimal prime P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ).

Proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' is ''S'', is equivalent to:

* Prove that all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, are primes &gt; ''b''.

* Prove that all [[w:Proper subset|proper]] subsequence of all elements in ''S'', when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; ''b'', when written in base ''b'', contain at least one element in ''S'' as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all strings not containing any element in ''S'' as subsequence, when read as base ''b'' representation, which are &gt; ''b'', are composite).

e.g. proving the set of the quasi-minimal primes in base ''b'' = 10 is {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027}, is equivalent to:

* Prove that all of 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027 are primes &gt; 10.

* Prove that all proper subsequence of all elements in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} which are &gt; 10 are composite.

* Prove that all primes &gt; 10 contain at least one element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence (equivalently, prove that all numbers &gt; 10 not containing any element in {11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027} as subsequence are composite).

==Condensed table==

{|class=wikitable
|''b''||number of quasi-minimal primes base ''b''||base-''b'' form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||length of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''||algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form of largest known quasi-minimal prime base ''b''
|-
|2||1||11||2||3
|-
|3||3||111||3||13
|-
|4||5||221||3||41
|-
|5||22||10&lt;sub&gt;93&lt;/sub&gt;13||96||5&lt;sup&gt;95&lt;/sup&gt;+8
|-
|6||11||40041||5||5209
|-
|7||71||3&lt;sub&gt;16&lt;/sub&gt;1||17||(7&lt;sup&gt;17&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/2
|-
|8||75||4&lt;sub&gt;220&lt;/sub&gt;7||221||(4×8&lt;sup&gt;221&lt;/sup&gt;+17)/7
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||1161||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10
|-
|10||77||50&lt;sub&gt;28&lt;/sub&gt;27||31||5×10&lt;sup&gt;30&lt;/sup&gt;+27
|-
|11&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||62669||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10
|-
|12||106||40&lt;sub&gt;39&lt;/sub&gt;77||42||4×12&lt;sup&gt;41&lt;/sup&gt;+91
|-
|13&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||3195~3197||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||32021||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||19699||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1
|-
|15||1284||7&lt;sub&gt;155&lt;/sub&gt;97||157||(15&lt;sup&gt;157&lt;/sup&gt;+59)/2
|-
|16&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2346~2347||4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD||72787||(4×16&lt;sup&gt;72787&lt;/sup&gt;+2291)/15
|-
|17&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||10408~10428||F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1||186770||262×17&lt;sup&gt;186768&lt;/sup&gt;+1
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||6271||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||6271||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13
|-
|21&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||13375~13396||CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K||479150||(51×21&lt;sup&gt;479149&lt;/sup&gt;−1243)/4
|-
|22&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||22003||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||8134||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49
|-
|30&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||34206||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1
|-
|36&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt;||35257~35263||P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ||81995||(5×36&lt;sup&gt;81995&lt;/sup&gt;+821)/7
|}

&lt;sup&gt;*&lt;/sup&gt; Data assumes the primality of the [[w:probable prime|probable prime]]s.

Except bases ''b'' = 13, 16, 17, 21, all bases in this table are completely solved (if we allow strong probable primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;20000&lt;/sup&gt;), also, except bases ''b'' = 11, 13, 16, 17, 21, 22, 30, 36, all bases in this table are completely solved even if we only allow definitely primes (thus, we can complete the classification of the quasi-minimal primes in these bases, i.e. the “quasi-minimal problems” in these bases are now theorems), for the quasi-minimal primes see the data below.

Base ''b'' = 13 has 3195 known quasi-minimal primes (or PRPs), see the data below, and if there are more quasi-minimal primes in base 13, then they must be of the form 9{5} or A{3}A (we are unable to determine if these two families contain a prime or not, i.e. these two families have no known prime members, nor can these two families be ruled out as only containing composites), and must have at least 82000 digits in base 13, besides, since these two families can contain at most one quasi-minimal prime, there are at most 3197 quasi-minimal primes in base 13. (i.e. the quasi-minimal primes in base 13 are the 3195 known quasi-minimal primes in base 13 (they are given in the data section) plus the smallest prime in the family 9{5} in base 13 (if exists) plus the smallest prime in the family A{3}A in base 13 (if exists))

Base ''b'' = 16 has 2346 known quasi-minimal primes (or PRPs), see the data below, and if there are more quasi-minimal primes in base 16, then they must be of the form {3}AF (we are unable to determine if this family contains a prime or not, i.e. this family have no known prime members, nor can this family be ruled out as only containing composites), and must have at least 76000 digits in base 16, besides, since this family can contain at most one quasi-minimal prime, there are at most 2347 quasi-minimal primes in base 16. (i.e. the quasi-minimal primes in base 16 are the 2346 known quasi-minimal primes in base 16 (they are given in the data section) plus the smallest prime in the family {3}AF in base 16 (if exists))

==Data for quasi-minimal primes==

===Base 2===

11

===Base 3===

12, 21, 111

===Base 4===

11, 13, 23, 31, 221

===Base 5===

12, 21, 23, 32, 34, 43, 104, 111, 131, 133, 313, 401, 414, 3101, 10103, 14444, 30301, 33001, 33331, 44441, 300031, 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013

===Base 6===

11, 15, 21, 25, 31, 35, 45, 51, 4401, 4441, 40041

===Base 7===

14, 16, 23, 25, 32, 41, 43, 52, 56, 61, 65, 113, 115, 131, 133, 155, 212, 221, 304, 313, 335, 344, 346, 364, 445, 515, 533, 535, 544, 551, 553, 1022, 1051, 1112, 1202, 1211, 1222, 2111, 3031, 3055, 3334, 3503, 3505, 3545, 4504, 4555, 5011, 5455, 5545, 5554, 6034, 6634, 11111, 11201, 30011, 30101, 31001, 31111, 33001, 33311, 35555, 40054, 100121, 150001, 300053, 351101, 531101, 1100021, 33333301, 5100000001, 33333333333333331

===Base 8===

13, 15, 21, 23, 27, 35, 37, 45, 51, 53, 57, 65, 73, 75, 107, 111, 117, 141, 147, 161, 177, 225, 255, 301, 343, 361, 401, 407, 417, 431, 433, 463, 467, 471, 631, 643, 661, 667, 701, 711, 717, 747, 767, 3331, 3411, 4043, 4443, 4611, 5205, 6007, 6101, 6441, 6477, 6707, 6777, 7461, 7641, 47777, 60171, 60411, 60741, 444641, 500025, 505525, 3344441, 4444477, 5500525, 5550525, 55555025, 444444441, 744444441, 77774444441, 7777777777771, 555555555555525, 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447

===Base 9===

12, 14, 18, 21, 25, 32, 34, 41, 45, 47, 52, 58, 65, 67, 74, 78, 81, 87, 117, 131, 135, 151, 155, 175, 177, 238, 272, 308, 315, 331, 337, 355, 371, 375, 377, 438, 504, 515, 517, 531, 537, 557, 564, 601, 638, 661, 702, 711, 722, 735, 737, 751, 755, 757, 771, 805, 838, 1011, 1015, 1101, 1701, 2027, 2207, 3017, 3057, 3101, 3501, 3561, 3611, 3688, 3868, 5035, 5051, 5071, 5101, 5501, 5554, 5705, 5707, 7017, 7075, 7105, 7301, 8535, 8544, 8555, 8854, 20777, 22227, 22777, 30161, 33388, 50161, 50611, 53335, 55111, 55535, 55551, 57061, 57775, 70631, 71007, 77207, 100037, 100071, 100761, 105007, 270707, 301111, 305111, 333035, 333385, 333835, 338885, 350007, 500075, 530005, 555611, 631111, 720707, 2770007, 3030335, 7776662, 30300005, 30333335, 38333335, 51116111, 70000361, 300030005, 300033305, 351111111, 1300000007, 5161111111, 8333333335, 300000000035, 311111111161, 544444444444, 2000000000007, 5700000000001, 7270000000007, 88888888833335, 100000000000507, 5111111111111161, 7277777777777777707, 8888888888888888888335, 30000000000000000000051, 1000000000000000000000000057, 56111111111111111111111111111111111111, 7666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666662, 27777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777707, 300000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000011

===Base 10===

11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 227, 251, 257, 277, 281, 349, 409, 449, 499, 521, 557, 577, 587, 727, 757, 787, 821, 827, 857, 877, 881, 887, 991, 2087, 2221, 5051, 5081, 5501, 5581, 5801, 5851, 6469, 6949, 8501, 9001, 9049, 9221, 9551, 9649, 9851, 9949, 20021, 20201, 50207, 60649, 80051, 666649, 946669, 5200007, 22000001, 60000049, 66000049, 66600049, 80555551, 555555555551, 5000000000000000000000000000027

===Base 11===

12, 16, 18, 21, 27, 29, 34, 38, 3A, 43, 49, 54, 56, 61, 65, 67, 72, 76, 81, 89, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A3, 10A, 115, 117, 133, 139, 153, 155, 171, 193, 197, 199, 1AA, 225, 232, 236, 25A, 263, 315, 319, 331, 335, 351, 353, 362, 373, 379, 391, 395, 407, 414, 452, 458, 478, 47A, 485, 4A5, 4A7, 502, 508, 511, 513, 533, 535, 539, 551, 571, 579, 588, 595, 623, 632, 70A, 711, 715, 731, 733, 737, 755, 759, 775, 791, 797, 7AA, 803, 847, 858, 85A, 874, 885, 887, 913, 919, 931, 937, 957, 959, 975, 995, A07, A1A, A25, A45, A74, A7A, A85, AA1, AA7, 1101, 11A9, 1305, 1451, 1457, 15A7, 175A, 17A5, 17A9, 2023, 2045, 2052, 2083, 20A5, 2333, 2A05, 2A52, 3013, 3026, 3059, 3097, 3206, 3222, 3233, 3307, 3332, 3505, 4025, 4151, 4157, 4175, 4405, 4445, 4487, 450A, 4575, 5017, 5031, 5059, 5075, 5097, 5099, 5105, 515A, 517A, 520A, 5301, 5583, 5705, 577A, 5853, 5873, 5909, 5A17, 5A57, 5A77, 5A8A, 6683, 66A9, 7019, 7073, 7079, 7088, 7093, 7095, 7309, 7451, 7501, 7507, 7578, 757A, 75A7, 7787, 7804, 7844, 7848, 7853, 7877, 78A4, 7A04, 7A57, 7A79, 7A95, 8078, 8245, 8333, 8355, 8366, 8375, 8425, 8553, 8663, 8708, 8777, 878A, 8A05, 9053, 9101, 9107, 9305, 9505, 9703, A052, A119, A151, A175, A515, A517, A575, A577, A5A8, A719, A779, A911, AAA9, 10011, 10075, 10091, 10109, 10411, 10444, 10705, 10709, 10774, 10901, 11104, 11131, 11144, 11191, 1141A, 114A1, 13757, 1411A, 14477, 144A4, 14A04, 14A11, 17045, 17704, 1774A, 17777, 177A4, 17A47, 1A091, 1A109, 1A114, 1A404, 1A411, 1A709, 20005, 20555, 22203, 25228, 25282, 25552, 25822, 28522, 30037, 30701, 30707, 31113, 33777, 35009, 35757, 39997, 40045, 4041A, 40441, 4045A, 404A1, 4111A, 411A1, 42005, 44401, 44474, 444A1, 44555, 44577, 445AA, 44744, 44A01, 47471, 47477, 47701, 5057A, 50903, 5228A, 52A22, 52A55, 52A82, 55007, 550A9, 55205, 55522, 55557, 55593, 55805, 57007, 57573, 57773, 57807, 5822A, 58307, 58505, 58A22, 59773, 59917, 59973, 59977, 59999, 5A015, 5A2A2, 5AA99, 60836, 60863, 68636, 6A609, 6A669, 6A696, 6A906, 6A966, 70048, 70103, 70471, 70583, 70714, 71474, 717A4, 71A09, 74084, 74444, 74448, 74477, 744A8, 74747, 74774, 7488A, 74A48, 75773, 77144, 77401, 77447, 77799, 77A09, 78008, 78783, 7884A, 78888, 788A8, 79939, 79993, 79999, 7A051, 7A444, 7A471, 80005, 80252, 80405, 80522, 80757, 80AA5, 83002, 84045, 85307, 86883, 88863, 8A788, 90073, 90707, 90901, 95003, 97779, 97939, 99111, 99177, 99973, A0111, A0669, A0966, A0999, A0A09, A1404, A4177, A4401, A4717, A5228, A52AA, A5558, A580A, A5822, A58AA, A5A59, A5AA2, A6096, A6966, A6999, A7051, A7778, A7808, A9055, A9091, A9699, A9969, AA52A, AA58A, 100019, 100079, 101113, 101119, 101911, 107003, 140004, 144011, 144404, 1A0019, 1A0141, 1A5001, 1A7005, 1A9001, 222223, 222823, 300107, 300202, 300323, 303203, 307577, 310007, 332003, 370777, 400555, 401A11, 404001, 404111, 405AAA, 41A011, 440A41, 441011, 451777, 455555, 470051, 470444, 474404, 4A0401, 4A4041, 500015, 500053, 500077, 500507, 505577, 522A2A, 525223, 528A2A, 531707, 550777, 553707, 5555A9, 555A99, 557707, 55A559, 5807A7, 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===Base 12===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 25, 27, 31, 35, 37, 3B, 45, 4B, 51, 57, 5B, 61, 67, 6B, 75, 81, 85, 87, 8B, 91, 95, A7, AB, B5, B7, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1, 2BB, 401, 421, 447, 471, 497, 565, 655, 665, 701, 70B, 721, 747, 771, 77B, 797, 7A1, 7BB, 907, 90B, 9BB, A41, B21, B2B, 2001, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B, 4441, 4707, 4777, 6A05, 6AA5, 729B, 7441, 7B41, 929B, 9777, 992B, 9947, 997B, 9997, A0A1, A201, A605, A6A5, AA65, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41, 600A5, 7999B, 9999B, AAAA1, B04A1, B0B9B, BAA01, BAAA1, BB09B, BBBB1, 44AAA1, A00065, BBBAA1, AAA0001, B00099B, AA000001, BBBBBB99B, B0000000000000000000000000009B, 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077

===Base 13===

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===Base 14===

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===Base 15===

12, 14, 18, 1E, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 32, 38, 3E, 41, 47, 4B, 4D, 54, 58, 5E, 67, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 78, 87, 8B, 92, 94, 9E, A1, A7, AD, B2, B8, BE, C1, CB, CD, D2, D4, E1, ED, 111, 11B, 131, 137, 13B, 13D, 157, 15B, 15D, 171, 177, 197, 19D, 1B7, 1BB, 1D1, 1DB, 1DD, 234, 298, 311, 31B, 337, 33D, 344, 351, 357, 35B, 364, 377, 391, 39B, 39D, 3A4, 3BD, 3C4, 3D7, 3DB, 3DD, 452, 51B, 51D, 531, 53B, 551, 55D, 562, 571, 577, 5A2, 5B1, 5B7, 5BB, 5BD, 5C2, 5D1, 5D7, 634, 652, 681, 698, 717, 71B, 731, 737, 757, 75D, 77D, 79B, 79D, 7B1, 7B7, 7BD, 7D7, 7DD, 801, 852, 88D, 8D8, 91D, 93B, 93D, 95B, 95D, 971, 977, 97B, 97D, 988, 991, 9BD, 9C8, 9D1, A98, AAB, B1D, B31, B3B, B44, B51, B57, B7B, B7D, B97, B9B, BB7, BC4, BD1, BD7, BDD, C07, C34, C52, C7E, C98, CC7, CE7, D0E, D1D, D31, D51, D5B, D68, D77, D7B, D91, D97, DA8, DAE, DCE, DD1, EB4, EEB, 107B, 1091, 10B1, 1107, 110D, 1561, 1651, 1691, 1B01, 2052, 2502, 2522, 303B, 307D, 3097, 30BB, 30D1, 3107, 3361, 3701, 3907, 3B01, 3B0B, 3C97, 4434, 4498, 4834, 4898, 49A8, 4E34, 5037, 507D, 5091, 509B, 5107, 5161, 5202, 53C7, 5552, 570B, 590B, 590D, 59C7, 5A5B, 5C97, 5D0D, 5DAB, 6061, 6151, 6191, 6511, 6601, 6911, 707B, 7091, 7097, 70AE, 70BB, 70CE, 70DB, 7561, 760E, 7691, 76CE, 7907, 7961, 7A0E, 7A3B, 7AEE, 7B0B, 7BAB, 7C0E, 7C77, 7CAE, 7D0B, 7D61, 7DAB, 7E5B, 7E6E, 7E7B, 7EBB, 8098, 811D, 8191, 835D, 853D, 8881, 8908, 8951, 8968, 899D, 8D3D, 8D5D, 8D6E, 8DDD, 8E98, 9011, 9037, 9097, 90D7, 9301, 93C7, 95C7, 9611, 9631, 96A8, 9811, 9851, 989D, 990B, 990D, 998D, 99AB, 99C7, 99D8, 9A08, 9A9B, 9AA8, 9ABB, 9B61, 9BC7, 9D0B, 9DAB, 9DC7, 9DD8, A052, A304, A502, A55B, A9BB, AB04, AB64, B09D, B107, B10B, B161, B1AB, B1C7, B30D, B3C7, B50B, B664, B691, B6A4, B707, B761, B90D, B961, BA5B, BABB, BBAB, BBB4, BC37, BC77, C777, C937, C997, D011, D03D, D05D, D09B, D0B1, D0BD, D101, D10B, D30D, D3AB, D507, D50D, D66E, D761, D7DE, D811, D85D, D86E, D89D, D8C8, D8E8, D9AB, D9D8, DA3B, DA9B, DABB, DB01, DB61, DBAB, DC88, DD07, DD0B, DD7E, DD8D, DDE7, DE6E, E252, E33B, E522, E57B, E7AE, E7CE, E898, E997, E9A8, E9BB, EA34, EB5B, EE98, EEC7, 10017, 10B0D, 170AB, 17A0B, 19001, 19601, 1A09B, 1D0C7, 22E52, 2EA52, 30017, 3001D, 300B1, 301C7, 30334, 30631, 307AB, 3300B, 3333B, 36031, 36301, 37A0B, 37BBB, 39997, 3A30B, 3B0C7, 3D001, 3D601, 40034, 40968, 43334, 49668, 49998, 50022, 5009D, 501C7, 50222, 50507, 505C7, 50611, 50C57, 53007, 53997, 55537, 5555B, 5557B, 5599B, 56101, 56691, 56961, 5700D, 5755B, 59001, 59557, 59997, 5999D, 599DB, 59DDD, 5D99B, 5DD3D, 5DD9D, 60931, 63031, 65691, 66951, 69031, 69361, 69561, 70011, 70051, 7005B, 7006E, 7030D, 703AB, 70501, 70701, 707C7, 71601, 71951, 7300D, 7333B, 75001, 7555B, 75911, 76011, 76051, 766EE, 76EEE, 7700B, 77191, 77661, 7776E, 77771, 777BB, 77911, 77BBB, 79001, 7A05B, 7A66E, 7AA6E, 7AAAE, 7ACCE, 7C6EE, 7CCEE, 7CECE, 7CEEE, 7D3BB, 7E7C7, 7EECE, 80034, 80304, 80434, 809DD, 80A34, 84A34, 850DD, 85961, 86661, 88151, 88331, 88511, 88591, 88898, 890DD, 89998, 89D0D, 8D90D, 8E434, 90017, 90051, 900A8, 900DB, 901C7, 90C57, 90D8D, 91007, 91061, 9199B, 95997, 96068, 96561, 99397, 99537, 9999B, 999B7, 999D7, 999DB, 999DD, 99BBB, 99DBB, 99DD7, 99DDD, 9B007, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9BB11, 9BBBB, 9D007, 9D08D, 9D537, 9D9BB, 9D9DB, 9DD57, 9DDB7, 9DDDB, 9DDDD, A0A34, A0B5B, A0BBB, A0E34, A2E52, A330B, A8434, A8834, A8E34, A909B, AAA34, AAE52, AB0BB, AB334, ABB34, AE034, AE834, AE99B, AEA52, AEE52, B0011, B0071, B0077, B00B1, B0611, B0A64, B500D, B599D, B6101, B7771, B7911, BA064, BAAA4, BAB34, BB061, BB304, BB53D, BB601, BBB91, BBB9D, BBBBD, BDA0B, BDBBB, D0088, D00D7, D0307, D05C7, D070D, D0888, D0B07, D0BC7, D0C08, D0DC7, D0DD8, D1661, D59DD, D5D3D, D5DDD, D6611, D700D, D8D0D, D900B, D9908, D999D, D9BBB, D9D9D, D9DDB, DB007, DB00D, DB1B1, DB53D, DB59D, DB99D, DBBB1, DD0D8, DD33B, DD3B7, DD3BB, DD57D, DD898, DD9DD, DDB37, DDBDB, DDD08, DDD3D, DDD5D, DDD7D, DDD88, DDD9D, DDDB7, DDDC8, DDDD7, DDE98, DE037, DE998, DEB07, E0098, E00C7, E0537, E0557, E077B, E0834, E0968, E3334, E37AB, E39C7, E4034, E5307, E55AB, E705B, E750B, E766E, E76EE, E8304, E8434, E9608, E9C37, EAE52, EBB0B, EC557, EC597, EC957, 1000BD, 1009AB, 10A90B, 1900AB, 190661, 19099B, 190A0B, 1A900B, 222A52, 2AAA52, 31000D, 330331, 333334, 3733AB, 373ABB, 3BBB61, 430004, 490068, 490608, 5000DB, 500D0B, 505557, 505A0B, 50D00B, 50DDDB, 50DDDD, 522222, 5500AB, 5500C7, 550957, 550A0B, 555A9B, 559057, 560011, 590661, 633331, 666331, 666591, 666661, 7050AB, 705A0B, 706101, 70A50B, 7300AB, 761661, 76666E, 777011, 777101, 77750B, 777A5B, 777CEE, 779051, 791501, 7E7797, 7ECCCE, 7EEE97, 800D9D, 808834, 836631, 83D661, 843004, 856611, 884034, 884304, 888E34, 88A434, 88AE34, 8A4034, 8AEE34, 8E8034, 8E8E34, 8EEE34, 9000BB, 9001AB, 900B07, 900D98, 903661, 905661, 906651, 9080DD, 9099A8, 909D9B, 90A668, 90DD9B, 90DDBB, 910001, 9100AB, 91A00B, 930007, 950001, 956661, 9909A8, 995907, 999068, 999507, 999907, 9B0B1B, 9B0BB1, 9BB01B, 9C5597, 9C5957, 9D09DD, 9D0D9D, 9D800D, 9DB307, 9DD09D, A00034, A0033B, A033B4, A2A252, AAAA52, ABBBBB, B00004, B0001B, B0003D, B00A04, B0555B, B07191, B07711, B07777, B0B911, B0BDBB, B77011, B777C7, BB0001, BB0034, BB035D, BB055B, BB0BDB, BB9101, BBB0DB, BBB50D, BBBB01, BBD0BB, C55397, C55557, C55597, D0003B, D00057, D0007D, D000B7, D000C8, D008DD, D00DAB, D0333B, D05537, D099DD, D09DDD, D0DDBB, D555C7, D5C537, D88008, D88088, D888EE, D909DD, D9D0DD, D9DD0D, DB0BBB, DBBB0B, DBBB0D, DC0008, DC5537, DDDDD8, DDDEBB, DDE99B, DE0808, DE0C57, DE300B, DE5537, DE8888, DEE088, DEE307, DEE888, DEEE37, DEEE57, DEEEC8, E0000B, E007BB, E00A52, E03BC7, E07ABB, E09B07, E0A99B, E0C397, E0E76E, E50057, E55007, E55597, E55937, E730AB, E73A0B, E80E34, E88834, E8E034, E90008, E95557, EA099B, EE4304, EE5057, EE5507, EE8E34, EE9307, EEE434, 100001D, 1000A9B, 1000DC7, 22AA252, 3000BC7, 3033301, 3076661, 333B304, 33B3034, 3B33304, 3D66661, 50007AB, 5005957, 5500597, 5550057, 5559007, 5559597, 5595007, 5966661, 5DDDDDB, 6366631, 7010001, 7066651, 7100061, 733BBBB, 766A6AE, 77505AB, 7776501, 777775B, 777AACE, 777ECCE, 777EEAE, 7CCCCCE, 7E30A0B, 7EEEEAE, 8300004, 8363331, 8693331, 880E834, 8833304, 8888034, 8888434, 888A034, 88A3334, 88E8834, 88EE034, 88EE304, 8AA3334, 8D0009D, 8EE8834, 9000361, 9000668, 9003331, 9005557, 9006008, 9008D0D, 9083331, 9090968, 90BBB01, 90D0908, 9500661, 9555597, 9555957, 9660008, 9900968, 9995597, 9996008, 9999557, 9999597, 9999908, 9A66668, A003B34, A003BB4, AA22252, B00B034, B00B35D, B033334, B0B6661, B0BB01B, B100001, B333304, B777777, B99999D, BA60004, BAA0334, BBB001B, BBB6611, BBBBB11, BBBD00B, BD000AB, D0000DB, D009098, D00CCC8, D00D908, D00D99D, D03000B, D0BB0BB, D0D9008, D0D9998, D1000C7, D800008, D8DDEEE, D90080D, DBBBBBB, DD09998, DDD5557, DDDDBBB, DDDDDBD, DDDE8EE, DECC008, DECCCC8, DEE0CC8, DEEC0C8, E000397, E0003BB, E000434, E00076E, E000937, E007A5B, E00909B, E0090B7, E009307, E00B077, E00E434, E00E797, E00E937, E05999B, E09009B, E0900B7, E0E0937, E0E7E97, E0EAA52, E0EEA52, E555057, E5555C7, E7777C7, E77E797, E88EE34, E999998, EA5999B, EB000BB, EB0BBBB, EE00434, EE0E797, EEE076E, EEE706E, EEE8834, EEEE557, EEEE797, 30333331, 30B66661, 33000034, 33030004, 33B33004, 500575AB, 55000007, 5500075B, 55500907, 55555057, 55555907, 55559507, 60003301, 60033001, 60330001, 7000003D, 70106661, 70666611, 77000001, 7777770B, 777777C7, 77777ACE, 77777EAE, 777E30AB, 777E3A0B, 7CCCC66E, 800005DD, 88AA0834, 90000008, 900008DD, 90099668, 90500557, 90555007, 90666668, 90909998, 90990998, 90996668, 9099999D, 90D00098, 90D90998, 95500057, 99099098, 99555057, 99900998, 99966608, 99966668, 99999668, 99999998, 9D009008, 9D090998, A0803334, A2222252, AAA52222, B00005AB, B000B55B, B0BBBB5B, B3330034, BB0BBB1B, BBAA3334, BBB0BB1B, BBB0BB5B, BBDB000B, D000BBBB, D00100C7, D8888888, D900008D, D9000098, DBB000BB, DC0CCCC8, DCC0CCC8, DCCCC008, DD000908, DD09009D, DDDDDDAB, DDDDDEEE, DDDEEE8E, DDDEEEE8, DEE80008, E0777E97, E0E0E397, E0E77797, E0EE0397, E7777797, E9066668, EE00E397, EE077797, EE0E0397, EEE00797, EEE07E97, EEE0AA52, EEE55397, EEE55557, EEEAAA52, EEEEE834, EEEEEA52, 300003331, 300007661, 300330031, 333000004, 333300001, 333B00034, 3700000AB, 3B3300034, 500000057, 555555007, 555555557, 5DDDDDDDD, 600000331, 7500000AB, 75000A00B, 75A00000B, 761000001, 77000E0C7, 777700EC7, 7777730AB, 7777777AE, 77777EE97, 7777E7E97, 777999997, 7A500000B, 7BBBBBB5B, 88888A834, 900000031, 900666608, 909990098, 90D009998, 950000557, 966666008, 990000007, 990555507, 999999997, A000000B4, A0005999B, AAEEEEE34, B000AA334, BBBBB005B, BBBBBBB5B, D09999998, D0D90009D, D800000DD, D90009998, DCCCC0CC8, DE88EEEEE, DEEEEEE88, E000B7777, E000BBBBB, E003ABBBB, EE0000797, EE0EEE397, EE5555557, EE777EE97, EEEEEE537, EEEEEE937, 2222222252, 3000000071, 3330030001, 3333303001, 3333330001, 500000007B, 5555555097, 7000000071, 77000000C7, 8333333331, 8888883334, 8888888834, 888888AA34, 900000009B, 900000009D, 900000DD9D, 9000099998, 9955555507, 9D0000099D, 9D05555557, AB0000005B, B000000DAB, B00000BBDB, BB00BB0B5B, BB0BB00B5B, D000099998, D00090008D, D0D000909D, D0DDDDDDDB, D300000007, D88EEEEEEE, D900999998, DD00900008, DDD6EEEEEE, DDDDDDD6EE, DDDDDDDDDE, DDDEEEEEEE, DEEEEE8008, E000000797, 7777777CCCE, 88888830004, 90000009D9D, 99955555557, 9999999999D, B00000D00AB, BB000BBB05B, BBBB0000B5B, D000009080D, D000090800D, D090800000D, DDDDDDD999B, DDDDDDDDD9B, EEEEEE00397, EEEEEEE0397, 333000000301, 5000000000DD, 73A00000000B, 9000000000B7, 903333333331, ABB00000000B, D000000001C7, DCCCCCCCCCC8, E0EEEEEEE397, 19A000000000B, 3333333333331, 3BBBBBBBBBBBB, 9333333333331, A00000000099B, B00000000050D, EEEEEEEEEE76E, 1000000000999B, 71000000000001, 908D000000000D, BBBBBBBBBB6661, 77777777777777B, BB00000000BBB5B, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEE, 7777777777777E97, B0BBBBBBBBBBBB1B, BB0000000000DB0B, D000000000000998, D908000000000000D, DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDB, E9666666666666668, 3330000000000000031, D00000000000000908D, E0BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE52, 77777777777777777ECE, 5000000000000000005AB, 777777777777777777997, 7BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, BB0000000000000000DBB, DD000000000000000909D, D900000000000000000DDD, DD0000000000000000099D, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB1, B00000000000000000000005B, B0700000000000000000000001, B70000000000000000000000001, 705000000000000000000000000B, 633000000000000000000000000001, EBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB, 500000000000000000000000000000000017, 77777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CCE, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777CE, 96666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666666608, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE397, 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777797

===Base 16===

11, 13, 17, 1D, 1F, 25, 29, 2B, 2F, 35, 3B, 3D, 43, 47, 49, 4F, 53, 59, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 6D, 71, 7F, 83, 89, 8B, 95, 97, 9D, A3, A7, AD, B3, B5, BF, C1, C5, C7, D3, DF, E3, E5, E9, EF, F1, FB, 14B, 15B, 185, 199, 1A5, 1BB, 1C9, 1EB, 223, 22D, 233, 241, 277, 281, 287, 28D, 2A1, 2D7, 2DD, 2E7, 301, 337, 373, 377, 38F, 3A1, 3A9, 41B, 42D, 445, 455, 45D, 481, 4B1, 4BD, 4CD, 4D5, 4E1, 4EB, 50B, 515, 51B, 527, 551, 557, 55D, 577, 581, 58F, 5AB, 5CB, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DB, 5E7, 623, 709, 727, 737, 745, 74B, 755, 757, 773, 779, 78D, 7BB, 7C3, 7C9, 7CD, 7DB, 7EB, 7ED, 805, 80F, 815, 821, 827, 841, 851, 85D, 85F, 8A5, 8DD, 8E1, 8F5, 923, 98F, 99B, 9A9, 9EB, A21, A6F, A81, A85, A99, A9F, AA9, AAB, ACF, B1B, B2D, B7B, B8D, B99, B9B, BB7, BB9, BCB, BDD, BE1, C0B, CB9, CBB, CEB, D01, D21, D2D, D55, D69, D79, D81, D85, D87, D8D, DAB, DB7, DBD, DC9, DCD, DD5, DDB, DE7, E21, E27, E4B, E7D, E87, EB1, EB7, ED1, EDB, EED, F07, F0D, F4D, FD9, FFD, 1069, 1505, 1609, 1669, 16A9, 19AB, 1A69, 1AB9, 2027, 204D, 2063, 207D, 20C3, 20ED, 2221, 22E1, 2327, 244D, 26C3, 274D, 2E01, 2E0D, 2ECD, 3023, 3079, 3109, 3263, 3341, 36AF, 3941, 3991, 39AF, 3E41, 3E81, 3EE1, 3EE7, 3F79, 4021, 40DB, 440B, 444B, 44A1, 44AB, 44DB, 4541, 45BB, 4A41, 4B0B, 4BBB, 4C4B, 4D41, 4DED, 5045, 50A1, 50ED, 540D, 5441, 555B, 556F, 5585, 560F, 56FF, 5705, 574D, 580D, 582D, 5855, 588D, 5A01, 5AA1, 5B01, 5B4B, 5B87, 5BB1, 5BEB, 5C4D, 5CDD, 5CED, 5DD7, 5DDD, 5E0D, 5E2D, 5EBB, 68FF, 6A69, 6AC9, 6C8F, 6CA9, 6CAF, 6F8F, 6FAF, 7033, 7063, 7075, 7087, 70A5, 70AB, 7303, 7393, 74DD, 754D, 7603, 7633, 7663, 7669, 7705, 772D, 775D, 77D5, 7807, 7877, 7885, 7939, 7969, 7993, 79AB, 7A05, 7A69, 7A9B, 7AA5, 7B77, 7BA9, 7D4D, 7D75, 7D77, 8077, 808D, 80D7, 80E7, 8587, 86CF, 8777, 8785, 8885, 88CF, 88ED, 88FD, 8C6F, 8C8F, 8E8D, 8EE7, 8F2D, 8F8D, 9031, 9041, 90AF, 90B9, 9221, 9319, 9401, 944B, 9881, 9931, 9941, 9991, 99AF, 9A0F, 9A1B, 9A4B, 9AFF, 9BA1, 9BB1, 9CAF, 9E81, 9EA1, 9FAF, A001, A05B, A0C9, A105, A10B, A4CB, A55B, A6C9, A88F, A91B, A9B1, A9BB, AA15, AB01, AB0B, AB19, ABBB, AC09, AF09, B041, B04B, B069, B07D, B087, B0B1, B0ED, B1A9, B201, B40B, B40D, B609, B70D, B7A9, B807, B9A1, BA41, BAA1, BB4B, BBB1, BBDB, BBED, BD19, BD41, BDBB, BDEB, BE07, BEE7, C0D9, C203, C24D, C6A9, C88D, C88F, C8CF, C8ED, C9AF, C9CB, CA09, CA4B, CA69, CAC9, CC0D, CC23, CC4D, CC9B, CD09, CDD9, CE4D, CEDD, CFA9, CFCD, D04B, D099, D405, D415, D44B, D4A5, D4DD, D50D, D70B, D74D, D77B, D7CB, D91B, D991, DA05, DA09, DA15, DA51, DB91, DBEB, DD7D, DDA1, DDED, DE0B, DE41, DE4D, DEA1, E02D, E07B, E0D7, E1CB, E2CD, E401, E801, EABB, EACB, EAEB, EBAB, EC4D, ECDD, ED07, EDD7, EE7B, EE81, EEAB, EEE1, F08F, F0A9, F227, F2ED, F3AF, F485, F58D, F72D, F763, F769, F787, F7A5, F7E7, F82D, F86F, F877, F88D, F8D7, F8E7, F8FF, FCCD, FED7, FF85, FF8F, FFA9, 100AB, 10BA9, 1A0CB, 1BA09, 200E1, 2C603, 2CC03, 30227, 303AF, 30AAF, 32003, 32207, 32CC3, 330AF, 33169, 33221, 33391, 33881, 33AFF, 38807, 38887, 3AFFF, 3F203, 3F887, 3FAFF, 400BB, 4084D, 40A4B, 42001, 44221, 44401, 444D1, 4480D, 4488D, 44CCB, 44D4D, 44E8D, 4804D, 4840D, 4A0CB, 4A54B, 4CACB, 4D0DD, 4D40D, 4D44D, 5004D, 50075, 502CD, 5044D, 50887, 50EE1, 5448D, 548ED, 55A45, 55F45, 5844D, 5A4A5, 5AE41, 5B0CD, 5B44D, 5BBCD, 5D4ED, 5E0E1, 5EB4D, 5EC8D, 5ECCD, 5EE41, 5F06F, 5F7DD, 5F885, 5F8CD, 5FC8D, 5FF75, 6088F, 60AFF, 630AF, 633AF, 660A9, 668CF, 669AF, 66A09, 66A0F, 66FA9, 6886F, 6A00F, 6A0FF, 6A8AF, 6AFFF, 7002D, 7024D, 70B0D, 70B7D, 7200D, 73363, 73999, 7444D, 770B7, 777D7, 77B07, 77D7D, 77DD7, 79003, 79999, 7B00D, 7D05D, 7D7DD, 8007D, 800D1, 8074D, 82CCD, 82E4D, 8448D, 8484D, 8704D, 8724D, 87887, 88001, 8800D, 880CD, 88507, 88555, 8866F, 8872D, 8877D, 888D1, 888D7, 88AA1, 88C2D, 88D57, 88D75, 88D77, 8AFAF, 8C2CD, 8C40D, 8C8CD, 8CCED, 8CE2D, 8CFED, 8E007, 8E20D, 8E24D, 8F6FF, 8FAAF, 900CB, 901AB, 90901, 909A1, 90AB1, 90AE1, 90EE1, 910AB, 93331, 940AB, 963AF, 966AF, 99019, 99109, 99A01, 9AAE1, 9B00B, 9B0AB, 9B441, 9BABB, 9BBBB, 9E441, A00BB, A0405, A044B, A08AF, A0A51, A0B91, A0C4B, 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4444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444DD

===Base 17===

12, 16, 1C, 1E, 23, 27, 29, 2D, 32, 38, 3A, 3G, 43, 45, 4B, 4F, 54, 5C, 5G, 61, 65, 67, 6B, 78, 7C, 81, 83, 8D, 8F, 94, 9A, 9E, A3, A9, AB, B4, B6, BA, BC, C7, D2, D6, D8, DC, E1, E3, ED, F2, F8, FE, FG, G5, G9, GB, 104, 111, 115, 117, 11B, 137, 139, 13D, 14A, 14G, 155, 159, 15F, 171, 17B, 17D, 188, 191, 197, 19F, 1A4, 1A8, 1B3, 1BB, 1BF, 1DB, 1DD, 1F3, 1FD, 1G8, 1GA, 1GG, 20F, 214, 221, 225, 241, 25A, 25E, 285, 2B8, 2C5, 2CF, 2E5, 2EB, 2F6, 30E, 313, 331, 33B, 346, 34C, 351, 35F, 36E, 375, 37B, 391, 39B, 39D, 3B7, 3B9, 3BF, 3D3, 3D5, 3D9, 3DF, 3E4, 3EC, 3F1, 3F7, 407, 418, 447, 44D, 472, 474, 47E, 47G, 489, 49C, 4A1, 4C1, 4CD, 4D4, 4G1, 502, 506, 508, 50E, 519, 522, 528, 52A, 52E, 533, 53F, 551, 55D, 562, 566, 573, 577, 57F, 582, 593, 599, 59B, 59F, 5A6, 5B5, 5D1, 5D3, 5EA, 5EE, 5F9, 60D, 62F, 634, 649, 689, 692, 6CD, 6EF, 6F4, 6FA, 704, 706, 70G, 71D, 726, 737, 739, 73D, 73F, 753, 755, 764, 766, 76G, 771, 77B, 793, 7AA, 7AE, 7B3, 7BB, 7D7, 7E6, 7F3, 7F9, 7FF, 7G2, 7GE, 7GG, 825, 82B, 849, 852, 85E, 869, 876, 87A, 87G, 88B, 892, 898, 89C, 8C5, 8E7, 8G7, 908, 90G, 913, 91F, 92C, 935, 937, 93B, 951, 953, 957, 95D, 968, 96G, 979, 97B, 98C, 98G, 99D, 9B1, 9B3, 9B9, 9BD, 9BF, 9DB, 9DF, 9F1, 9F5, 9G6, A07, A0D, A1A, A2F, A4D, A72, A7A, A7E, AA1, AA7, ACF, ADA, AG1, AG7, B02, B08, B17, B1D, B28, B2G, B57, B71, B73, B79, B7F, B88, B8E, B8G, B9B, B9F, BB5, BB7, BD7, BDD, BEG, BFF, BGG, C01, C2F, C3E, C56, C6D, C89, C92, C9G, CA5, CBG, CC1, CC5, CF4, CFA, D04, D0A, D15, D3D, D3F, D55, D59, D5B, D71, D75, D7D, D91, D97, D99, D9D, DA4, DAG, DB3, DDB, DF1, DF7, DF9, DFF, E05, E0B, E2B, E52, E58, E69, E92, E9C, EAF, EB8, EC9, ECB, EE5, F04, F15, F1B, F35, F3B, F46, F51, F53, F64, F6A, F73, F79, F95, FAC, FB1, FCA, FD5, FDB, FF1, FF7, FFD, G0D, G0F, G18, G1A, G1G, G2F, G34, G63, G7G, GA7, GC3, GDG, GEF, GFA, GG7, GGD, 1013, 101D, 1033, 1035, 1051, 105B, 105D, 1077, 108A, 109B, 10AG, 10B1, 10B7, 10BD, 10FB, 1149, 1189, 11AF, 11G3, 1303, 130B, 1314, 1341, 1479, 14D9, 1501, 1503, 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====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

570&lt;sub&gt;51310&lt;/sub&gt;1, 49&lt;sub&gt;111333&lt;/sub&gt;, 970&lt;sub&gt;166047&lt;/sub&gt;1, F70&lt;sub&gt;186767&lt;/sub&gt;1

===Base 18===

11, 15, 1B, 1D, 21, 25, 27, 2B, 2H, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 47, 4B, 4H, 57, 5B, 5D, 5H, 61, 65, 71, 75, 7B, 7D, 85, 87, 8D, 91, 95, 9B, 9H, A1, AB, AD, AH, B1, BD, C7, CB, CD, CH, D5, D7, DH, E5, EB, EH, F1, F7, FB, FD, G5, H1, H5, H7, HB, 107, 167, 16H, 177, 17H, 1G7, 1HH, 20D, 24D, 26D, 29D, 30B, 36B, 381, 3BB, 405, 445, 44D, 49D, 4A5, 4DD, 4F5, 4GD, 501, 545, 5E1, 607, 62D, 64D, 66B, 66H, 67H, 68B, 697, 6A7, 6BB, 6E7, 6G7, 6GB, 6HH, 767, 76H, 77H, 797, 7HH, 801, 80H, 831, 83B, 86B, 88H, 8BB, 8FH, 8GH, 94D, 96D, 977, 9DD, 9ED, 9GD, A77, AC5, AE7, B07, B0H, B55, B77, B8B, B97, BB5, BB7, BBH, BE7, BFH, BGB, C01, C31, CA5, CG1, D2D, D4D, D81, DBB, DD1, DDB, DGD, E0D, E17, E31, E4D, E67, E6D, EA7, EDD, EE1, EED, EG7, F0H, F45, F8H, FC5, FFH, G0D, G17, G2D, G6B, G6H, GBB, GBH, GD1, GDD, GE1, GE7, GED, GFH, GG7, GGB, GHD, GHH, H0D, H2D, H8H, H9D, HGH, HHD, 100H, 19E7, 1A97, 1EE7, 1G8H, 1GGH, 22ED, 22GD, 2DED, 2E2D, 3001, 3031, 30C1, 30E1, 3331, 33G1, 3CC1, 40ED, 45C5, 46ED, 4CC5, 5331, 5551, 55G1, 5C05, 608H, 60ED, 60FH, 60HD, 666D, 66ED, 699D, 6B67, 6BGH, 6D0D, 6DDD, 6E9D, 6EGD, 6G0H, 6G9D, 6HGD, 700H, 70A7, 7A07, 7FGH, 7G77, 808B, 8881, 88G1, 88GB, 8BHH, 8EG1, 8GC1, 8H6H, 900D, 90E7, 90G7, 9667, 9907, 999D, 99E7, 9A67, 9A97, 9E97, 9EE7, 9G07, 9G67, 9GA7, AA45, AA97, AGA7, B005, B03B, B06B, B0C5, B60B, B63B, BAA5, BAA7, BCC5, BFA5, BG8H, C045, C055, C555, C5C1, C5F5, CC05, CC81, CCC5, D06D, D09D, D0ED, D38B, D3E1, D60D, D6DD, D8GB, DD6D, DE9D, DG01, E001, E097, E0G1, E8C1, EDC1, EE97, EGC1, EGG1, EGGD, FH6H, G007, G00B, G00H, G03B, G067, G097, G0C1, G0G1, G1GH, G33B, G38B, G3G1, G70H, G777, G88B, GA67, GAA7, GG81, GGC1, GGGH, H0FH, H66D, HEGD, HFHH, 1AAA7, 222DD, 30GG1, 3388B, 33E01, 38G8B, 3G3C1, 3GGG1, 4002D, 500C5, 50C55, 50CF5, 53GG1, 558C1, 55CC5, 55CF5, 58GG1, 5C8C1, 5CFF5, 5G881, 5GG31, 6000H, 6003B, 6006D, 600DB, 6033B, 606GD, 60D0B, 66GGD, 6D03B, 6D33B, 6H6DD, 6HD6D, 6HDED, 70G07, 70GGH, 777A7, 7AAG7, 7G0GH, 80G0B, 8888B, 8CCE1, 90067, 90097, 9022D, 99967, 99997, 9A007, 9A0A7, 9AA07, 9AAA7, 9E007, A0045, A0455, A0667, A09G7, A0A07, A0G07, A0G97, A9997, AA0A7, AAG67, B0AF5, B6GGH, B7GGH, B8HHH, BA045, BAF05, BG667, C0F05, C5005, C5581, C88C1, C8CC1, C8CE1, CCF55, D03C1, D060B, D080B, D0CC1, D0G0B, D0G8B, D3G3B, D600B, DDDED, DG331, DG80B, E8G81, E9007, F6GGH, G018H, G0301, G0331, G466D, G6667, G66GD, GD08B, GG18H, GG6GD, GGG4D, H060H, HGGGD, HHH6H, 199AA7, 40006D, 40600D, 46600D, 5055C5, 5505C5, 55CCC1, 588CC1, 58CCC1, 60000D, 60009D, 7077G7, 7707G7, 777G07, 88000B, 9099A7, A000A7, A009A7, A09067, A099A7, A0AAA7, A90AA7, A99AA7, AA0007, AA6667, AAAG07, BFFF05, BFFFF5, C0FFF5, CCECC1, CECCC1, CF0FF5, CFF005, D0008B, D0033B, D0088B, D0333B, D033GB, D03G31, D0633B, DD990D, DGGG31, FHHHHH, G00081, G6GGGD, G8GGG1, GGG001, GGG331, GGGGG1, GGGGGD, H0006H, H00H6H, HH600H, 222222D, 22DDDDD, 333333B, 5CCCCC1, 70007G7, 88CCCC1, 9000007, 9000A07, A000G67, AAAA667, BBBB33B, C000CF5, C000FF5, CCCCCE1, CCCCEC1, D00063B, D00GG31, D63333B, DCCCCC1, DDDDD9D, DGCCCC1, GCCCCC1, GG00031, 4022222D, 6000GGGD, 66666667, 770000G7, AAAAA007, B6666667, BBBBBB3B, CFFFFF55, D00000C1, D0000EC1, 455555555, 5555550C5, 667777777, A00000967, A00009097, A00009967, A45555555, AAAAAAA07, BHHHHHHHH, CCCCCCCC1, CF0000005, CFFFFFF05, D00000G3B, E0CCCCCC1, G00000031, 70000000G7, A000000097, D000003301, 777777700G7, A0000900007, D0000000001, D000000GGG1, 677777777777, 8HHHHHHHHHHH, 2DDDDDDDDDDDD, 55555555555C5, 77AAAAAAAAAA7, D00000000006B, D0000000003GB, AAAAAAAAAAAAAA7, D0000000000000B, 77777777777777G7, CCFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB6B, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF5, GG0000000000000000000000000000001, HDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000F5, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000B, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHFH, 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===Base 20===

13, 19, 1B, 1H, 21, 23, 27, 2D, 2J, 31, 37, 3B, 3D, 3J, 43, 49, 4H, 51, 53, 57, 59, 5D, 67, 6B, 6H, 6J, 79, 7B, 7H, 83, 87, 8D, 8J, 91, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9J, AB, B3, B7, B9, BD, BJ, C1, CB, CH, D3, D9, DB, DH, E1, E3, ED, F7, FB, FD, FH, GB, GH, H7, H9, HD, HJ, I7, ID, IJ, J3, J9, JH, 101, 10J, 111, 11D, 11J, 147, 14J, 161, 171, 177, 1A1, 1A7, 1AD, 1AJ, 1C7, 1CD, 1CJ, 1D1, 1DD, 1F1, 1FJ, 1G7, 1GD, 1GJ, 1I1, 1J7, 209, 20B, 22H, 25B, 269, 28B, 28H, 2A9, 2BB, 2C9, 2EB, 2EH, 2F9, 2G9, 2HB, 2IB, 30H, 329, 33H, 3A9, 3E9, 3G3, 3H3, 401, 407, 40D, 40J, 411, 417, 44D, 44J, 461, 46D, 471, 477, 47D, 47J, 4A1, 4BB, 4C7, 4D1, 4D7, 4DD, 4DJ, 4F1, 4GD, 4J7, 4JD, 4JJ, 50B, 50H, 54J, 55B, 5BH, 5EH, 5GJ, 5HB, 5HH, 5IB, 5IH, 5JJ, 661, 6A9, 6E9, 6G9, 701, 703, 70J, 71D, 747, 77D, 7A1, 7AJ, 7D1, 7D7, 7DJ, 7FJ, 7G1, 7I3, 7J1, 7J7, 809, 80H, 811, 82B, 82H, 869, 881, 88B, 899, 8C9, 8EB, 8G9, 8H1, 8HH, 8IB, 907, 989, 9A3, 9C7, 9E9, 9G3, 9G9, A01, A03, A07, A0D, A0J, A11, A17, A29, A2H, A4D, A4J, A69, A6D, A7D, A7J, A8H, AA1, AAH, AAJ, AC3, ACD, ACJ, AD1, ADD, AE9, AEH, AG7, AGJ, AHH, AI3, B11, B2B, B2H, B41, B5H, B81, BB1, BBH, BEB, BG1, BHB, C0D, C5J, C6D, C73, C89, C97, CA3, CA9, CCJ, CE7, CEJ, CFJ, D17, D1D, D41, D6D, D77, DA7, DAD, DAJ, DDJ, DF1, DFJ, DG1, DG7, DJ1, E2B, E2H, E5B, E5H, EA7, EC9, EEH, EG7, EGJ, EJ7, F61, FA3, FEJ, FF1, FG3, FG9, FI1, G11, G17, G29, G39, G41, G61, G69, G77, G7D, G89, GA7, GAJ, GCD, GCJ, GD1, GDD, GDJ, GE9, GF1, GF3, GF9, GFJ, GGD, GI1, GI3, GJ1, GJD, H03, H2H, H33, H5B, H5H, H81, H8B, H8H, HA1, HC3, HF3, HG1, HHB, HIH, I0B, I61, I89, IAH, IE9, IG3, IG9, IH1, II1, IIH, J07, J11, J1J, J41, J47, J4B, J4J, J71, J7D, J7J, JCD, JD7, JDD, JDJ, JF1, JFJ, JG7, JGD, JJD, 104D, 10E7, 1DE7, 1DEJ, 1E7J, 1EJJ, 1G81, 1J6D, 1J81, 20AH, 25AH, 2829, 28E9, 2A5H, 2E29, 2H0H, 2HAH, 2IHH, 3089, 30A3, 30G9, 325H, 358H, 38F9, 3A63, 3CG9, 3F89, 3GC9, 402B, 40IB, 44I1, 458B, 45CJ, 45FJ, 4841, 484B, 485B, 48G1, 4AEJ, 4AFJ, 4BI1, 4CAD, 4CAJ, 4CGJ, 4E4B, 4EJB, 4F5J, 4FAJ, 4G81, 4GEJ, 4I2B, 4I8B, 4IG1, 4J81, 4JB1, 4JIB, 52AH, 542B, 548B, 550J, 55EJ, 584B, 5A5J, 5B4B, 5C0J, 5E4B, 5FAJ, 6029, 610D, 6141, 616D, 6299, 62I9, 6389, 641D, 6441, 64CD, 64G1, 66G3, 68G1, 6A41, 6AF1, 6AG1, 6AI1, 6D01, 6DA1, 6DCD, 6F01, 6F29, 6G01, 6G03, 6G0D, 6G4D, 6GA1, 6GG1, 6I01, 6I29, 6IF1, 704D, 70A7, 70GD, 715J, 71E7, 73F3, 745J, 74CD, 74CJ, 74EJ, 7641, 76A3, 76AD, 76GD, 7761, 7773, 77G3, 7841, 78I1, 7C4J, 7C63, 7CA7, 7CC3, 7F41, 7FF3, 7G6D, 7GA3, 7GE7, 7GG3, 7I41, 7I81, 7J5J, 8041, 804B, 80BB, 80F1, 8229, 8289, 82E9, 84G1, 86A1, 86F1, 86G1, 8889, 88A9, 88E9, 88IH, 8AA9, 8B4B, 8B61, 8BIH, 8EA9, 8F01, 8FA1, 8FE9, 8FF9, 8FG1, 8H4B, 8I29, 8I5H, 8II9, 9629, 9763, 9973, 9997, 9A77, 9AA7, 9AC9, 9AI9, 9E47, 9E77, 9F29, 9G47, A0A9, A0F9, A0G9, A0I9, A3F9, A3I9, A481, A633, A681, A6G1, A6G3, A7A3, A7C7, A7F1, A8I1, A909, A933, A9F3, A9I9, AA73, AAC7, AC09, AC77, ACC9, ACF9, ADC7, ADE7, AEC7, AEJJ, AF39, AF81, AF93, AFA9, AFC9, AFI9, AFJ1, AFJJ, AG81, AGG9, AH63, AI41, AI5H, AIF9, AJ5J, AJ61, AJE7, AJI1, B001, B08H, B0F1, B40B, B601, B84B, B8IH, BAIH, BFA1, BHF1, BI5B, BIA1, C0E9, C0G3, C0G9, C299, C2I9, C447, C4AD, C4G7, C707, C74D, C74J, C777, C7AD, C7CD, C7GD, C7GJ, CAA7, CAAD, CAD7, CADJ, CAGD, CAJD, CCE9, CD07, CD47, CD4D, CD7J, CDD7, CDGD, CDJJ, CE99, CEG9, CG07, CG09, CG4J, CG63, CG7J, CGC3, CGC7, CGD7, CGI9, CJ0J, CJAD, D011, D047, D05J, D081, D0E7, D0JD, D0JJ, D181, D4EJ, D50J, D761, D781, D7CD, D7EJ, D801, DA81, DC47, DC4D, DC7J, DCDD, DCGD, DCGJ, DCJJ, DD01, DD61, DDCD, DE0J, DEC7, DECJ, DG0J, DJC7, E00J, E047, E069, E0BH, E0C7, E0E9, E0EB, E2E9, E45J, E4AJ, E4EB, E4EJ, E5CJ, E5EJ, E5FJ, E6I9, E7EJ, E80B, E829, EA09, EA99, EAG9, EB0B, EB4B, EC0J, EC7J, EE0J, EE97, EEA9, EEE9, EEEJ, EEJB, EF89, EF99, EFAJ, EFCJ, EFI9, EFJJ, EG09, EG99, EH4B, EI4B, EI99, EIHB, EIHH, EII9, EJ0B, EJ8B, EJBB, EJEB, EJIB, F029, F0A9, F0FJ, F1G1, F2I9, F389, F4G1, F5AJ, F629, F8A1, FAC9, FAF9, FC0J, FE99, FF0J, FG4J, FGA1, FGGJ, FI29, FJ01, FJAJ, FJCJ, FJG1, G01D, G04J, G05J, G07J, G099, G0A1, G0A3, G0AD, G0E7, G0G1, G0G7, G0GJ, G0JJ, G10D, G15J, G333, G3A3, G3C3, G45J, G4E7, G663, G6C3, G947, G973, G993, G9C9, G9G7, G9I9, GAG9, GC33, GC47, GC99, GCI9, GDC7, GEJJ, GG01, GG97, GGA9, GGEJ, GI09, GI99, GIA9, GIC9, GJ5J, GJE7, GJEJ, H0AH, H0BH, H0I1, H141, H601, H6I3, HA63, HB01, HB0B, HB0H, HB61, HBAH, HBH1, HBI1, HEIB, HHH1, HI41, HI4B, HIF1, I081, I0A3, I141, I20H, I25H, I2BH, I441, I48B, I52B, I52H, I55H, I5EB, I629, I6A3, I85B, I88H, I8A1, I8HB, IA33, IA63, IAC9, IAF1, IAF3, IE8B, IEBH, IEIB, IF01, IFA9, IG01, IGG1, IHEB, IHHH, IHI3, IHIB, J04D, J05B, J0AD, J0AJ, J0BB, J0J1, J16D, J22B, J5EB, J64D, J6AD, J7C7, J7E7, J801, J8G1, JA5J, JAI1, JB5B, JB61, JBA1, JBBB, JCA7, JCAJ, JD61, JDI1, JE77, JE8B, JEBB, JEJB, JEJJ, JG0J, JG5J, JGEJ, JI5B, JI81, JIB1, JIBB, JIEB, JIG1, JIIB, JJ61, JJEJ, 1060D, 1666D, 1706D, 17E5J, 17JJJ, 1D007, 1D7JJ, 1J5EJ, 1JJJ1, 200IH, 20I5H, 22299, 2242B, 2244B, 22929, 29229, 29I99, 2E8I9, 2HHHH, 2I2I9, 2II99, 33389, 33G99, 366A3, 368I9, 38A5H, 38EAH, 38EIH, 3E8IH, 3G0I9, 3GGG9, 3HHAH, 404EB, 40E0B, 41EEJ, 4224B, 444EB, 444G1, 44E47, 44EEB, 44GG1, 455AJ, 45EAJ, 4A447, 4A55J, 4AE47, 4CCCD, 4EEAJ, 4EIEB, 4EIIB, 4G447, 4G4G7, 4GG1J, 4II4B, 4II5B, 4J80B, 4JE0B, 5005J, 50CAJ, 50ECJ, 5588H, 55A5H, 55FCJ, 5AEFJ, 5E5AJ, 5EAFJ, 5EB8B, 5EE8B, 5EEBB, 5EF0J, 5EFFJ, 6014D, 604AD, 6060D, 60689, 606A3, 606CD, 60AAD, 60AF3, 60AGD, 60DGD, 60G33, 60GAD, 60I81, 62229, 62889, 633A3, 6600D, 668F9, 66929, 66AAD, 66CCD, 66DGD, 66IA3, 68FI9, 68I41, 69929, 6A663, 6A6F3, 6D0GD, 6DDI1, 6G6AD, 6GGA3, 7066D, 707G7, 70C07, 70CAD, 70CCD, 70CG7, 70DDD, 71JJJ, 73363, 74441, 7606D, 76363, 76663, 76C4D, 76F11, 76G33, 77107, 77441, 7777J, 777C7, 777G7, 77AC7, 77AF3, 77C07, 77E4J, 77E7J, 77GGJ, 77JGJ, 7A733, 7AAA7, 7ACC7, 7C077, 7CC4D, 7CF33, 7CG4D, 7CJ4D, 7CJGJ, 7DD0D, 7ECJJ, 7EJEJ, 7F333, 7F6C3, 7FC33, 7G007, 7G4GJ, 7G733, 7G763, 7G7C3, 7GCC7, 7GGC7, 7GGGJ, 7GJGJ, 7J06D, 7JAAD, 7JGJJ, 800B1, 80BA1, 80IA1, 84I41, 8555H, 8558H, 85A5H, 8855H, 8888H, 88F29, 8A6I1, 8AGG1, 8AIF1, 8AIG1, 8BB0B, 8BE8H, 8EEF9, 8EF29, 8F829, 8F8I9, 8FIA9, 8GAG1, 8H00B, 8HBBB, 8IE8H, 900A9, 90AF9, 90IA9, 92II9, 97333, 97F33, 990A9, 994A7, 994G7, 999A9, 99A47, 99A99, 9A009, 9A999, 9C029, 9C929, 9CC29, 9FFA9, 9FIA9, 9I9A9, 9IA99, 9IAF9, A3009, A3309, A3333, A3393, A3939, A3963, A3993, A39C9, A3A33, A3AA3, A3C99, A3FF3, A4E47, A4EE7, A555H, A66F3, A6F63, A7771, A77F3, A7AA7, A7EE7, A8641, A88F9, A9399, A94A7, A9663, A9777, A97A7, A97E7, A9977, A9999, A9EE7, AA3A3, AA4A7, AA7A7, AA9E7, AAA33, AAA89, AAA97, AAAF3, AAF89, AAG09, AAG93, ACA47, ACCC7, AEE47, AEE77, AF099, AF363, AF5FJ, AF889, AFF09, AFF99, AFFF3, AGAI9, AGG33, AGGG1, AHGG3, AI009, AIA09, AIA99, AIII9, AJAA7, AJAAD, AJJC7, AJJG1, AJJJ7, B00IB, B044B, B06A1, B08BB, B0EAH, B0EHH, B44IB, B544B, B5BBB, B8E8H, BAH61, BB44B, BB45B, BBB5B, BBBIB, BE0AH, BH00H, BH0H1, BH6I1, BI0EH, BI44B, BI8BB, BIBBB, BIE8H, C0029, C04AJ, C07G7, C0A77, C0C29, C0CC7, C0G47, C0GGJ, C0I29, C2EE9, C6C29, C7AC7, C9029, C9929, C9C29, CC0C7, CC3G9, CC7C7, CCA77, CCAC7, CCCCD, CCF29, CCG03, CCG47, CCG93, CCGAD, CCGC9, CD0GJ, CE0I9, CE629, CE6F9, CEIF9, CFC29, CFE09, CFEF9, CFF29, CG003, CG033, CGGG9, D0061, D00A1, D00D1, D00GJ, D01EJ, D074D, D07DD, D07GJ, D0C4J, D0CCD, D0D7D, D0EEJ, D0G4D, D0GGJ, D155J, D4CCD, D4EE7, D55CJ, D6001, D60A1, D6IA1, D7D0D, D7DGD, D7G4J, D7GGJ, D7JCJ, DC0J7, DCC07, DD7I1, DDC07, DDD07, DDD11, DDD47, DDDD1, DDDGD, DDG0D, DE4E7, DEE7J, DEJ5J, DG4GJ, DGE4J, DGJJJ, DJ55J, DJEEJ, DJGJJ, DJJJ7, E00HB, E00I9, E00IH, E044B, E04FJ, E08BB, E08HB, E0999, E09A9, E09E7, E09F9, E0AIH, E0BBB, E0C4J, E0E7J, E0F4J, E0GA9, E0I09, E0IA9, E0JEJ, E0JJB, E22I9, E2I29, E448B, E6009, E6229, E6889, E69F9, E6F09, E6FF9, E755J, E7CJJ, E7EC7, E7JJJ, E844B, E888H, E8A89, E8EI9, E8IA9, E90A9, E90I9, E9699, E96F9, E9IA9, E9IF9, EA55J, EA889, EAEFJ, EAFF9, EAFFJ, EB0AH, EB0IH, EB88H, EBI0H, ECC47, EE00B, EE299, EE4FJ, EE74J, EE7C7, EEBIB, EEF29, EF229, EFF4J, EFFA9, EGAI9, EH0IB, EHBIB, EHEEB, EHH0H, EHIIB, EI00H, EI229, EI8BB, EIEBB, EIF09, EIFF9, EIIEB, EJAJJ, EJE5J, F0001, F000J, F0081, F0089, F00CJ, F0141, F041J, F04GJ, F0841, F08F9, F08G1, F0AJJ, F0CE9, F0E69, F0F89, F0FE9, F0GG1, F0GJJ, F1J5J, F2229, F2289, F22E9, F4FGJ, F500J, F50CJ, F5FFJ, F8EE9, F9A09, F9A99, F9IA9, FA099, FA8G1, FC4GJ, FCJJJ, FE0I9, FE669, FEAA9, FEAI9, FEF69, FEFE9, FEFF9, FEI69, FEIF9, FF089, FF4FJ, FF55J, FF8I9, FFA09, FFAI9, FFE69, FFF29, FFF5J, FFF89, FFFE9, FFIA9, FFJGJ, FG081, FGG81, FJ05J, FJA81, FJJ0J, G001J, G0047, G004D, G0063, G00C7, G0363, G0603, G0633, G066D, G0963, G0AC9, G0AI9, G0CC7, G0CC9, G0II9, G4AAD, G4EEJ, G600D, G64AD, G666D, G66AD, G6G33, G7E4J, G7GJJ, G7JGJ, G9009, G9303, G9603, G9A09, G9CC3, GA6A3, GAA33, GAA93, GAG33, GC009, GC093, GC0C3, GCC03, GCC09, GD447, GDE47, GEE07, GEEC7, GG00J, GG073, GG1JJ, GG763, GG7C3, GG8A1, GGG07, GGG4J, GGG71, GGGC7, GGGGJ, GGGJ7, GGJ0J, GGJJJ, GJ00J, GJGJJ, GJJJ7, H00EH, H024B, H04B1, H0E4B, H0F41, H0H11, H0HEH, H4E0B, H6I11, HAAA3, HAAG3, HAGA3, HB44B, HBBBB, HBHHH, HGGA3, HGGG3, HH001, HH061, HH3AH, HH6F1, HHG63, HHIA3, HI011, HIII3, I0029, I02I9, I085H, I0A41, I0F29, I2229, I2929, I2I29, I2I99, I2II9, I33A3, I3EHH, I422B, I424B, I4EEB, I4IEB, I80G1, I9IA9, IA099, IA309, IA841, IA939, IA9A9, IAF09, IAF99, IAI99, IAIA9, IB0A1, IB4IB, IB54B, IBB4B, IBBIB, IBE0H, IBH0H, IC929, ICC29, IF841, IFAG1, IGA81, IHB4B, II0A9, II42B, II44B, IIB5B, III4B, IIIA3, IIIIB, J00G1, J00JB, J0601, J06D1, J06I1, J0861, J08B1, J0B01, J0CGJ, J0E0B, J0GA1, J0GG1, J0I2B, J0J2B, J0JIB, J55CJ, J60A1, J60G1, J6D81, JA777, JA7A7, JAJG1, JAJJ1, JAJJ7, JB00B, JB08B, JC00J, JC0GJ, JEECJ, JGGGJ, JGGJJ, JJ0B1, JJ0JB, JJ55J, JJAG1, JJAJ1, JJC0J, JJE0B, JJEEB, JJGG1, JJGGJ, JJGJJ, JJJ01, JJJEB, JJJJB, 17555J, 175EEJ, 1E0007, 1JE55J, 1JJJ5J, 20005H, 2000HH, 222I29, 22E889, 22EE89, 24222B, 2999I9, 29III9, 2A000H, 2B0I0H, 2I2999, 2I9I29, 2III29, 333AF3, 336IA3, 36A3F3, 36I3A3, 388E8H, 3AF333, 3EHHHH, 3HEHHH, 3HHEHH, 40008B, 40054B, 40405B, 40448B, 415E5J, 44440B, 44452B, 44524B, 44E08B, 45444B, 4AAAE7, 4AEEE7, 4E4447, 4GEEE7, 4I544B, 4IEEEB, 500EFJ, 500FCJ, 5055FJ, 50AFFJ, 50EEFJ, 50EF5J, 50F5FJ, 50FFCJ, 52224B, 54EEEB, 5558AH, 555CAJ, 5585AH, 55F55J, 55FFFJ, 5888AH, 588A5H, 5E555J, 5F055J, 5F05CJ, 5F5F5J, 5FFFCJ, 5JEEEB, 60006D, 6000F1, 6000G3, 6001G1, 600A63, 600G1D, 600G6D, 603A33, 606G6D, 608001, 608F89, 608IF9, 60A333, 60A363, 60AAA3, 60CCCD, 60D04D, 60D0DD, 60F8I9, 60FF89, 60GCG3, 636AF3, 63A333, 63A3F3, 63AFF3, 63IIA3, 64AAAD, 660089, 660A33, 660DDD, 660F89, 662289, 666A33, 666D4D, 66A6A3, 66AF33, 66AF63, 66D0DD, 66FF89, 6A33F3, 6AFF33, 6AG6A3, 6AGA63, 6D000D, 6D004D, 6D0D4D, 6F6689, 7000G7, 7060DD, 70AAAD, 70D0CD, 733C33, 7366C3, 73AAA3, 7600DD, 760CDD, 766333, 76664D, 766FC3, 76CCDD, 76DD4D, 770G07, 771JEJ, 7771EJ, 777481, 7777I1, 777F81, 77C7JJ, 77EC77, 77EEC7, 77EJJJ, 77GCG7, 77JECJ, 7A7E77, 7AAAG3, 7AAF63, 7AEEE7, 7C7GG7, 7CCCAD, 7CCCG7, 7CGJJJ, 7D000D, 7J000D, 7JCGGJ, 80005B, 8000G1, 8000I1, 800GA1, 800I01, 80GGA1, 84405B, 84454B, 888EAH, 88E8AH, 8A4441, 8B8EAH, 8E8IF9, 8I0AG1, 902229, 909A09, 909C29, 909FA9, 90IC29, 9222I9, 92I999, 944EE7, 94AEE7, 977GG7, 97AEE7, 97GGG7, 990I29, 999I29, 99I299, 99IIA9, 9A9447, 9A9AF9, 9A9FF9, 9CII29, 9EEEE7, 9FA9A9, 9I9C29, 9I9I29, 9ICI29, 9IIIA9, A1555J, A1E55J, A333C9, A336A3, A33889, A33F63, A36663, A444E7, A4AAE7, A555FJ, A666A3, A6AAA3, A7A7E7, A7AE77, A944E7, A9A9F9, A9AAA9, AA3389, AA9AF9, AAA099, AAA3C9, AAA7E7, AAA939, AAACG9, AAAFF9, AAAI99, AAAIC9, AAE4E7, AAG9A9, AAGAA3, ADE55J, AF6663, AF9FF9, AGA963, AGG6A3, AH4441, AI000H, AI99C9, AI9AA9, AII099, B0004B, B0054B, B0080B, B00H0H, B04IIB, B05B8B, B0A6I1, B0BB8B, B0BIBB, B0E0IH, B0HA0H, B0I0HH, B0I4IB, B0IIBB, B888AH, BB058B, BB05BB, BB080B, BB0I4B, BBB04B, BBB08B, BBIB8B, BE88AH, BEHA0H, BEHHAH, BHEA0H, BHEHAH, BHHA0H, BIE00H, C007A7, C00GG7, C00JA7, C00JAJ, C00JC7, C0C7A7, C0JAC7, C0JJC7, C3G999, CAJJ77, CC0629, CC0929, CCC007, CCCCC7, CCCCG3, CCCGG7, CCCI29, CCI029, CD4GGJ, CE0009, CEFF69, CEFFF9, CEI609, CII029, CIII29, CJACC7, CJAJC7, CJJJA7, D000D7, D000J7, D004CD, D0D007, DCCDC7, DDD04D, DDDAI1, DEJJJJ, DG000D, DG5E5J, DGGG5J, DJ00CJ, DJEEE7, DJJJ5J, E00097, E00A0H, E00AA9, E02289, E028I9, E029I9, E055AJ, E0774J, E0777J, E07JCJ, E0AF5J, E0BI8B, E0E4CJ, E0EA5J, E0ECJJ, E0FFF9, E0H0HH, E0HA0H, E0IF29, E0J5AJ, E0JJAJ, E29299, E444E7, E4EEE7, E4IIIB, E66289, E66629, E66909, E66F69, E69609, E69999, E7774J, E77C77, E7C7C7, E8B8AH, E90029, E90229, E90909, E90FF9, E92299, E94EE7, E97EE7, E990F9, E99I09, E9F669, E9I029, EA8AF9, EAAAI9, EAIAA9, EAJJJJ, EBIBIB, EC7CC7, EE08F9, EE408B, EE8IF9, EEAF5J, EEE84B, EEEC07, EEEC77, EEEE0B, EEF55J, EEFFFJ, EEJ5AJ, EFE009, EFEF09, EFF669, EFFFF9, EGGGG9, EIF669, F004AJ, F00A41, F00JA1, F04481, F055CJ, F0A15J, F0EI09, F0G01J, F0J0GJ, F0J0JJ, F0JJ5J, F14441, F68F89, F68IF9, F800G1, F8E8I9, F99299, FA0009, FA1JJJ, FAAIA9, FAII09, FAII99, FCC929, FCE229, FCE609, FCEF29, FE68F9, FE8FA9, FF0E09, FF68F9, FF9FA9, FFC4AJ, FFC929, FFCE09, FFE009, FFEE89, FFEF09, FFFA99, FFFFFJ, FFFGJJ, FG1JJJ, FI99A9, FIA999, FIAAA9, FIAII9, FIIA09, G00093, G000EJ, G000G9, G00781, G007G3, G00C09, G07GC3, G09033, G0C903, G0CGG3, G0G903, G0G933, G0GCC3, G0GGC9, G30003, G36003, G5000J, G5E0EJ, G60303, G6AGG3, G6GAA3, G7AAA3, G7G363, G90AA9, G90C63, G9AAA9, GAAAA3, GAAGG3, GC0003, GCCC93, GCCCC3, GCG903, GDEEE7, GE0007, GG0CG3, GGA8G1, GGC6G3, GGCCG3, GGCGC9, GGG0I9, GGG363, GGG6G3, GGG75J, GGG8G1, GGG963, GGGAA3, GGGCG3, GGGCG9, H044EB, H0BIBB, H0E00B, H0F011, H0IIEB, H2444B, H400EB, H44IEB, H4EEEB, HBB4IB, HE000B, HEE40B, HEEE4B, HEHHAH, HF0011, HF4441, HH3HEH, HHGAA3, HHGAG3, HHHAG3, HHHEAH, HI0001, HIBIBB, HIEBBB, I0000H, I000A9, I002HH, I00A09, I00A99, I00AG1, I00AI9, I00H3H, I02999, I03HEH, I09AF9, I0A009, I0E0HH, I0I299, I0IIA9, I4445B, I4I45B, I90I29, I99029, I99A09, I9I029, IA3999, IB000H, IB00EH, IB0HEH, IB5B8B, IF2999, II0929, II92I9, II99A9, II9C29, IIAFF9, IIF299, III5BB, III8BB, J0000B, J00081, J000IB, J0010D, J006A1, J00BI1, J00I8B, J00IA1, J05EEJ, J06G81, J0C0JJ, J0E0CJ, J0EEEB, J0J0EB, J5EAEJ, J5EEAJ, J608I1, JE505J, JEEEEB, JJ0001, JJ0JCJ, JJ0JGJ, JJAJC7, JJJAE7, JJJBI1, JJJI8B, 14GGGG1, 1J5555J, 1JGGGG1, 205555H, 20I000H, 222222B, 2929999, 2BI000H, 3333A33, 3333G09, 333A3A3, 333AAA3, 336AAA3, 336AF33, 33II3A3, 363AF33, 3GIIII9, 400445B, 404454B, 404800B, 415555J, 440045B, 440080B, 442222B, 444004B, 444422B, 444444B, 4444G47, 444GGG7, 444I4IB, 44AAA47, 44I44IB, 44I4IIB, 4AAAAA7, 4EEE4E7, 4I4454B, 5000AFJ, 525555H, 555552H, 555555J, 555585H, 58BBBBB, 5BB8BBB, 5E0E55J, 5EBBBBB, 60003A3, 60008I9, 6000DDD, 6006DDD, 60080A1, 60080I1, 600A3A3, 600D8I1, 600F841, 60CCDDD, 60CGGG3, 60DDD0D, 60DDDDD, 60GGG63, 60GGGC3, 66600A3, 66603A3, 66608I9, 6666089, 66666A3, 6666C29, 6666F89, 666AFF3, 66DDDDD, 6800001, 6AGGGG3, 6CCCC29, 6G6AAA3, 6GAGGG3, 6GCCC63, 6GGG633, 700000D, 70000CD, 7000EC7, 70070C7, 700EEC7, 7070EC7, 70EEEC7, 76666CD, 77333A3, 7733A33, 775EE5J, 777A777, 777CGJJ, 777GE5J, 77A7777, 77JCJJJ, 77JJJCJ, 77JJJJJ, 7A77777, 7A777A7, 7AAAA63, 7AAAAAD, 7C00007, 7E77JCJ, 7EE7JCJ, 7EEC007, 7EEEEC7, 7G5E55J, 7GE555J, 7GJJJJJ, 7J6666D, 9000029, 9000299, 9009I29, 900I2I9, 90FAAA9, 90I0299, 90I0I29, 90I9929, 90II029, 90II299, 90II2I9, 94444E7, 97777E7, 9902I99, 99902I9, 9992929, 9992999, 9999929, 99I0C29, 99I9029, 99I92I9, 99III29, 9AAAF09, 9AFFFF9, 9I0AAA9, 9IAAA09, 9II0I29, 9II9929, 9III029, 9III2I9, 9IIIC29, A5F555J, A777E77, A994447, A9AAF99, AA00089, AA6A6A3, AAA0009, AAA3999, AAA9A99, AAA9AA9, AAAAA47, AAAAA77, AAAAA99, AAAAG99, AAAAIA9, AAAD447, AAAGAC9, AAGAAAD, AAGAAC9, AF00009, AGAAA99, AGAGG63, AGGGA63, AI0C999, AJ777A7, B000B8B, B000HEH, B000I0H, B00I00H, B0B805B, B0HHHEH, B0IHE0H, B0III8B, B8B000B, BB8BBBB, BBB8B0B, BEH0HHH, BHHHEHH, C00000J, C000C07, C066629, C0AJJJJ, C0C0A47, C0G000J, C0JAJJJ, C0JJAJJ, C0JJJJJ, C6CCG33, CC004A7, CC00A47, CC6CG33, CC92229, CCCC7G7, CCCGGG3, CE66609, CEF6669, D00007D, D00007J, D00071J, D000C0J, D000I01, D00700D, D00C007, D00C0C7, D00G00D, D0C00C7, D0CDCC7, D444447, D7JJJJJ, DC0000J, DDD7DDD, DDDCCC7, DJ0000J, DJ000EJ, DJJJJ0J, DJJJJJJ, E000009, E00084B, E000889, E000909, E000HAH, E008AF9, E04000B, E0AA8F9, E0CJJJJ, E0HHHHH, E40400B, E6660F9, E666609, E669969, E699669, E7CCC07, E996669, E99I669, E9FAAA9, EB8BBBB, EBBII8B, EBH0HHH, EE092I9, EE44IIB, EE4E4E7, EEBB8BB, EEC0007, EEE0IBB, EEE0IIB, EEEBB8B, EEEE44B, EEJCJJJ, EF00F09, EF0555J, EFAAAA9, EFF0009, EFF00F9, EFF60F9, EI0AAA9, EI660F9, EIIBB8B, EJ0CJJJ, EJ5055J, EJJ0CJJ, F0E00F9, F0E88I9, F0JJJJ1, F299929, F4G555J, F5555CJ, F5555FJ, F6668I9, F8GGGG1, F929999, F999C29, FA84441, FAAA9A9, FCE00F9, FCEF009, FCFEE29, FE00F09, FEE2889, FEF0009, FFAA9A9, FFCEE29, FFFF4AJ, FIII9A9, FIIIAI9, FJJJJ81, G000009, G0000J7, G000303, G000AA9, G000CC3, G000GG3, G003003, G0090C3, G00CG03, G00D007, G00G0G3, G00GG03, G00GG93, G080001, G0G00I9, G0G09C3, G0G0C93, G0G0GG9, G0GG093, G0GGC63, G0GGGG9, G44GG47, G6AAGA3, G999999, GAA9AA9, GCCCGG9, GCGGCC9, GCGGG03, GEE4447, GEEEE47, GG0C007, GG0GC09, GG0GGG3, GG6AAA3, GG6AGA3, GG6GAG3, GGEEE47, GGG00C9, 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CDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000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===Base 21===

12, 18, 1A, 1G, 1K, 21, 25, 2B, 2H, 2J, 34, 38, 3A, 3G, 3K, 45, 4D, 4H, 4J, 52, 54, 58, 61, 65, 6B, 6D, 72, 74, 7A, 7G, 7K, 85, 8B, 8D, 92, 94, 98, 9A, A1, AD, AH, AJ, B2, B8, BA, BK, C5, CB, CH, CJ, D4, D8, DA, DK, ED, EH, EJ, F2, FG, G1, GB, GD, GH, H2, HA, HG, I1, I5, IB, IJ, J2, JA, JK, K1, KB, KD, KJ, 111, 115, 11H, 135, 13H, 13J, 151, 15B, 15H, 164, 175, 17B, 17D, 17J, 191, 19B, 19D, 19H, 1B1, 1B5, 1BB, 1BJ, 1D5, 1DD, 1DJ, 1E4, 1F1, 1F5, 1FD, 1FH, 1HB, 1HD, 1I4, 1JD, 1JH, 1JJ, 22D, 232, 29G, 29K, 2DG, 2F4, 2FK, 31H, 322, 33D, 351, 355, 35B, 35J, 362, 371, 37B, 37D, 37H, 37J, 39B, 39J, 3B5, 3BD, 3BH, 3D1, 3D5, 3DB, 3DD, 3DH, 3E2, 3FJ, 3HD, 3HH, 3HJ, 3J1, 3JB, 3JJ, 414, 481, 49K, 4B4, 4BG, 4C1, 4EB, 4F4, 4F8, 4FA, 4FK, 50G, 51B, 51D, 51H, 531, 535, 53D, 53J, 551, 56A, 56G, 56K, 575, 57J, 595, 59H, 5B1, 5B5, 5BB, 5CA, 5CG, 5CK, 5F1, 5FB, 5FJ, 5GA, 5GG, 5HH, 5IA, 5J5, 5JD, 5JH, 60H, 632, 66H, 66J, 678, 68J, 69G, 6F8, 6FA, 6GJ, 6H8, 6HK, 6IH, 6J4, 6JG, 6KH, 711, 71B, 71D, 73D, 73H, 73J, 75B, 75H, 768, 77H, 77J, 7B1, 7B5, 7BB, 7BD, 7C8, 7D1, 7DB, 7DD, 7E8, 7F5, 7FB, 7H5, 7HD, 7HH, 7HJ, 7J5, 7JD, 801, 80J, 832, 841, 86H, 86J, 881, 89G, 8E1, 8F4, 8F8, 8FA, 8FK, 8H4, 8IH, 8J4, 8JG, 90K, 91B, 91D, 91H, 93H, 93J, 955, 95H, 95J, 96G, 97B, 97D, 97H, 991, 99J, 9B1, 9BB, 9BH, 9BJ, 9CK, 9D1, 9DB, 9DH, 9DJ, 9EK, 9F5, 9FD, 9H1, 9HB, 9HD, 9IG, 9J5, 9KK, A0B, ABG, AF4, AF8, AG5, B15, B1H, B35, B3H, B3J, B4G, B51, B5B, B5D, B5H, B6G, B71, B75, B7B, B7D, B9B, B9J, BB5, BBH, BBJ, BC4, BCG, BF1, BF5, BFD, BH1, BHJ, BI4, BJB, C2D, C9K, CCD, CDG, CID, D0G, D2G, D35, D3B, D3H, D51, D55, D5B, D5D, D5J, D62, D71, D7H, D91, D95, D9H, DBH, DC2, DD1, DD5, DE2, DEG, DF5, DFJ, DH1, DHB, DI2, DJ1, DJB, DJJ, E14, E4B, E5K, E78, E81, E9G, EA5, EBG, EC1, EE1, EE5, EK5, F04, F11, F1H, F31, F3B, F3D, F44, F4A, F4K, F5D, F5H, F6K, F71, F7H, F7J, F88, F8A, F8K, F9J, FA4, FA8, FBB, FBH, FC4, FDB, FDJ, FE8, FFH, FFJ, FH5, FHB, FHJ, FI4, FI8, FIK, FJ5, FJD, FK4, FK8, G32, G5G, G78, G8J, GGJ, GJ4, GK5, H0K, H15, H1B, H1J, H31, H3D, H3H, H48, H51, H55, H5J, H6K, H75, H84, H88, H91, H95, H9D, H9H, HBD, HC4, HC8, HDJ, HF5, HFB, HFH, HHD, HHJ, HI4, HI8, HJ5, HJB, HKK, I0D, I2D, I6H, I78, I8H, I9K, IFA, IFK, IID, J08, J1J, J31, J35, J3J, J44, J5H, J68, J6G, J71, J7B, J7D, J7H, J8G, J95, J9D, JBD, JBH, JBJ, JCG, JDB, JDH, JE4, JE8, JEG, JF5, JFD, JFJ, JG4, JGG, JH1, JH5, JHB, JHH, JI4, JJ1, JJ5, K0H, K5G, K6H, K9K, KG5, KH4, KKH, 101B, 103D, 1044, 1055, 10DH, 10FB, 10H1, 10H5, 10J1, 110J, 11CD, 11EB, 11ID, 130D, 13C1, 13EB, 141B, 1444, 1471, 14FB, 1505, 15CD, 167H, 16FJ, 16HH, 176H, 17C1, 17IH, 190J, 1BF4, 1BID, 1C04, 1C3D, 1CD1, 1D6H, 1DE1, 1DEB, 1E1B, 1E71, 1E95, 1EFB, 1F0B, 1F4B, 1FB4, 1H01, 1H05, 1H41, 1H6H, 1H6J, 1HC1, 1HE1, 1HF4, 1IDH, 1IHH, 1JE5, 1JF4, 20CD, 20D2, 20ID, 2278, 22F8, 239D, 23FD, 2478, 2708, 27FD, 293D, 29DD, 2A78, 2C0D, 2CF8, 2F0A, 2F9D, 2FAA, 2FDD, 2GFA, 2IF8, 3015, 301D, 301J, 3031, 3035, 305D, 30F1, 30FB, 30FD, 30HB, 30I2, 3105, 31C1, 329D, 330H, 336J, 33E1, 33EB, 33IH, 35CD, 363H, 390H, 39E5, 39ID, 3B0J, 3B6J, 3BC1, 3BEB, 3CC2, 3CF1, 3CFD, 3D32, 3E3B, 3E91, 3EF1, 3EFB, 3F05, 3FC1, 3FE1, 3FEB, 3H01, 3H0B, 3HC1, 3I3H, 3I9D, 404B, 4078, 40E1, 411B, 4131, 4171, 41FB, 4331, 4391, 43BB, 43FB, 43I2, 4432, 444B, 44E1, 477B, 4931, 4971, 499B, 49CG, 4A32, 4A4B, 4A78, 4A9G, 4B1B, 4B31, 4B3B, 4BFB, 4C78, 4E32, 4F1B, 4FB1, 5011, 509D, 50BD, 50DB, 50DD, 50EK, 50FD, 50H1, 50HJ, 50IK, 50JJ, 5101, 5105, 51E1, 530B, 53EB, 53IH, 550D, 550H, 55AB, 55BG, 55DG, 55E5, 55KH, 563H, 56JJ, 5701, 570H, 57EB, 57ID, 57IH, 590D, 59C1, 59CD, 5A3B, 5A7B, 5AGK, 5AIG, 5AKG, 5B0D, 5B9G, 5BCD, 5BGJ, 5BIH, 5C91, 5CD1, 5D0D, 5D0J, 5D6H, 5D6J, 5DC1, 5DG5, 5DIH, 5DJG, 5E0A, 5E11, 5E3B, 5E71, 5EAK, 5EEA, 5EKK, 5F0H, 5F9K, 5G0K, 5G9J, 5GF5, 5GIK, 5H0B, 5H5K, 5H9K, 5HE5, 5HID, 5I3H, 5I7D, 5IKG, 5J6J, 5JE1, 5KAG, 5KEK, 5KFH, 5KH5, 60FK, 63FH, 67JH, 69JH, 6E9K, 6F0K, 6F64, 6FJH, 6H04, 6HE4, 6HFJ, 6IF4, 6J9H, 6J9J, 7015, 7031, 703B, 7055, 705J, 7088, 709B, 709D, 709H, 70DJ, 70I8, 710J, 716J, 730B, 73C1, 73E5, 7501, 769H, 76FJ, 76JJ, 770D, 77E1, 77E5, 77EB, 7888, 78FH, 78H1, 78JH, 790H, 79CD, 79IH, 7B0J, 7B6H, 7C31, 7C91, 7C9D, 7E35, 7E75, 7E91, 7EF1, 7F01, 7F78, 7FCD, 7FH8, 7FIH, 7FJ8, 7H81, 7HC1, 7HF8, 7J6J, 7J78, 7JC1, 7JF8, 7JH8, 7JJ8, 809K, 80H8, 81H1, 81HH, 81J1, 839H, 83FH, 869K, 871H, 8731, 8771, 8788, 879J, 87F1, 87FJ, 87JH, 888H, 8911, 8931, 896K, 8A78, 8A9K, 8CC1, 8E9K, 8F3H, 8F9H, 8FF1, 8FHH, 8FJH, 8G9K, 8GJ8, 8H3J, 8H7H, 8H8K, 8HEK, 8HF1, 8HFJ, 8HH1, 8HJJ, 8HK8, 8J7J, 8J91, 8JC8, 8JFH, 8JJH, 8K78, 8K8H, 8KH8, 901J, 9035, 903B, 9071, 90CG, 90GG, 90JD, 9101, 91E5, 9301, 93E1, 93EB, 95CD, 95DG, 95FK, 967J, 969H, 96HH, 96HJ, 96JJ, 9705, 97C1, 9905, 995K, 999G, 99CD, 99EB, 99K5, 9B5G, 9BE5, 9BID, 9C0G, 9C11, 9C71, 9C9D, 9CEG, 9CGG, 9D05, 9D5G, 9DDG, 9DE5, 9E35, 9E3B, 9E71, 9EB5, 9EEG, 9EF1, 9EFB, 9F0J, 9F6H, 9F9K, 9FC1, 9FIH, 9FKH, 9G35, 9G95, 9GIK, 9GJJ, 9GKG, 9H0H, 9H5K, 9H6H, 9HKH, 9I6K, 9I9H, 9IDD, 9J6J, 9JEB, 9JGJ, 9JID, 9JJG, 9K35, 9K95, 9KEG, A33B, A3F5, A432, A478, A53B, A5IK, A788, A795, A878, A975, A99B, A9CG, A9GG, AAAB, AB44, AB55, ABFB, AC32, AC78, ACFA, AE32, AE5A, AE9K, AEEB, AEFA, AEFK, AF75, AFCA, AFCK, AFEA, AFFB, AG9G, AGFA, AI32, B064, B091, B09H, B0B1, B0D5, B0DH, B0EG, B0FB, B0FH, B0H5, B0HD, B114, B141, B14B, B1B4, B1E1, B411, B431, B444, B4B1, B59G, B5G5, B5JG, B67H, B67J, B69H, B6FH, B6FJ, B6HH, B6JH, B96H, B9DG, B9G5, BB14, BBB4, BC1D, BC31, BCDD, BD05, BD0H, BD6H, BDC1, BDE5, BDIH, BE0G, BE31, BEBB, BEE4, BEIG, BF0B, BF0H, BF6J, BFEB, BFIH, BG0G, BG55, BG95, BGG4, BGGG, BGIG, BGJ5, BH0B, BHEB, BIEG, BIGG, BIHH, BJ01, BJ0J, BJC1, BJF4, BJID, C041, C081, C09G, C0E1, C0FK, C104, C131, C171, C1C4, C1D1, C2F8, C2FA, C39D, C3F1, C478, C6FK, C7FD, C8C1, C90G, C911, C971, C99D, CAFK, CC78, CC81, CCE1, CCF8, CD02, CD31, CDFD, CE01, CE32, CF0A, CF48, CF64, CF68, CF6A, CF91, CFAK, CFDD, CFEA, CFEK, CIF4, CK32, CK9G, CKFA, D01D, D01H, D07B, D0DB, D0F1, D0FD, D0HD, D0HH, D10D, D10H, D16H, D1EB, D1IH, D23D, D3E1, D56H, D63J, D6CG, D6IG, D70B, D70D, D70J, D99G, D9GJ, D9ID, D9JG, DBC1, DBCD, DBE1, DBJG, DC11, DC9D, DCF1, DCFD, DCGG, DCIG, DD0H, DD6J, DDGJ, DDID, DDJG, DE31, DE75, DFC1, DFID, DFIH, DG22, DG6G, DG75, DG9J, DGCG, DGIG, DH6H, DHE5, DI6G, DICG, DIDH, DIFD, DIFH, DIGG, DJCD, DJDG, DJG5, E032, E05A, E0EB, E11B, E2F8, E31B, E331, E375, E395, E3C2, E3F1, E3F5, E3FB, E3I2, E53B, E555, E591, E59B, E5EG, E6F4, E755, E775, E89K, E915, E935, E93B, E96K, E9FB, EA32, EAEB, EAFK, EB44, EB95, ECFA, ECFK, EE32, EEEB, EEFK, EF08, EF35, EF48, EF55, EF64, EF68, EF75, EF95, EFB1, EFCA, EFCK, EFEA, EFIA, EFKK, EGF4, EIF4, EKF4, EKF8, EKFA, F008, F051, F075, F095, F09H, F0CA, F0CK, F0DD, F0FB, F0H1, F0IA, F0JJ, F105, F10B, F10D, F16J, F1B4, F1EB, F1ID, F1J4, F36H, F468, F47B, F491, F4C8, F501, F50B, F648, F66A, F69H, F705, F778, F864, F8F1, F90D, F99K, F9C1, F9HK, FA6A, FA75, FA7B, FA95, FAEA, FAFB, FB0D, FB14, FBCD, FBE1, FBJ4, FC1D, FC68, FC9D, FCAA, FCCK, FCD1, FCEA, FD6H, FDIH, FE0K, FE1B, FE64, FE95, 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====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

40&lt;sub&gt;47333&lt;/sub&gt;9G, CF&lt;sub&gt;479147&lt;/sub&gt;0K

===Base 22===

11, 17, 19, 1F, 1J, 1L, 23, 29, 2F, 2H, 31, 35, 37, 3D, 3H, 41, 49, 4D, 4F, 4J, 4L, 53, 5H, 5L, 65, 67, 6H, 6J, 73, 79, 7D, 7J, 83, 85, 8F, 8H, 8L, 91, 9D, A3, A7, A9, AD, AJ, AL, B9, BF, BL, C5, C7, CD, CH, CJ, D7, DL, E3, E5, E9, F1, F7, FH, FJ, G1, G7, GF, GL, H5, H9, HF, I1, I5, ID, J1, J3, JD, JF, JL, K3, K9, KH, KL, L1, L5, LH, 103, 12D, 145, 155, 15D, 163, 18D, 1A5, 1BD, 1BH, 1C3, 1D3, 1DH, 1EH, 1G3, 1GH, 1I3, 1K5, 1KD, 221, 227, 22J, 22L, 245, 247, 25D, 25J, 271, 277, 287, 28J, 2A5, 2B7, 2BD, 2BJ, 2D5, 2E1, 2E7, 2ED, 2EL, 2K1, 2KJ, 2LL, 30J, 343, 389, 39J, 3B3, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3J9, 3JJ, 3KF, 3LJ, 427, 443, 445, 457, 4A5, 4C3, 4E7, 4G5, 4I7, 4K5, 4K7, 515, 52D, 551, 559, 55D, 55J, 575, 58D, 59F, 5B1, 5C9, 5CF, 5D1, 5D5, 5DD, 5E1, 5ED, 5G5, 5GJ, 5J5, 5JJ, 5K1, 5KJ, 60D, 61D, 62L, 661, 66D, 689, 6C1, 6D1, 6DD, 6G3, 6KF, 701, 721, 751, 76L, 775, 77F, 77H, 787, 7A5, 7AF, 7B1, 7B7, 7CL, 7E1, 7FF, 7FL, 7H7, 7HH, 7K5, 809, 81D, 821, 827, 82D, 847, 869, 871, 881, 889, 899, 8A1, 8BD, 8BJ, 8D1, 8DJ, 8GJ, 8J7, 907, 90H, 92L, 93J, 943, 947, 95F, 977, 997, 9AF, 9B5, 9EF, 9F5, 9H3, 9HL, 9I7, 9J9, 9JJ, 9K5, A25, A45, A51, A61, A6F, AAH, AB5, ABH, ACF, AG5, AGH, AHH, AK1, B15, B2D, B2J, B33, B45, B47, B57, B71, B75, B81, B87, B8J, BB3, BB7, BC3, BDD, BE7, BEJ, BGD, BGH, BH3, BHD, BHJ, BIH, BJ7, BKJ, CA1, CAF, CB3, CC1, CEF, CG3, CKF, D09, D0J, D13, D21, D33, D39, D3F, D4H, D5J, D63, D81, D8D, DAH, DBD, DBH, DBJ, DCF, DD3, DEJ, DFF, DG9, DGH, DHD, DI3, DIF, DJ9, DK1, DK5, E0F, E0H, E27, E2D, E2L, E47, E7H, E87, E8J, EA1, EAH, EB1, EDH, EEJ, EFF, EFL, EH1, EIF, EIL, EJH, EJJ, EKD, ELF, F25, F43, FB5, FD3, FDD, FDF, FEF, FEL, FFD, FG9, G09, G0D, G25, G3J, G5D, G5J, G63, G8D, G99, GC3, GC9, GD9, GEH, GG5, GJ5, GJ9, GJH, H03, H1D, H21, H2J, H2L, H33, H63, H77, H8J, HCL, HDD, HE1, HE7, HGH, HGJ, HH7, HHL, HI3, HIH, HJH, HK1, HKD, HL3, I07, I0J, I43, I47, I7L, I9J, IBH, IEL, IG3, IHH, IIJ, IJ7, IL7, J07, J55, J69, J8J, J99, J9J, JA5, JAH, JE7, JEH, JHH, JI9, JJ5, JJ9, JJH, JK7, K2J, K51, K5D, K75, K81, KA1, KB1, KB7, KBJ, KD1, KEJ, KG5, KIF, KJ5, KKD, KKJ, L0D, L47, L7F, L97, LAF, LD3, LD9, LDD, LEF, LGD, LI7, LJ7, LJJ, LLD, 104H, 10D5, 1205, 12B5, 140H, 1433, 144H, 14AH, 14B3, 16ED, 1AIH, 1B43, 1DD5, 1DDD, 1E6D, 1EGD, 1G05, 1GDD, 1GED, 1GGD, 1HB3, 1HHH, 1IAH, 200L, 2015, 2051, 20A1, 20DJ, 20GD, 20IL, 21B5, 21DD, 220D, 226D, 228D, 22B5, 22G5, 22K5, 22KD, 2555, 2557, 2581, 25C1, 26A1, 26B1, 2725, 2755, 2801, 2861, 288D, 28B1, 28KD, 2AA1, 2B25, 2B51, 2BB1, 2C81, 2D6D, 2DA1, 2DDJ, 2DGD, 2G0J, 2GB5, 2GDD, 2GGJ, 2I0L, 2I6L, 2ICL, 2J05, 2JK5, 2K07, 2K2D, 2K55, 2K6D, 2KB5, 2KI7, 2L2D, 2L8D, 2LK7, 302L, 30G3, 320L, 32IL, 332L, 33G3, 33G9, 36AF, 36EF, 382J, 388J, 39EL, 3AAF, 3BBJ, 3CG9, 3E2J, 3E6F, 3E6L, 3EEF, 3FAF, 3G69, 3GI3, 3GI9, 3IG9, 3LEL, 3LG3, 4025, 404H, 4063, 4075, 40AH, 40B5, 40B7, 40GH, 4225, 4363, 4447, 444H, 447H, 4487, 44B7, 44H7, 4525, 4555, 45B5, 4663, 4777, 47GH, 4807, 4B0H, 4BB5, 4BG3, 4EBH, 4G4H, 4GB3, 4HH3, 4I03, 4I63, 4IGH, 5069, 5077, 50KD, 5255, 52IJ, 5455, 5477, 5507, 5527, 556F, 557F, 5587, 56EF, 56FF, 56GD, 56KD, 5771, 57C1, 57EF, 5807, 580J, 589J, 58E7, 58IJ, 58K7, 5905, 5945, 5957, 5969, 5989, 598J, 5999, 59EJ, 59K7, 5AEF, 5B25, 5B55, 5BA5, 5BI7, 5BIJ, 5BK5, 5BK7, 5C21, 5EAF, 5EE7, 5F09, 5F6F, 5F95, 5FKD, 5G6D, 5G89, 5I09, 5I0F, 5I27, 5I6F, 5I89, 5IB7, 5IBJ, 5IFF, 5J77, 5K07, 5K25, 5K27, 5K6F, 5K87, 5KK7, 6013, 60A1, 60AF, 60EL, 6281, 62B1, 62KD, 63G9, 6403, 6643, 66EL, 66G9, 68KD, 69B3, 6A01, 6A0F, 6AAF, 6AFF, 6B21, 6B8D, 6BBD, 6BK1, 6D03, 6D43, 6D69, 6D6F, 6D93, 6D9F, 6E21, 6E81, 6E8D, 6EBD, 6ECL, 6ELL, 6FD9, 6GBD, 6GG9, 6IEF, 6K21, 6K8D, 6KBD, 6KE1, 6L43, 6LB3, 6LDF, 6LEL, 6LG9, 700F, 7027, 7057, 70EH, 70LF, 710H, 71G5, 7207, 7225, 7255, 727L, 7505, 7507, 755F, 75EF, 75F5, 75I7, 766F, 7681, 76CF, 7771, 7781, 77IL, 7861, 7A0H, 7A4H, 7BB5, 7C6F, 7EEH, 7EHL, 7FG5, 7G45, 7HEL, 7I0L, 7I27, 7IE7, 7IGH, 7K07, 7K61, 7K77, 7KC1, 7L27, 7LCF, 7LK7, 802J, 80B1, 80GD, 80JJ, 80KJ, 820J, 86E1, 880D, 882J, 88E7, 88I7, 892J, 89EJ, 8B61, 8BI7, 8CI9, 8CK1, 8D6D, 8DD9, 8DGD, 8E01, 8E07, 8EE1, 8EI7, 8EK1, 8EKJ, 8I77, 8I87, 8IC9, 8IK7, 8J0J, 8K6D, 8KI7, 8KIJ, 8KK7, 9025, 9055, 9089, 9275, 92EJ, 92G5, 92GJ, 93EL, 9455, 9505, 9557, 9599, 96B3, 970L, 976F, 97G5, 982J, 98E7, 98I9, 98K7, 9905, 990J, 9925, 9995, 999H, 99BH, 99EL, 99G9, 99GJ, 99LJ, 9A55, 9B03, 9B27, 9BGJ, 9BH7, 9BK7, 9CG9, 9E6L, 9EHJ, 9EKJ, 9ELL, 9G39, 9G45, 9G4H, 9GA5, 9GAH, 9GBJ, 9GEJ, 9GHH, 9GHJ, 9GI9, 9GIJ, 9H7H, 9H87, 9HAH, 9HB7, 9I89, 9I9H, 9IB3, 9IEH, 9IKF, 9J7H, 9J87, 9JB7, 9JGH, 9K0F, 9K27, 9KGJ, 9KKF, 9L89, 9L9J, 9LG9, 9LGJ, 9LIJ, 9LKF, A081, A14H, A1IH, A201, A2C1, AA15, AA81, AAIF, ABC1, AC01, AHC1, AIIF, AKEF, B005, B01D, B01H, B051, B05D, B0A5, B0B1, B0BJ, B0DH, B0E1, B0GJ, B0H1, B0JH, B143, B16D, B255, B2B5, B2C1, B2G5, B2K7, B4EH, B4G3, B501, B5A5, B5BJ, B5C1, B5IJ, B5K5, B621, B663, B6I3, B6K1, B777, B7I7, B80D, B88D, B8ED, B8KD, BB01, BB0J, BB21, BB25, BB4H, BB6D, BBD5, BBE1, BBEH, BBH1, BBIJ, BBJH, BCK1, BD61, BDB5, BDGJ, BEE1, BG55, BGB5, BGGJ, BGIJ, BH27, BH7H, BHC1, BHH1, BHK7, BI77, BIGJ, BJ0H, BJBH, BJIJ, BJJJ, BK25, BK27, BK55, BKA5, BKK1, C043, C143, C2B1, C32L, C3G9, C601, C6EL, C6G9, C8B1, CBK1, CC2L, CC89, CE21, CECL, CF2L, CF89, CG69, CIG9, D003, D015, D045, D05D, D06D, D06F, D0DH, D0H1, D1D5, D1GD, D205, D26D, D2DJ, D32J, D38J, D403, D525, D561, D56D, D5AF, D5F5, D5GD, D6C9, D6D9, D6DF, D6E1, D6ED, D6F9, D6FD, D8IJ, D8JJ, D945, D993, D99F, D9C9, D9F3, D9G5, D9KJ, DA15, DAA5, DAE1, DAKF, DB25, DB61, DBC1, DBG3, DC43, DC99, DCE1, DD0F, DD1D, DD2D, DD2J, DD5D, DD9H, DDA5, DDD5, DDDJ, DDED, DDH1, DDHJ, DDI9, DDJ5, DE0D, DED1, DEDF, DEFD, DF03, DF45, DF55, DF5D, DF6D, DG05, DGGJ, DH0H, DH43, DHC1, DHEH, DHH3, DHJJ, DI8J, DIC9, DII9, DIJH, DJG5, DJHJ, DJKJ, DK6D, DKAF, DKDD, DKGD, E081, E0BJ, E0DD, E0DJ, E0E1, E0ED, E0J7, E0K7, E0KJ, E1GD, E1IH, E201, E281, E66F, E6BD, E6ED, E6K1, E6LL, E7EF, E861, E86D, E88D, EB0D, EB4H, EBHH, EBI7, EC6F, ECEL, ED0D, ED1D, ED6D, EDAF, EDDD, EDFD, EE01, EE0D, EE1H, EE21, EECF, EEE1, EEGH, EEH7, EF8D, EGGD, EGHH, EGIH, EGIJ, EH07, EH0L, EH8D, EHBH, EHBJ, EHK7, EHL7, EI4H, EIK7, EIKJ, EJ77, EK07, EK0J, EKC1, EKIJ, EKK1, EKK7, EL6L, ELBD, ELCL, ELDJ, ELK7, F059, F20L, F26L, F28D, F2GD, F2KD, F32L, F3AF, F3G3, F455, F56F, F595, F5KD, F6AF, F6GD, F88D, F8I9, F955, F995, F9B3, F9G3, F9KF, FB03, FB8D, FBI3, FC89, FD99, FDA5, FDI9, FEGD, FF59, FG2D, FGI3, FGKD, FI89, FIB3, FIKF, FK2D, FK45, FKD5, FL6D, FLG3, G003, G04H, G055, G0BH, G0HH, G0HJ, G0I3, G0K5, G0KJ, G26D, G2DJ, G2GJ, G303, G333, G393, G3G9, G3I3, G403, G40H, G433, G4AH, G4GH, G4H3, G4IH, G589, G5G9, G80J, G89J, G94H, G9G3, GAA5, GAIH, GB0H, GB43, GB6D, GBB5, GBG3, GBGJ, GBJJ, GD0H, GD45, GDD5, GDKD, GG2D, GG39, GG8J, GG9H, GGAH, GGDJ, GGEJ, GGGH, GGH3, GGKJ, GH0H, GHG3, GHH3, GHHH, GHJJ, GI03, GI2J, GI93, GIAH, GIEJ, GIG9, GII3, GJJJ, GJKJ, GK05, GKDD, GKGD, GKGJ, GKIJ, H081, H087, H0AH, H0BJ, H0D1, H0HJ, H0LL, H1HH, H20D, H22D, H26D, H2I7, H2K7, H30L, H3KJ, H40H, H447, H4G3, H4H3, H4HH, H66L, H6ED, 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5IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIF, D555555555555555555555550555, EEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEBH, K66666666666666666666666666F, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLEEB7, D5555555555555555555555555A55, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG3, GIG0000000000000000000000000H, HH00000000000000000000000001H, K0000000000000000000000005KEF, 5BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBD, HB0000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000505EF, L7777777777777777777777777772L, 2000000000000000000000000000CB1, C8CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC9, IKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKFF, JE0000000000000000000000000000J, K000000000000000000000000000261, A0000000000000000000000000004I4H, HD000000000000000000000000000001, K000000000000000000000000000EC01, K0FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFCF, D0002222222222222222222222222222D, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFL2L, I700000000000000000000000000000GH, K00000000000000000000000000000E61, 20000000000000000000000000000000JJ, DD5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL0KE7, 44HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000L89, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000JJIJ, K222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222DD, KCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCF, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKCF, D55KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000077, 22222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222D, K000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000008IJ, DFA00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000005, CC4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJE0J, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777EK7, 6000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000043, KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKB5, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEEH, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 50000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000002C1, K0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000055EF, H700000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 80000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000K1, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE0I7, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHEH, 5000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BB5, J000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000BIJ, C4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, F0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000066B3, G0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000A5, D5KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHBH, L0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000IKF, 4IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII3, A400000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, DKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKF, 4HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH, E0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000071, 7LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIL, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLK77, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEI7, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLIB3, I7G00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000H, 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77EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEK7, JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJKJ, 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LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLKE7, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777772L, BKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK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KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK5

===Base 24===

15, 17, 1D, 1H, 1J, 1N, 25, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 31, 37, 3B, 3H, 41, 45, 47, 4B, 4D, 4H, 57, 5B, 5H, 5J, 65, 67, 6D, 6J, 6N, 75, 7B, 7D, 7N, 81, 85, 87, 8J, 97, 9B, 9D, 9H, 9N, A1, AB, AH, AN, B5, B7, BD, BH, BJ, C5, CJ, CN, D1, D5, DJ, E1, EB, ED, EH, EN, F7, FD, FJ, FN, G5, GD, GH, H1, HB, HD, HN, I1, I7, IB, IH, J1, J5, J7, JB, JN, K7, KB, KJ, KN, L5, LH, LJ, MD, MJ, N5, NB, NH, NJ, 101, 10B, 111, 1F1, 1FB, 1GB, 1LB, 201, 221, 22H, 261, 271, 277, 28H, 2A7, 2C7, 2G7, 2H7, 2L1, 2L7, 2MH, 305, 30D, 30J, 33N, 34N, 35D, 35N, 38D, 395, 3A5, 3AJ, 3CD, 3DD, 3DN, 3E5, 3EJ, 3GJ, 3IJ, 3JJ, 3K5, 3KD, 3ND, 43N, 44N, 49J, 4EJ, 4GJ, 4GN, 4NN, 50N, 535, 54N, 551, 55N, 5C1, 5CD, 5E5, 5K1, 5KD, 5LN, 5M5, 5N1, 601, 60B, 61B, 66H, 68B, 691, 6CH, 6FH, 6GB, 6HH, 6MH, 70H, 70J, 711, 761, 771, 77H, 77J, 78H, 7C7, 7CH, 7FH, 7G7, 7H7, 7HH, 7IJ, 7JJ, 7K1, 7M1, 7M7, 80D, 82H, 83N, 88D, 88H, 8AD, 8CD, 8DB, 8DD, 8DH, 8DN, 8GB, 8KD, 8MB, 8MH, 905, 911, 921, 935, 955, 99J, 9AJ, 9G1, 9JJ, 9K5, 9L1, 9M5, A0J, A3J, A95, AA7, AD7, AE5, AG7, AGJ, AI5, AIJ, AJD, AL7, ALD, B01, B0N, B11, B61, B6B, B8N, B91, BIN, BL1, BLN, BNN, C1B, C21, C27, C2H, C3D, C61, C8H, C91, CA7, CB1, CBB, CC7, CCB, CCD, CDD, CFB, CG1, CGB, CK1, CL1, CMB, CMH, D0B, D3D, D3N, D4N, D6B, D6H, D7H, D8B, D8N, DAD, DCD, DCH, DDH, DDN, DG7, DGB, DID, DMN, DND, E05, E4J, EA7, EEJ, EF5, EGJ, EI5, EJJ, EM5, EM7, F01, F21, F51, F8H, F95, FC1, FF1, FFB, FKH, FM5, G0B, G0N, G11, G3N, G6B, G77, G7J, G8B, G8N, G91, GA7, GBB, GC7, GFB, GG1, GGJ, GGN, GK1, GL1, GLN, GMN, GN1, GNN, H0J, H2H, H3J, H4J, H77, HA5, HA7, HE5, HFH, HIJ, HJJ, HKH, HL7, HMH, I0N, I3D, I3J, I3N, I4N, I5D, I95, IA5, IAJ, IE5, IEJ, IF5, IGJ, IJD, IK5, IKD, J0D, J4J, J8D, JAD, JDH, JEJ, JFH, JHH, JKD, JMH, K35, K6H, KCD, KFH, KH5, KLD, KM1, L01, L0B, L0D, L0N, L61, L6B, L8D, LA7, LC7, LDD, LF1, LG7, LGB, LGN, LID, LK1, LKD, LL1, LLB, LLD, LMN, LNN, M0H, M11, M21, M4N, M71, M91, M95, MA5, MA7, MBN, MC7, MF1, MF5, MFB, MFH, MG7, MI5, MIN, ML1, ML7, MLB, MMH, N01, N21, N4N, N71, N8N, NC1, ND7, NE7, NG1, NID, NK1, NL7, NMN, NN7, 11CB, 11MB, 1291, 12G1, 16C1, 16CB, 16K1, 186B, 18CB, 19K1, 1BK1, 1C8B, 1K91, 1KC1, 1KL1, 1L21, 1LC1, 1LM1, 1M61, 1M8B, 1MG1, 206H, 20CH, 20M7, 21C1, 21M1, 2207, 260H, 26KH, 2991, 2C6H, 2CC1, 2CM1, 2F11, 2FHH, 2MC1, 2MK1, 2MM1, 308N, 30GN, 30IN, 30LN, 30MN, 333J, 33JD, 33LD, 343J, 344J, 35I5, 380N, 393J, 394J, 3A3D, 3FI5, 3IMN, 3J3D, 3JID, 3L3D, 3L8N, 3M0N, 3M55, 3NGN, 404J, 408N, 40LN, 434J, 44AJ, 4ILN, 4JAJ, 4L8N, 5091, 5095, 50F1, 50I5, 51L1, 5211, 5291, 52G1, 53ID, 53MN, 5595, 55AD, 56F1, 588N, 58MN, 58ND, 5961, 5991, 5A5D, 5AAD, 5F91, 5GF1, 5GIN, 5I05, 5I55, 5I8D, 5IDD, 5IDN, 5IIN, 5IMN, 5KI5, 5M61, 5M8N, 5N3N, 602H, 6211, 62F1, 62G1, 66C1, 66FB, 66M1, 66MB, 6B21, 6BM1, 6BMB, 6C6B, 6CF1, 6CLB, 6FG1, 6K21, 6K2H, 6KG1, 6KKH, 6L21, 6LCB, 6LM1, 6MB1, 6MBB, 6MG1, 6MK1, 7001, 7027, 7207, 726H, 739J, 793J, 79C1, 7A4J, 7A9J, 7AE7, 7C01, 7CC1, 7FL1, 7G21, 7G9J, 7GAJ, 7GC1, 7HGJ, 7J2H, 7J6H, 7MKH, 800B, 800H, 804N, 806H, 808N, 80BN, 80FH, 80LN, 80MN, 840N, 848N, 866B, 86FB, 880B, 880N, 884N, 88CB, 88FB, 88LN, 88MN, 8BBB, 8BLB, 8C6B, 8CCH, 8CFH, 8F0B, 8FHH, 8FLB, 8H0H, 8HCH, 8IGN, 8ILN, 8KKH, 8L8B, 8LBB, 8LFB, 8LIN, 8M8N, 8MLN, 8N0N, 8NGN, 8NLN, 9061, 9091, 90EJ, 90F1, 90GJ, 90K1, 940J, 9501, 95F1, 9CC1, 9E0J, 9E95, 9F61, 9FI5, 9G3J, 9II5, 9K01, 9KK1, 9M01, A007, A05D, A0AD, A33D, A3AD, A3F5, A44J, A727, A9EJ, AA0D, AAAD, AAAJ, ACM7, AD8D, ADKD, AE27, AE9J, AEAJ, AEE7, AIAD, AIDD, AIID, AJ9J, AK5D, AM07, AM27, AM35, AMK5, B08B, B0CB, B0GB, B18B, B1CB, B80B, B8CB, BB21, BB4N, BBCB, BBF1, BBFB, BBK1, BC8B, BCF1, BCLB, BF1B, BF8B, BFB1, BFM1, BGC1, BGF1, BK21, BL8B, BLFB, BM1B, BM3N, BMB1, BMMN, BNF1, C00D, C06B, C077, C0D7, C0H7, C0L7, C0LB, C0M1, C60H, C6LB, C76H, C7E7, CAID, CC01, CCFH, CCKH, CDLB, CGE7, CH07, CHE7, CI8D, CIAD, CK0D, CL8B, CLDB, CLE7, CM01, CM07, CME7, CMM1, D007, D08D, D0C7, D0HH, D0LN, D0M7, D0NN, D207, D2KH, D2M7, D777, D7E7, D80H, D8LD, DA27, DAC7, DAM7, DBFB, DBMB, DC77, DCLB, DDL7, DE77, DF0H, DF2H, DFFH, DFMB, DH27, DH8H, DHC7, DHHH, DILN, DK0H, DK2H, DK8H, DKHH, DLIN, DLL7, DLM7, DLMB, DM07, DMH7, DMMB, DNGN, E07J, E09J, E335, E355, E555, E5A5, E5K5, E79J, E93J, E995, EA35, EE95, EKE5, F00B, F00H, F06H, F08B, F0I5, F11B, F18B, F1L1, F20H, F26H, F2FH, F355, F661, F6K1, F80B, F86B, F8BB, FBGB, FBK1, FBLB, FC0B, FC6H, FCLB, FEK5, FGB1, FH05, FH0H, FH35, FH6H, FHCH, FHF5, FHHH, FI05, FK91, FKK1, FL1B, FLB1, FLBB, FM61, FMBB, FMK1, G00J, G021, G027, G0EJ, G0JJ, G0M1, G0M7, G1CB, G2E7, G40J, G4AJ, G4IJ, G4JJ, G6C1, G701, G94J, G9IJ, GAEJ, GAJJ, GB21, GBM1, GC01, GCF1, GCLB, GE0J, GEAJ, GEE7, GEG7, GEIJ, GEL7, GFM1, GGE7, GGMB, GI0J, GIIJ, GIIN, GJ9J, GM27, GMB1, GNM7, H005, H0K5, H0M5, H207, H2E7, H335, H3I5, H595, H5K5, H60H, H68H, H76H, H80H, H8HH, HAAJ, HE7J, HEC7, HGE7, HGM7, HH35, HI55, HIM5, I00J, I035, I08D, I0CD, I4JJ, IC0D, ICID, II0D, II0J, II35, IIAD, IILD, IIM5, IIMN, IJ9J, ILCD, IM05, IM35, IMNN, INLD, J03J, J0HJ, J0JH, J2CH, J39J, J3ID, J60H, J62H, J8CH, J9IJ, JGAJ, JGJJ, JH9J, JI0J, JIDD, JJ0H, JJCD, JJJD, JJLD, JL3D, JLCD, K0E5, K0I5, K0K1, K0KH, K191, K211, K2F1, K2G1, K591, K5AD, K6F1, K6G1, K9I5, KA0D, KAAD, KAM5, KCCH, KCHH, KD8D, KDDD, KFI5, KG01, KG61, KH0H, KHHH, KI55, KIDD, KK21, KK8H, KKF1, KKK1, KKKD, KM8H, KMHH, KMK5, L027, L0M7, L1C1, L1MB, L211, L727, L8BB, L8BN, L8FB, L8LN, L9C1, L9M1, LB8B, LBC1, LBM1, LCAD, LD77, LDIN, LDL7, LDM7, LF8B, LG21, LIIN, LLLN, LLN7, LM07, LM1B, LM77, LMG1, LN77, LNM1, M00N, M01B, M03N, M055, M077, M08B, M0B1, M0C1, M0GB, M0K1, M0M7, M0N7, M18B, M1BB, M1MB, M26H, M335, M3GN, M3M5, M3MN, M3NN, M501, M53N, M5M1, M5NN, M6BB, M6C1, M6G1, M6KH, M88B, M88N, M8BB, M8NN, MBB1, MC01, MCC1, MCKH, MCM1, ME07, ME35, MEK5, MGGB, MGMB, MH35, MH8H, MHE7, MHM5, MK8H, MKC1, MKG1, MKHH, MKK5, ML8N, MM01, MM8B, MMC1, MMLN, MMM5, MMMN, MMN1, MN0N, MN27, MNGN, MNLN, N007, N027, N077, N0C7, N0DN, N0IN, N1M1, N227, N2M7, N661, N707, N727, N8LD, NA27, NA3D, NC07, ND0D, ND0N, NDLD, NF11, NF61, NGG7, NILN, NK3D, NK8D, 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5N03D, 5N3LD, 5NA8D, 5NADD, 5NDGN, 5NNGN, 600KH, 61661, 616L1, 61MM1, 66161, 66611, 666B1, 666L1, 666LB, 66BB1, 66BG1, 66BLB, 66G61, 66KF1, 66LBB, 66LG1, 6BBBB, 6BFCB, 6CC11, 6F1M1, 6F66B, 6F6B1, 6F6L1, 6FBCB, 6FLMB, 6FMCB, 6FMM1, 6FMMB, 6GCM1, 6GM61, 6GMC1, 6K1C1, 6K1K1, 6KK11, 6KKL1, 6KL11, 6L1G1, 6LBFB, 6LCC1, 6LFMB, 6MM61, 6MM6B, 70291, 702C1, 702G1, 72CF1, 72EE7, 7433J, 7443J, 77A07, 79901, 799F1, 7AAEJ, 7EE27, 7H9EJ, 7K2KH, 7KK2H, 7KKKH, 7KKMH, 7L2C1, 800NN, 806BB, 808BB, 808LB, 80F8B, 80IIN, 833ID, 860KH, 8886B, 888NN, 8BG4N, 8CH6H, 8CKHH, 8FC0H, 8FFCH, 8HHHH, 8IIIN, 8K0HH, 8LL4N, 8M0NN, 8MNNN, 8NNND, 9000J, 900M1, 9034J, 90IIJ, 94IIJ, 96CM1, 96KF1, 96MM1, 990C1, 990M1, 99591, 99961, 999C1, 99F91, 99FM1, 99KF1, 99M61, 99MK1, 9AAA5, 9FEE5, 9FFA5, 9FFF5, 9II4J, 9K6C1, 9K9C1, 9K9F1, 9KF91, 9M6M1, 9MK61, A02M7, A0A35, A0AM5, A0C77, A0D0D, A0DDD, A0EC7, A0M55, A0MM7, A2ME7, A3335, A33M5, A3555, A3MM5, A550D, A58ID, A5D0D, A5DDD, A74AJ, A7E07, AA0M5, AA3ID, AA3M5, AA83D, AA8ID, AAAM5, 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EGG07, EGG27, EGL07, EI9IJ, F02HH, F06LB, F0C6B, F0CCH, F0CHH, F0E55, F0EA5, F0FH5, F0GGB, F0M2H, F0MGB, F0MMB, F1BMB, F3FF5, F3I35, F3II5, F6BCB, FA035, FB1MB, FBBM1, FBBMB, FBM8B, FC0HH, FC88B, FCFHH, FFC0H, FFCFH, FFCHH, FFF0H, FFF6H, FFFH5, FFHI5, FFI55, FG1MB, FGGCB, FGM1B, FHK55, FI5I5, FKEA5, FKKI5, FKL11, FM16B, FM1CB, FM62H, FM6CB, FMBG1, FMM0B, G0001, G00E7, G039J, G06F1, G07C1, G07F1, G0A9J, G0G07, G0GG7, G0I4J, G0I9J, G0LL7, G22M7, G2M07, G339J, G433J, G62M1, G6M61, G6MM1, G903J, G933J, GAA9J, GBCC1, GE007, GGGGB, GGGL7, GJ0IJ, GL007, GL2M7, GLL07, GLLM7, GMGCB, GMM07, GMM1B, H007H, H05I5, H0CCH, H0CM7, H0GG7, H0H27, H0H8H, H0HC7, H0HH5, H0I35, H0MM7, H3555, H35F5, H3F55, H3FF5, H5055, H50F5, H7HEJ, H9995, H9GEJ, HCC0H, HCC6H, HCGG7, HCHM7, HE027, HE0G7, HEE07, HEEG7, HEG27, HF0F5, HF505, HF555, HFF05, HFKF5, HG0G7, HH06H, HH08H, HH0H5, HH5I5, HH7HJ, HH9EJ, HH9I5, HHCHH, HHE07, HHGG7, HHH05, HHH7H, HHH9J, HHKI5, HHM05, HHM07, HHM27, HI0I5, HJ86H, HJC0H, HK055, HK9F5, HKF05, HKFF5, HKFK5, HKII5, HKK95, HM2M7, HME27, HMKM5, HMM05, HMM27, HMM55, HMMM7, I00DD, I00M5, I044J, I0505, I09IJ, I0AAD, I0D0D, I0DDD, I0I05, I0IDD, I0II5, I0IJJ, I0JIJ, I33M5, I4I4J, I5INN, I888N, I8NND, I8NNN, I904J, I94IJ, IA8ID, IAADD, IAI8D, IDDDD, IDINN, II88N, II8NN, IID8D, IIDIN, III8N, IIIDD, IIIID, IIIIN, IIIND, IIN8D, IINDD, IJJ0J, IJJJJ, ILILN, ILLIN, IMM8N, INA0D, INDNN, INGIN, INNDN, INNND, J000H, J002H, J00AJ, J00GJ, J00KH, J02KH, J068H, J080H, J090J, J0A9J, J0AAJ, J0C0H, J0G0J, J0IIJ, J0JGJ, J0JIJ, J0K8H, J2K0H, J2KKH, J6K8H, J86KH, JC00H, JC0KH, JCCCH, JCK0H, JCKCH, JDDLD, JG93J, JIIJJ, JJ0IJ, JJ2KH, JJ9GJ, JJCCH, JJG9J, JJGIJ, JJJ9J, JJJJH, JJK8H, JK08H, JK0CH, JK8KH, JKC0H, JKKKH, K0001, K0091, K020H, K02C1, K03ID, K0611, K06L1, K083D, K08HH, K0961, K09C1, K0CF1, K0F91, K0KM5, K0LG1, K1G21, K20HH, K29K1, K2KHH, K5001, K500D, K58ID, K5D0D, K5L11, K6621, K6C11, K6LC1, K8CKH, K8KCH, K96C1, K99E5, K9F91, K9FA5, K9FE5, K9K91, KA55D, KC011, KCF11, KD02H, KD0MH, KD20H, KDM2H, KEA55, KEAA5, KEK95, KEKK5, KF1G1, KF1K1, KF611, KF6L1, KFEA5, KH8CH, KI005, KIMM5, KK05D, KK0AD, KK0DH, KK2CH, KK2KH, KK33D, KK961, KK9C1, KKA5D, KKD0D, KKE55, KKI0D, KKIID, KKIM5, KKK0H, KKKM5, KLGC1, KMK2H, L188B, L1991, L2007, L22M7, L2EE7, L2MM7, L333D, L3LIN, L7291, L72G1, L88IN, L8C8B, L9991, LBB1B, LBBBB, LBBBN, LD0E7, LDBBN, LE207, LFMCB, LGCC1, LL227, LL3IN, LL48N, LLM27, LLMM7, LMBCB, LME27, LMMBB, LMMM7, LN33D, LN3AD, LNAAD, LNACD, M0007, M0061, M00K5, M0207, M066B, M0BCB, M0EE5, M0G01, M0GM1, M0M8N, M27KH, M2E27, M2M07, M2M27, M5005, M5555, M66CB, M66K1, M6K61, M6MCB, M7007, M7EE7, M8C0B, M8KCH, M8MGN, MBBGB, MBGM1, MCCCH, MCHCH, MEE55, MGBC1, MGMM1, MH227, MH2M7, MHH7H, MKM55, ML3LN, MM0CB, MM16B, MM227, MM661, MM6K1, MME55, MMEE7, MMKE5, MMM07, MMM6B, MMMB1, MMMGB, MMMM7, MNM61, MNN3N, N00CD, N00KD, N03LN, N0A8D, N0AM7, N0D8D, N0KKD, N0L3N, N0LAD, N0NDD, N16L1, N3GIN, N3LAD, N3LIN, N3NNN, N61L1, N96M1, N9M61, NA0CD, NAK0D, NAKKD, NCA8D, NCM77, NDGIN, NDIIN, NDLLN, NF991, NGM07, NIIIN, NINNN, NKKDD, NLNAD, NN0LN, NN191, NN3NN, NN6L1, NN83D, NNAAD, NNDIN, NNGIN, NNL3N, NNLND, NNM61, NNNIN, 166G21, 16G621, 19MMM1, 1BBBMB, 1BBGM1, 1GCCC1, 1GCCM1, 1MMM1B, 200E27, 2E0027, 2HH0HH, 2HHC0H, 2KK0HH, 2M0E27, 2M22E7, 30NNNN, 3333M5, 333AID, 333I35, 33I555, 3F5FF5, 3I3MM5, 3I88GN, 3II8LN, 3IIII5, 400IJJ, 40J00J, 40JJ3J, 40JJJJ, 44403J, 444I0J, 44IJJJ, 44J0JJ, 44JJIJ, 48I8IN, 4I440J, 4II8IN, 4IJ0IJ, 4JIIIJ, 4JJ0JJ, 4JJJ0J, 50033D, 5003AD, 5008ID, 500D8D, 500G01, 500L11, 500LAD, 500MG1, 503LAD, 508ILD, 50DDLD, 50ILAD, 50M001, 516G61, 519MM1, 538NNN, 53NNNN, 55005D, 5508ID, 550D8D, 558ILD, 55F5I5, 56G661, 58333D, 58NNNN, 5999F5, 59AAF5, 5DNNNN, 5F55I5, 5FMMM1, 5G6661, 5K9AA5, 5KK9F5, 5KKK95, 5M0001, 5NDD8D, 5NDINN, 5NN33D, 5NNLAD, 5NNNAD, 5NNNDN, 608K0H, 61CCM1, 61G621, 661G21, 666621, 6666CB, 6666F1, 66K661, 6BCCC1, 6BKKC1, 6F6BBB, 6G6621, 6GCCC1, 6GMMM1, 6K6K61, 6M666B, 70A077, 70L991, 7722E7, 772E27, 7772E7, 777A27, 777L27, 77A777, 77EL27, 7A7077, 7A7777, 7E7227, 7L2E27, 7LEL27, 7LL2E7, 7LLE27, 7LLL27, 800GIN, 80NINN, 80NNNN, 8BBMGN, 8C888B, 8C88LB, 8MM0GN, 900001, 90043J, 959MM1, 96K661, 9999F1, 9999K1, 999AF5, 999FF5, 99EEE5, 99K991, 99MMM1, 9AAFF5, 9EIIIJ, 9F9991, 9F9MM1, 9FEAA5, 9G444J, 9K9991, 9M6661, A000CD, A000KD, A000M5, A0083D, A00I0D, A00M05, A022E7, A07E77, A0FF35, A0K3ID, A0K83D, A4AJJJ, A77777, AA0035, AA0355, AAA035, ADDD0D, ADDDDD, AF0035, AFFF35, AKK8ID, AM0M05, AM7777, B0F0MB, BBBBM1, BBLBMB, BFBBBB, BFM0MB, BFMMMB, BLBBMB, BLMBBB, C00071, C000E7, C007C1, C00G07, C07KKH, C0CC6H, C0CH6H, C0EEE7, C0HHHH, C777L7, C77L77, C7L777, C7LL07, C8088B, CAAK8D, CAKKAD, CC000H, CC0CHH, CD000H, CD0KKH, CE0007, CEE0E7, CELL77, CG0007, CGGL07, CH0CHH, CHCH0H, CHHH6H, CK0C0H, CKAK8D, CKKA8D, CL7707, D002FH, D0D0KD, D0DA77, D0DKKD, D0IIIN, D0K0DD, D0KDKD, D0KKDD, D0KKKH, DC0EE7, DCEEE7, DD0227, DD0D27, DD0DKD, DD0KKD, DD2E27, DDD0D7, DDD0LD, DDD227, DDDA77, DDDBCB, DDDCE7, DDDDFB, DDDMM7, DDEEE7, DDMBCB, DEEC07, DH000H, DHMEE7, DIIIGN, DK0KDD, DKMKKH, DMBBBB, DMEEE7, DMMM27, E00G27, E07727, E0C707, E0CE77, E0E027, E0EEG7, E0EGE7, E0EL27, E0GE27, E0L207, E0LE27, E0LL27, E2E2E7, E7L2E7, E900IJ, E9EEE5, EAAKK5, EC00E7, EC0G07, EC7007, ECEG07, EE0G07, EE0GE7, EE72E7, EE7L27, EECE07, EECEG7, EEEEE5, EEEK55, EEEKA5, EEEL27, EEGLL7, EELE27, EGLLL7, EKK595, EKKA55, EKKAK5, EKKKK5, F000E5, F0AA35, F0F035, F0FFFH, F0HKK5, F0KKE5, F16BB1, F16MM1, F1BBBB, F1MC6B, F666BB, F66BBB, F6GMM1, FB0BBB, FB1BBB, FBBB0B, FBMMG1, FC0FFH, FCFCCH, FEEE55, FEEEA5, FF03F5, FF0FFH, FF3F35, FFEE35, FFF2CH, FFFCCH, FFFFE5, FFI335, FFKFE5, FGLMMB, FK55I5, FKFE55, FLM8CB, FMC66B, FMMC6B, G0AA4J, G0CCC1, G0LE07, G666F1, GG0007, GG00G7, GG0L07, GGLLL7, GGLMM7, GI444J, GJJ33J, GLLE27, GLMMCB, GM0661, GMMM61, H00G07, H05555, H09FF5, H0C0E7, H0CE07, H0CEE7, H0E227, H0H007, H0H5F5, H0H995, H0HHE7, H0HHH7, H55505, H55II5, H5FII5, H99FF5, HEG007, HFFK55, HH0007, HH02M7, HH0C0H, HH7AEJ, HHC0E7, HHE227, HHH0C7, HHH0M7, HHH995, HHHC0H, HHHE27, HHHEAJ, HHHH07, HHHH8H, HHHHE7, HHHHI5, HHHHJH, HHHJ8H, HHHJCH, HHJ00H, HHK095, HHKKM5, HKK0F5, HKK5F5, HKKK55, HKKKK5, HKM555, HMEEE7, I00555, I05555, I0I94J, I333I5, I33555, I444IJ, I55055, I55505, I55555, IAAC8D, ID000D, IDD0LD, II9I4J, III4IJ, III505, IIIC8D, IIJIJJ, IJIIIJ, IM8LLN, IN00AD, INAACD, INCAAD, ININGN, J00CCH, J0IJJJ, J0J09J, J3333D, JIJIIJ, JJ68KH, JJIJIJ, JJJAJJ, JJJHGJ, JJJJAJ, JJJJGJ, JJJJIJ, K0008H, K00161, K001G1, K001L1, K002CH, K002HH, K00521, K00AKD, K00C0H, K00GF1, K00I0D, K00K95, K00M05, K01621, K05021, K0505D, K051G1, K059F5, K05K95, K0C0C1, K0L291, K0M005, K0M505, K1K661, K2CK0H, K33IAD, K3IIID, K5550D, K56121, K59AA5, K612K1, K61CC1, K66661, K6K611, K900C1, K99661, K9AFF5, K9C001, KAKI8D, KC00C1, KDK00D, KF9991, KI0IID, KK000D, KK01L1, KK0661, KK0I8D, KK0L11, KK0M2H, KK5661, KK59F5, KK61C1, KK9995, KK9EE5, KKA3ID, KKA83D, KKAI8D, KKC001, KKC0C1, KKC1C1, KKCCC1, KKD2HH, KKK595, KKK9A5, KKKK95, KKKKKH, KKKMCH, KKM505, KKMEE5, KKMKCH, KM0005, L222E7, L33AAD, L38I8N, LCCC11, LDFBCB, LEL2E7, LELE27, LELL27, LGMMM1, LLE2E7, LM2ME7, M000M5, M006MB, M00E27, M00MM1, M02227, M06M61, M06MM1, M0E227, M0EE27, M0KME5, M0M5GN, M0MM61, M0MMCB, M0MNNN, M0NNM1, M38LLN, M5K505, M77707, M7E227, M7E727, M8CHHH, MBMMCB, MBMMM1, MEEE77, MHH027, MHH505, MHHC6H, MHHH6H, MHHK05, MKK001, MM2ME7, MM7707, MM7E77, MMBMK1, MMM2E7, MMMC0B, MMMK61, N0003D, N0008D, N0030N, N030NN, N0C0AD, N0CKAD, N0DKDD, N0N3GN, N0NN3N, N333AD, N777A7, N77A77, NAACKD, NAAKDD, NACAKD, NACKAD, NC0AKD, NC0KAD, NCA0KD, NCKAKD, NDNNLN, NNNLAD, NNNNLD, 1BBBBBB, 1BBBBG1, 1M6MMMB, 1MMBBBB, 1MMMMK1, 2000227, 2000EE7, 20EEEE7, 2C0FFFH, 2E2EEE7, 2KKKHCH, 2MEE227, 2MEEE27, 333333D, 3333355, 3335555, 333FFF5, 333IIID, 388NNNN, 38INNNN, 3INNNNN, 4000IMN, 4000JJJ, 400IIIN, 444444J, 44JJJJJ, 488888N, 4IIJIIJ, 4JJJ33J, 50002M1, 5001G21, 5006621, 500LGM1, 555083D, 55555I5, 5616G21, 59MMMM1, 5K999A5, 61CCCC1, 66666K1, 6K0000H, 6K0080H, 70000A7, 70077A7, 70700A7, 7070A77, 77700A7, 77770A7, 7777227, 7777E27, 77L2227, 7LE22E7, 888888B, 888888N, 8888BBN, 8888IIN, 888B88B, 888I8IN, 88IINNN, 88NIINN, 88NNIIN, 8INNNNN, 90444IJ, 904I44J, 9666661, 9666FK1, 9666K61, 9966FK1, A00KK0D, A0K000D, AAAAA35, AAKKI8D, BB8888B, BBB0BLB, BBBB1BB, BBBBBB1, BBBBBGB, BBBBBLB, BBBLMBB, C0007KH, C000F11, C00FFFH, C00HH0H, C00K00H, C0C0HHH, C0CCHHH, C0CHH0H, C0CHHCH, C0FFFFH, C0H0H0H, C0KKC0H, CC0HH0H, CCCCC11, CCCCCC1, CCHHHHH, CDKKKKH, CEL7777, CGGG0G7, CGGGGG7, CH00HHH, CHGGGG7, CHHHH0H, CHHHHCH, CHHHHHH, CK0000H, CKDKKKH, D00DDKD, DD0DDD7, DDBBBLB, DDD2EE7, DDDBBLB, DDDDD27, DDDDDBB, DDDDDC7, DDDDDKD, DDDDDMB, DDDDEE7, DDDDKKD, DDDDLDB, DDDFBBB, DDDLFCB, DDDMEE7, DDM2227, DHHEEE7, DK000KD, DK00D0D, DK0D00D, DNN000N, E000CL7, E000EG7, E000GE7, E00C0G7, E00CE07, E00EE27, E0C00G7, E0C0EG7, E0CE007, E0EC0G7, E0EE207, E0G0007, E20EE27, E22EEE7, E2EE227, E2EEE27, E772227, E77LL27, E7L2227, E9IIIIJ, EAKKKA5, EC000G7, ECG00G7, EE00L27, EE0E0G7, EE20EE7, EEE0EG7, EEE22E7, EEEE727, EEEEE27, EEEEG07, EEEEGE7, EEEKKK5, EELLL27, EI0IIIJ, EKKKAA5, ELLLE27, F00FA35, F0333F5, F0F0FE5, F333335, FAAFF35, FCF0FCH, FEEEE35, FF03335, FF0FA35, FF0FE35, FF0FMCH, FFF0A35, FFF0F35, FFFAF35, FFFF5I5, FFFFM2H, FFFI3I5, FFFIII5, FFH5555, FH55555, FL1MMM1, G0000G7, G0000L7, GGGG007, GLE2227, GLLLLE7, GLLLLL7, H000007, H0000C7, H000HCH, H000HM7, H000M27, H000ME7, H00G227, H00HHM7, H02M227, H0C0HHH, H0CH00H, H0E0007, H0FFF35, H0FFFF5, H0H0ME7, H0HFII5, H0HHHCH, H0M0227, H555555, H5F5FF5, HC000G7, HC00H0H, HCCHHCH, HCHHHCH, HCHHHHH, HEEEE27, HFF5FF5, HFF5FI5, HFKKK05, HG00007, HH00E27, HH0G227, HHH2MM7, HHH55F5, HHH9FF5, HHHFFK5, HHHFK55, HHHH7EJ, HHHHCM7, HHHHHAJ, HHHHHF5, HHHHHHJ, HKK5505, I000055, I00A0ID, I0I4IIJ, I0IIIIJ, I88NIIN, III0055, III0I55, III444J, IINNLIN, J000IJJ, K0000DH, K0000KD, K00033D, K000A5D, K000K5D, K00555D, K009995, K00K00D, K00K8ID, K00KI8D, K00KIAD, K01GCC1, K05033D, K0999F5, K2KKKCH, K53333D, K956661, K999991, KCCC1C1, KFFFE55, KFFKKE5, KFKFKE5, KK009A5, KK00C11, KK01GC1, KK99001, KKIII05, KKK09F5, KKKE9E5, KKKEAK5, KKKKI05, KKKKKE5, KMMEEE5, L1BBBG1, LBMMMCB, LBMMMMB, LDEEE07, LEE22E7, LEE2E27, LEEE2E7, LLLLE27, M0000CB, M000C6B, M02EEE7, M0K0005, M0M0005, M2CHHHH, M2HHHHH, M6MMMM1, MC0000B, MCHHHHH, ME7E777, MEE7777, MEEE2E7, MG06661, MHHHCCH, MHHHH27, MHHHHH7, MHM0027, MM6666B, MM77777, MMC000B, MMM7727, MMNM777, N000NLN, N00333D, N003AAD, N0A00DD, N0NN33D, N0NNLLN, N30000N, N777777, NDNNNNN, NN0N0GN, NN0N30N, NNN300N, NNN333D, NNN3LLN, NNNDDDD, NNNNN3N, NNNNNND, 33333F35, 33FFFF35, 3555FFF5, 3FFFFF55, 3NNNNNLN, 40000I0J, 40I0IIIJ, 444440IJ, 4J0000IJ, 500006G1, 5D00DDDD, 5L1MMMM1, 5MMMMMG1, 5NNDDDDD, 5NNNNDDD, 5NNNNN8D, 6000080H, 777777A7, 77777A77, 7944444J, 800000IN, 996666K1, 999999I5, 9999FEA5, A00003ID, AAAAFF35, BBBGMMMB, C0000011, C000007H, C0CC0H0H, C666666B, CCCH0HHH, CCHH0HCH, CE777777, CEEEEE07, CHH0H00H, D00000GN, D000D0LD, D000IIGN, D0DDDDD7, DDD0E2E7, DDDDDDDB, DDDDDME7, DEEEELE7, DEEELEE7, DEELEEE7, DELEE0E7, E00000C7, E00000G7, E0000CG7, E000C0E7, E000G007, E00CG007, E00E0CG7, E0C00007, E0CGGGG7, E0GGGGG7, E20000E7, EAAKAAA5, EAKKAAA5, EE00E727, EE020007, EEEE2027, ELEE2227, F00003F5, F0000A35, F0003335, F0FFFA35, F1999991, F1999MM1, FAAAAF35, FBBBBBG1, FEAAAAA5, FF000A35, FF00FF35, FF0KEEE5, FFAAAF35, FFF555I5, FFFF33I5, FFFFF035, FFFFF3F5, FFFFFKI5, FFFFFMHH, FKFKEEE5, FKKFEEE5, FMMMMMCB, FMMMMMM1, G2000007, GGGGGMM7, GJJJJJ0J, GJJJJJ3J, H0000E27, H0000G27, H000C0G7, H000CEG7, H000CHH7, H000E0E7, H000EE27, H00CHHG7, H00EEE27, H00M0EE7, H05FF5F5, H0E00EE7, H55FF5F5, HCHH0H0H, HE000EE7, HFFIIII5, HGGG2227, HH00CEG7, HH00H0CH, HH0EEEE7, HH0FFFI5, HHEEEEE7, HHH000CH, HHH00EG7, HHHC00G7, HHHFFFF5, HHHHHKK5, HHHK5F55, HK5555F5, I4IIIIIJ, IA0000ID, II0005I5, III000I5, III055I5, III5NNNN, IIIII9IJ, IIIIIII5, IIINNNGN, JAJJJJJJ, JJAJJJJJ, K000005D, K00009A5, K0000M55, K000M555, K008IIID, K00D0K0D, K00III8D, K00K550D, K00LCC11, K0999951, K0D0000H, K0K00595, K0K9AAF5, K0KK0095, K0KK9FF5, K3333IID, KFKFEEE5, KFKKEEE5, KK00000H, KK0000M5, KK099991, KK55583D, KKKEEEA5, KKKKKKI5, LEEEE227, LLLEEE27, LLLL2E07, M000006B, M000M6CB, M0MMMMM1, M222EEE7, M777E777, M7E77777, ME222EE7, ME2EEEE7, MEE222E7, MM0NNNNN, MME77727, MMM6MMM1, N00003GN, N0000ADD, N000N0GN, N000NNND, N033333D, N0NN0NGN, NDDDDKDD, NN000N3N, NN00N03N, NN03000N, NNN003GN, NNNNDNLN, NNNNNADD, 199999MM1, 200FFFFFH, 222MEEEE7, 2FFFFFFCH, 30000000N, 30N00000N, 400000J3J, 500000M01, 5000166G1, 5000666G1, 50DDDDDDD, 8NN33333D, 999999991, C000000FH, C00000K0H, C000H00HH, C77777707, CH00H000H, CHH0000HH, D00000DKD, D00000DLD, D0000200H, D0000KK0D, D000KK00D, D00D0DDLD, D0D00DDLD, D0LEEEEE7, DDBBBBBBB, DDD000KDD, DDDDDDDE7, DK00000DD, DNNNNNNNN, E00000E27, E00007L27, E0000E727, E0E000C07, E20000027, EAAAAKAA5, EAKAAAAK5, EE0000C07, EEE000E27, EEEEEEGL7, F00FFFF35, F0FFFFF35, FF0000035, FF0FFFF35, FF5555FI5, FFFFFFA35, FFFFFFF35, FFFFFFFI5, FKKKKEEE5, FMMMMMMMB, GGGGG2227, GGGGGG207, GJJJJJJJJ, GLMMMMMMB, H000022M7, H000222M7, H000EEEE7, H0EEEEEE7, H0H0000CH, H0IIIIII5, HCH00000H, HE0EEEEE7, HFFFFFI35, HFFFFKKK5, HHHHHHG27, HHHHHHH55, HHHHHHHH7, HHHHHHM55, HHHKK5555, HHIIIII05, HIIIIII05, HKK5555I5, I000000AD, I000000ID, I000A000D, I00A0000D, IIIII0555, IIIIIII9J, K000000AD, K00000595, K000009F5, K0000550D, K099999A5, K0C00000H, K0I00000D, KK0000595, KK0000HCH, KKK000095, KKKFKFFE5, KKKIIIII5, M77777777, MEEEE2227, MMMMMMMM1, N0000000D, N0000003N, N000003NN, N00000N3N, N00000NGN, N00N000GN, N00NNNN8D, N0NNN00GN, N0NNNN3AD, N0NNNNNGN, N999999M1, NN0NNNNGN, NNN000NGN, NNNNNDD8D, NNNNNN0GN, 16MMMMMMMB, 1MMMMMMBCB, 3333333335, 33333333I5, 400000000N, 40IIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIIJJ, 4IIIIIIJIJ, 50000000M1, 70F9999991, 777E777727, 9999995MM1, ADD000000D, C00000088B, C000000CF1, C00000F0HH, CH00000H0H, D00KD0000D, D0D0DDDDLD, D0E2EEEEE7, D2EEEEEEE7, DBBBBBBBBB, DD000000KD, DD0000DDLD, DLE0EEEEE7, EEE0000727, EEEAAAAAA5, EEEEEE00G7, EEEEEEE0G7, F000000F35, F00FFKEEE5, F00KFFEEE5, F0M666666B, FCFFFFFFFH, FFFFFFF2HH, FFFKKKEEE5, GGGGGGG227, H00000C06H, H0000HHH6H, H555FFFFF5, H55FFFFF55, H5FFFFFF55, HF5FFFFFF5, HHHH0H0HCH, HHHHH0HHCH, HHHHHH0HCH, HHHHHHHHM5, HHHIIIIII5, IIDNNNNNLN, IIIIIJJIIJ, IIINNNNNLN, IINNNNNNGN, INNNNNNNLN, J0000000IJ, K0000II8ID, K099999995, K0I0000AID, K0K0009FF5, K9999999F5, KK00000095, KKFFFKEEE5, LLLLLLLME7, LLLMEEEEE7, LMEEEEEEE7, M000000005, MHHHHHHHH5, MK00000005, MMMMMMMBCB, NN000000GN, NN0000NNGN, NN99999991, 2HHHHHHHHHH, 38NNNNNNNNN, 3MNNNNNNNNN, 40IIIIIIIIJ, 4AJJJJJJJJJ, 4J000000J0J, 4JJJJJJJJJJ, 506666666G1, 5DDDDDDDDLD, 999999999F5, 99999999EA5, 99999999FE5, A0000000035, C0000000007, C00000000G7, C00000000KH, CEEEEEEEEL7, D0000000FMH, D000DDDDDLD, D0KD000000D, DDDD00000KD, DEEE0EEEEE7, DEL0EEEEEE7, DELEEEEEE07, E0000E20007, E7777777727, EE000000207, EEE20000007, FFFFFFFFMCH, FM66666666B, GGGGGGGG2M7, HFFFFFFFF55, HHHHHHHHH6H, HHHHHHHHHCH, HHHHHK55555, I9IIIIIIIIJ, IIIIIIII44J, IIIIIIIJJIJ, IINNNNNNNNN, JDDDDDDDDDD, JJIIIIIIIIJ, K00000I8IID, LLLLLLLLL27, 9999999EEAA5, AI000000000D, C77700000007, CH0HH000000H, D00D000000LD, DEEEEEEE0EE7, DN000000000N, EAKAAAAAAAA5, EKAAAAAAAAK5, F6666666666B, H000HHHHHH6H, H55FFFFFFFF5, HFFFFFFFFKK5, K00000000I8D, K999999999A5, 3555555555FF5, 5000000000001, 6G66666666661, 99999999999A5, C00000000000H, CFFFFFFFFFFCH, CHHH00000000H, D00000000K0KD, D0000000K00KD, D0D00000000LD, DEEEEEEEEEL07, E000E20000007, E00E200000007, EEE0000000027, GGGGGGGGGGGM7, GGGGGGGGGGM07, H00000000CHHH, H00HC0000000H, HFFFFFFFFFFK5, I0A000000000D, J000000000J9J, K000000000095, K000000000M2H, M0000000000M1, M0EEEEEEEEEE7, MHHHHHHHHHHHH, MMNNNNNNNNNNN, MNNNNNNNNNNNN, N000000DDDDDD, N000DDDDDDDDD, NNDDDDDDDDDDD, 22EEEEEEEEEEE7, 35FFFFFFFFFFF5, 400000000000JJ, 800000000000GN, DDDDDDDDDDD077, DDDDDDDDDDDDD7, E0000000000L27, EAAAAAAAAAAKA5, EEG00000000007, H0000000000C6H, I5500000000005, II0000000000I5, M0666666666661, M6MMMMMMMMMMMB, 4JJ00000000000J, 506666666666661, BGMMMMMMMMMMMCB, CFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, D0000000000KD0D, D0HEEEEEEEEEEE7, F0BBBBBBBBBBBBB, HGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K0000000000000D, K00000000000MCH, M0M6MMMMMMMMMMB, 5DDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, C00000000000008B, D00000000000000H, DEEEEEEEEEEEE0L7, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEL7, EEE2EEEEEEEEEEE7, GM66666666666661, H5FFFFFFFFFFFFF5, IIIIIIIIIIIIIJJJ, BGMMMMMMMMMMMMMMB, DLEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, H0000000000000CHH, H000000000C0000HH, I000000000000000D, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJJ, INNNNNNNNNNNNNNNN, J000000000000009J, M666666666666666B, N0000000000000LLN, N00DDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 355555555555555555, 60000000000000008H, 6M6666666666666661, C000000000000000F1, N0DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 666666666666666666B, 800000000000000000N, AD000000000000000DD, DEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, I500000000000000005, 20000000000000000027, 4000000000000000003J, 400000000000000000IJ, 99999999999999999995, DD00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, E2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, N00000000000000000LN, 500000000066666666661, EE0000000000000000727, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG07, H0000000000000000006H, 40000000000000IIIIIIIJ, AD0000000000000000000D, K0000000000000000000M5, CL777777777777777777777, D000000000000000000000N, D0000000000000000000IIN, HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHK5, NDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDD, 1MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMBB, D00DDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDDLD, FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFH, 4J0000000000000000000000J, 566666666666666666666666G1, EKKAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, 6666666666666666666666666G1, AJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ, H00000000000000000000000008H, N0000000000000000000000000GN, DD0000000000000000000000000LD, IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIJ, G0666666666666666666666666666661, GGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGGG7, K000000000000000000000000000000000H, EAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA5, LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLM7, M2EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEE7, C000000000000000000000000000000000000000001, MMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMMCB, E00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000727, 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777727, EG000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000007, D000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000LD, EEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEEG7, 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===Base 30===

11, 17, 1B, 1D, 1H, 1N, 1T, 21, 27, 2B, 2D, 2J, 2N, 2T, 37, 3B, 3D, 3H, 3J, 3N, 47, 4B, 4H, 4J, 4T, 51, 57, 5D, 5H, 5N, 5T, 61, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6J, 71, 7D, 7H, 7J, 7N, 7T, 81, 8B, 8H, 8N, 8T, 91, 97, 9B, 9D, 9N, A7, AB, AD, AH, B1, B7, BH, BJ, BN, BT, C7, CD, CJ, CN, CT, D7, DB, DJ, DT, E1, EB, ED, EJ, EN, ET, F7, FB, FD, FH, FT, G7, GB, GJ, GN, GT, HB, HD, I1, I7, IH, IN, IT, J1, J7, JH, JN, JT, K1, K7, KD, KH, KJ, L1, LB, LD, LH, LN, LT, M1, MD, MH, MN, N1, NB, NJ, NT, O7, OD, OJ, ON, P1, P7, PB, PJ, PN, Q7, QH, QT, R1, RB, RD, RH, RJ, RT, SD, SH, SJ, SN, T7, TB, TD, TH, 10J, 15J, 1IJ, 1JJ, 1LJ, 1MJ, 1QJ, 22H, 29H, 2EH, 2GH, 30T, 331, 33T, 36T, 39T, 3A1, 3C1, 3G1, 3KT, 3MT, 3OT, 3S1, 3T1, 40D, 40N, 431, 44D, 46N, 48D, 4AN, 4DD, 4DN, 4F1, 4FN, 4GD, 4ID, 4PD, 4S1, 50J, 58J, 59J, 5CB, 5FJ, 5IB, 5IJ, 5JB, 5MB, 5MJ, 5OB, 5SB, 607, 63T, 687, 6E7, 6KT, 6L7, 6M7, 6MT, 6NN, 6QN, 6R7, 6S7, 6ST, 6TT, 70B, 77B, 787, 7KB, 7M7, 7MB, 7SB, 807, 80D, 80J, 84D, 85J, 877, 88J, 89J, 8DD, 8FJ, 8ID, 8IJ, 8JJ, 8M7, 8MJ, 8PD, 8QD, 8R7, 90H, 93T, 95J, 99H, 99J, 9AJ, 9AT, 9EH, 9GH, 9HH, 9HJ, 9JJ, 9MJ, 9OH, 9OT, 9PH, 9ST, 9TT, A01, A0T, A1J, A31, A6N, A6T, AAJ, AAN, AFN, AKN, AKT, ALJ, AMJ, AMT, AO1, AOT, AQ1, AQN, ARN, AT1, B5B, BBD, BCB, BDD, BID, BOB, BPD, BQB, C31, C9H, CC1, CCB, CCH, CF1, CH1, CIB, CKB, CMB, D01, D0H, D2H, D41, D4D, D6N, D8D, D9H, DDH, DDN, DGH, DH1, DHH, DID, DKN, DNN, DO1, DOH, DQN, DS1, EEH, EHH, EM7, EOH, EPH, ER7, F0N, F31, F5J, F8J, F9J, FLJ, FO1, FQ1, FQN, FS1, G01, G4D, G8D, GF1, GGH, GO1, GOH, GQD, GS1, H07, H0J, H0T, H1J, H2H, H31, H4N, H8J, HA1, HAJ, HAT, HC1, HE7, HEH, HFN, HGH, HH7, HIJ, HJJ, HKN, HL7, HNH, HPH, HQN, HS1, HTJ, HTN, I4D, I5B, I5J, I8D, IAJ, IDD, IGD, IIJ, IKB, IMB, IMJ, IOB, IPD, IQD, J8J, J9J, JAJ, JBD, JCB, JFJ, JIJ, JJB, JJD, JLJ, JPD, JQB, K3T, K4N, KAT, KBB, KCB, KMB, KNN, KOB, KOT, KQN, KST, KTT, L0J, L5J, L67, LAJ, LJJ, LQJ, LR7, M0J, M3T, M5B, M7B, M87, M9J, MAT, MFJ, MIJ, MJJ, MKB, MMJ, MOT, MQJ, N07, N0H, N67, N6N, N87, NAN, NDH, NGD, NHH, NKN, NN7, NNH, NPH, NQD, NQN, NR7, O01, O0B, O0H, OAT, OC1, OCH, OEH, OF1, OH1, OKT, OMB, OOT, OPH, OQ1, OQB, OS1, OST, P3T, P6T, P9H, PCH, PDH, PEH, PGD, PHH, PHT, PID, PMT, PPT, PQD, PST, PTT, Q5B, Q6N, Q9J, QAJ, QBB, QBD, QC1, QDN, QFJ, QFN, QGD, QJB, QKN, QLJ, QMB, QND, QNN, QO1, QQ1, QQN, QSB, R4N, R77, R87, RAN, RKN, RM7, RNN, RR7, RS7, S0T, S41, S6T, S87, SBB, SC1, SM7, SMT, SOB, SQ1, SR7, SS1, STT, T0J, T6T, T9T, TAN, TFN, TKN, TKT, TNN, TO1, TOT, TPT, TQ1, TQN, TTN, 18AJ, 19FJ, 1AFJ, 1FAJ, 20CH, 20PH, 2C0H, 2CHH, 2COH, 2H0H, 2HCH, 2HHH, 2POH, 2PPH, 3001, 34Q1, 3F41, 3FF1, 3QF1, 3SPT, 3SST, 3TTT, 40A1, 4441, 44KN, 44QN, 4AC1, 4C01, 4CA1, 4DG1, 4GA1, 4GC1, 4NND, 4NRN, 4OA1, 4Q4N, 4QA1, 4QRN, 4RQN, 550B, 555B, 55KB, 5A5J, 5AJJ, 5BKB, 5JQJ, 5KKB, 5QQB, 5QQJ, 604N, 606T, 60FN, 60KN, 60OT, 60PT, 660N, 660T, 664N, 66AT, 66FN, 66KN, 66TN, 6A0N, 6A9T, 6AAT, 6FKN, 6FRN, 6K0N, 6KFN, 6KKN, 6O6T, 6PAT, 6RFN, 6RRN, 6T6N, 6TRN, 7067, 70R7, 75BB, 77R7, 7C5B, 7CQB, 7E67, 7IQB, 7O5B, 7OIB, 7QOB, 7R07, 7RE7, 8667, 88L7, 88S7, 8E87, 8EE7, 8EL7, 8J8D, 8LL7, 8LS7, 906T, 908J, 90FJ, 90QJ, 90TJ, 92CH, 966T, 99MT, 99PT, 9I0J, 9I8J, 9LFJ, 9LIJ, 9M6T, 9MKT, 9MMT, 9PKT, 9QQJ, 9TLJ, A04N, A0QJ, A3AT, A3ST, A4A1, A4G1, A5QJ, A8QJ, A90J, A9PT, AA3T, AA41, AAAT, AAF1, AAG1, AAPT, AC41, ACS1, AF0J, AFC1, AFIJ, AG41, AGA1, AGG1, AI8J, AIJJ, AIQJ, AJ5J, AJJJ, AQ8J, AQJJ, AQQJ, AS3T, AT4N, AT5J, ATST, B04D, B0QD, BBIB, BBKB, BI0B, BK0B, BKIB, BKSB, BMIB, BMSB, BQ4D, BQQD, BSMB, C00B, C05B, C0A1, C0BB, C0EH, C0GH, C0Q1, C0QB, C2OH, C2PH, C441, C4Q1, C50B, CB0B, CBSB, CEGH, CG2H, CGHH, CHHH, CHOH, COGH, COO1, COOB, COOH, CQ01, CQ0B, CQQB, CQS1, CS0B, D00N, D0PD, D44N, DA0N, DCEH, DCG1, DCQ1, DDC1, DDF1, DDPD, DDQ1, DECH, DF4N, DFA1, DFRN, DG0D, DGD1, DGQ1, DNEH, DPDD, DQA1, DQPD, DRFN, DRRN, E20H, E667, E767, E8L7, E8S7, ECGH, EG2H, EH67, EH77, ES67, F001, F01J, F0MJ, F0QJ, F44N, F4G1, F4RN, F6RN, FA0J, FAC1, FAF1, FAIJ, FC01, FCG1, FFAJ, FFC1, FFG1, FFIJ, FGA1, FJJJ, FJQJ, FKAN, FR6N, FRFN, G09H, G0EH, G0HH, G20H, G341, G3Q1, G4G1, G92H, GA41, GAC1, GC0H, GCEH, GCG1, GCPH, GD31, GDA1, GDG1, GDPD, GE2H, GE9H, GGG1, GGGD, GHCH, GHHH, GP0D, GP2H, GPPD, GQ31, GQA1, GQG1, H00N, H0CH, H3ST, H4O1, H667, H66N, H677, H69T, H99T, H9CH, H9KT, H9LJ, H9PT, H9QJ, HH6N, HHF1, HHFJ, HHH1, HHHT, HHLJ, HHOH, HHQ1, HHST, HK6T, HL9J, HLMJ, HMKT, HMMT, HNM7, HNRN, HOPT, HQ01, HQ5J, HR0N, HR6N, HS77, HSKT, HT01, I0BB, I0JD, I0JJ, I98J, I9LJ, I9QJ, ICBB, IF0J, IFFJ, IFQJ, IIBD, IJBB, IJID, IL8J, ILFJ, IQ8J, IQJJ, IQQJ, IS0B, ISQB, J00D, J05J, J0BB, J0MJ, J0OB, J4QD, J50B, J5QJ, JBKB, JBMB, JDGD, JDQD, JGDD, JI0D, JIIB, JISB, JKIB, JKKB, JM0B, JOIB, JQ4D, JQDD, JQID, JQJJ, JQMJ, JSIB, JSMB, K06N, K0KB, K0KT, K0MT, K0PT, K0SB, K5QB, K60T, K66T, K6AN, K6FN, K6PT, K6RN, K96T, K99T, KA0N, KF6N, KFKN, KI0B, KK0T, KK6N, KK6T, KKFN, KKKB, KKKT, KKQB, KKTN, KMMT, KQ0B, KQQB, KR0N, KS5B, L0M7, L8E7, L98J, LFFJ, LI8J, LIFJ, LL87, LL9J, LLIJ, LLM7, LM77, LML7, LMM7, M09T, M0E7, M0IB, M0L7, M0M7, M0TT, M55J, M5LJ, M60T, M69T, M707, M767, M777, M7E7, M7S7, M8LJ, M96T, M9KT, MC0B, MCOB, ME07, MIBB, MJ0B, MJBB, MJSB, MLLJ, MLS7, MM07, MM0T, MML7, MMOB, MMR7, MOBB, MOCB, MP0T, MP9T, MPKT, MQ0B, MQIB, MQOB, MS07, MSPT, MSSB, MT8J, MTTT, N00D, N04D, N04N, N0FN, N0ND, N0RN, N2OH, N92H, NCGH, ND0D, ND4N, NDPD, NEGH, NEL7, NF4N, NFRN, NGCH, NGEH, NHM7, NME7, NML7, NMM7, NN0D, NN4D, NN4N, NNDN, NNID, NNND, NNRN, NP4D, NSL7, NSS7, O00T, O03T, O0MT, O0PT, O2HH, O2OH, O341, O4A1, O4G1, O4O1, O5KB, O90T, OA41, OBSB, OC5B, OCOB, OG2H, OG31, OH9H, OH9T, OHHH, OHTT, OICB, OISB, OM0T, OM6T, OMPT, OMTT, OO2H, OO9H, OOA1, OOCB, OOGH, OOKB, OOO1, OSKB, OTMT, P00T, P04D, P08D, P09T, P0KT, P90T, PAAT, PKKT, PO0T, PP0D, PPPD, Q00B, Q0AN, Q0D1, Q0F1, Q0IB, Q0JJ, Q0MJ, Q0OB, Q55J, Q5QJ, Q88D, QA0N, QA41, QA4N, QDF1, QDPD, QF41, QFA1, QG31, QIQJ, QJ0J, QJ8D, QJDD, QJJJ, QJMJ, QJQD, QKKB, QKQB, QOKB, QOOB, QP0D, QPDD, QQ8D, QQID, QQJD, QQPD, QQQB, QS01, QSA1, R00N, R067, R06N, R0FN, R0L7, R60N, RE67, RFRN, RRFN, RRRN, S00B, S3AT, S3ST, S50B, S5QB, S99T, SAAT, SC0B, SE67, SGG1, SICB, SIQB, SK5B, SKIB, SKKT, SKPT, SKQB, SM0B, SMMB, SMSB, SOA1, SOG1, SPOT, SQCB, SQQB, SS0B, SS67, ST31, STG1, T00N, T03T, T041, T04N, T0AT, T0C1, T0MT, T0ST, T1AJ, T3F1, T4A1, T4RN, T5JJ, T66N, T8AJ, T9FJ, T9QJ, TA3T, TAA1, TAG1, TAIJ, TCS1, TFA1, TFAJ, TFF1, TFFJ, TFG1, TGA1, TI9J, TIJJ, TIQJ, TL8J, TL9J, TM0T, TM5J, TM8J, TMAJ, TMLJ, TMST, TSF1, TSG1, TT01, TT5J, TT8J, TTA1, TTC1, TTFJ, TTG1, TTLJ, TTMJ, 30441, 30O41, 30OO1, 34O41, 3AATT, 3ASAT, 3O441, 3Q041, 40G41, 40GQ1, 40O41, 40OG1, 40OO1, 44001, 440C1, 440G1, 4444N, 44CG1, 44GQ1, 4AAA1, 4COG1, 4DAA1, 4GQ41, 4KRRN, 4OGG1, 4Q041, 4QGG1, 5005B, 500BB, 500KB, 500QB, 50K0B, 50Q0B, 50QKB, 555AJ, 555LJ, 555QJ, 55J5J, 5B00B, 5B0BB, 5J55J, 5J5JJ, 5JJ5J, 5JJJJ, 5K00B, 5QJ5J, 5QK0B, 6006N, 6009T, 600AT, 6066N, 60R0N, 666N7, 6696T, 66OPT, 67767, 6900T, 696PT, 69P0T, 6F6AN, 6O9PT, 6OP0T, 6OP9T, 6P99T, 755QB, 77767, 7CBBB, 7IBIB, 7IIBB, 7IICB, 7QIIB, 8888D, 88E67, 8L887, 8SSE7, 9099T, 90KKT, 90KMT, 90MPT, 9690T, 96P9T, 990KT, 9990T, 9999T, 99K6T, 9FFFJ, 9HKMT, 9HMPT, 9ILLJ, 9KKMT, 9KKPT, 9M00T, 9T8QJ, 9TFIJ, A008J, A00NN, A055J, A0FJJ, A0I0J, A0I9J, A0J0J, A44C1, A555J, A9FFJ, A9QIJ, A9T8J, AFFA1, AFFFJ, AFFJJ, AFFQJ, AJ00J, AP99T, ASA9T, ASFF1, ASP9T, ASSAT, AT3TT, ATFQJ, ATQIJ, ATT9J, ATTQJ, B088D, B08GD, B0GGD, B0SKB, B8GGD, BG00D, BIISB, BISIB, BS0IB, BS0SB, BSSKB, BSSSB, C0041, C0G41, C0H0H, C0PPH, C0S01, C4001, C4AG1, C4OG1, C5BBB, CG00H, CGE0H, CGGA1, CGQ41, COSSB, CP20H, CPGPH, CPP2H, CPPOH, CPPPH, CS001, CS55B, CSSQB, D00GD, D0A4N, D0FAN, D0GDD, D0N0D, DAAA1, DAAC1, DAFG1, DDAA1, DDGGD, DFFAN, DFGC1, DGDGD, DGG31, DGGA1, DH0AN, DPPPH, DQDD1, DQGG1, E0L87, E88E7, EC00H, EC02H, EE867, EE887, EEL87, ELE87, F00IJ, F0441, F0AG1, F0F0J, F0F41, F0FF1, F0GG1, F4041, F44A1, F44C1, F4A41, F64KN, F6K6N, FAAA1, FAFQJ, FCAA1, FF041, FF0F1, FF64N, FF6KN, FFA41, FFA4N, FFF4N, FFFF1, FFFFN, FFKRN, FFQMJ, FIJ0J, FJ00J, FKKKN, FNNFN, FQQ0J, FQQMJ, G00DD, G00DH, G00PD, G02PH, G0DDD, G0PDD, GAAA1, GC2HH, GDDDD, GDGDD, GDPPH, GG0PD, GGCA1, GGCQ1, GGDD1, GH4Q1, GHHG1, GII0D, GQ441, H009H, H00G1, H00H1, H04Q1, H0ANN, H0H01, H0H9H, H0HG1, H0HO1, H0O41, H0OHH, H0QG1, H40G1, H4G41, H4GG1, H60AN, HAN0N, HF0G1, HFF41, HFFMJ, HFFQJ, HGQ41, HH3TT, HH401, HH441, HH4G1, HH55J, HH66T, HH6OT, HH96T, HHA0N, HHANN, HHC0H, HHCHH, HHH0N, HHHCH, HHHHN, HHHNN, HHKMT, HHO41, HHP9T, HHPKT, HHTMT, HHTT1, HK9MT, HKKMT, HLLFJ, HM66T, HM7R7, HMM67, HMM77, HMMM7, HMTST, HO9HT, HOO41, HOOOH, HOT3T, HOTT1, HPO9T, HSO3T, HTGG1, I000J, I009J, I00BD, I00QJ, I00SB, I08QJ, I0I0D, I0IQB, I0JIB, I0Q0B, I0SCB, I0SIB, I0SSB, IB00D, IBBSB, IBISB, ICSSB, II0CB, II0ID, II0SB, IIIBB, IIQ0B, IIQIB, IISIB, IJ0SB, IJJQJ, ILLLJ, IQ00J, IQC0B, IQIQB, IQQIB, ISSCB, J00MB, J08GD, J0IID, J0QQD, J55BB, J55JJ, J5J5J, J5JJJ, J88GD, JB0SB, JBB0B, JBBSB, JDDDD, JG0ID, JGG0D, JIIID, JJ0QJ, JJ5JJ, JQ08D, JQ0QJ, JQQ0D, JQQ5J, JS55B, JSK0B, JSS5B, K000T, K006T, K00TN, K0FAN, K505B, K6T0N, K9KMT, K9KPT, K9P0T, KIQIB, KK00N, KK05B, KK0AN, KK0KN, KKM9T, KS0IB, KS0QB, KSQIB, KTR6N, KTRRN, L0087, L08S7, LE087, LEE87, LL8LJ, LMEE7, LMSE7, LMSS7, M00CB, M00PT, M066T, M0CQB, M0K6T, M0MQB, M0MSB, M0QQB, M0SMB, M0SST, M666T, M900T, MBBSB, MEE77, MEL77, MELE7, MES77, MESE7, MESS7, MI00B, MIICB, MIISB, MIQCB, MK9PT, ML7L7, MLEL7, MLLE7, MLME7, MM677, MMBIB, MMBSB, MMCQB, MME77, MMEE7, MMICB, MMISB, MMK6T, MMKKT, MMM9T, MMMMT, MMMTT, MMQQB, MMSCB, MMSKT, MMSMB, MMSS7, MMTST, MOIIB, MOOIB, MOSIB, MQCQB, MR007, MR667, MRL07, MS7L7, MSEL7, MSK9T, MSL77, MSSL7, MT00T, MTMMT, N0DDD, N4NNN, N7LE7, N7S77, NE2CH, NE9CH, NEC2H, NEE77, NFFNN, NFNFN, NII0D, NL777, NL7L7, NLES7, NLLL7, NLS77, NOG9H, NRR0N, O6P9T, O9H6T, O9HPT, O9P9T, OCBBB, OG441, OGAG1, OGGA1, OHH6T, OHOOH, OKIIB, OKK5B, OKKIB, OO5BB, OOBIB, OOIIB, OSCSB, OT3TT, OT441, OTG41, OTGG1, P00PH, P0D0D, P0G2H, P0OGH, P0PGH, PA99T, PGP0H, POOOH, PP20H, PP88D, PPP0H, Q0001, Q000N, Q001J, Q00ID, Q00PD, Q044N, Q04G1, Q0I0D, Q0PPD, Q40G1, Q444N, Q44RN, Q4AA1, Q8QQJ, QAAS1, QAFF1, QAFG1, QASG1, QDGG1, QFGG1, QI00D, QIICB, QIIQB, QIQCB, QOIIB, QPP4D, QQ08J, QQ0CB, QQC0B, QQI0J, QQJ5J, QSFG1, R00E7, R0E07, R0NE7, R6F6N, R6FFN, REE07, RELE7, RFF6N, RL0E7, RLE07, RLEE7, RLLE7, RQR0N, RR0QN, RRQ0N, S03O1, S0AF1, S0AG1, S0O31, S0QIB, S0SIB, S30F1, S30O1, S7QIB, SA3PT, SAAA1, SAFG1, SASST, SCSQB, SF0G1, SFFF1, SI0SB, SISSB, SKSSB, SSCQB, SSCSB, SSMIB, SSPAT, SSSKT, SSSMB, SSSSB, STAF1, STF01, T0001, T0031, T0AF1, T0AS1, T0G31, T0R6N, T0T31, T0TF1, T3AAT, T40G1, T4CG1, T4G41, T5LLJ, T8LLJ, TA441, TA98J, TAFJJ, TAQ5J, TASST, TATAT, TC401, TCGG1, TFQIJ, TFQJJ, TFQMJ, TG441, TGC41, TI8LJ, TLLMJ, TMMMT, TMTMT, TQ8QJ, TSS3T, TT3AT, TT9IJ, TTAAT, TTQIJ, TTS31, TTS3T, TTT9J, TTTST, 20000H, 200OOH, 3440O1, 3TAAST, 404CQ1, 4KKKKN, 4KKKRN, 4QQQQD, 505BBB, 50BB0B, 6000AN, 6444RN, 66666N, 666O9T, 66999T, 669P9T, 66N777, 6A444N, 6FF66N, 6FFF6N, 6R666N, 766767, 77S677, 7IBBBB, 8888E7, 8LLLLJ, 8SSSL7, 9000MT, 90K90T, 90KP0T, 90M90T, 99000T, 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===Base 36===

11, 15, 17, 1B, 1H, 1N, 1P, 1V, 1Z, 21, 27, 2B, 2H, 2P, 2T, 2V, 2Z, 31, 35, 3J, 3N, 3T, 3V, 45, 47, 4D, 4J, 4N, 4T, 4Z, 51, 5B, 5D, 5H, 5J, 5V, 67, 6B, 6D, 6H, 6N, 6P, 6Z, 75, 7B, 7H, 7J, 7P, 7T, 7V, 85, 8J, 8N, 8P, 8T, 97, 9D, 9N, 9P, 9T, 9Z, A7, AD, AJ, AN, AT, B1, B5, BD, BN, BP, BZ, C1, C7, CB, CH, CP, CT, CV, CZ, DB, DJ, DN, DV, DZ, E5, EH, EJ, F1, F7, FH, FN, FT, FV, G1, GB, GH, GN, GP, GV, H1, H5, H7, HJ, HT, HV, HZ, I5, IB, ID, IP, IT, IZ, J7, JH, JP, JZ, K7, KD, KJ, KN, KV, L1, L5, LD, LH, LV, M5, MH, MJ, MT, MV, MZ, N1, NB, NP, NT, NV, NZ, OD, OH, OJ, ON, P7, PB, PJ, PT, Q1, Q5, QB, QH, QV, QZ, R5, RB, RJ, RP, S1, S5, SB, SD, SN, SP, SV, T5, T7, TH, TJ, TP, U7, UB, UD, UH, UN, UT, V1, V7, VD, VZ, W1, WB, WJ, WT, WZ, X5, XD, XP, XT, XZ, Y5, Y7, YD, YP, YZ, ZH, ZJ, ZN, ZT, ZV, 12D, 16J, 18D, 1CD, 1CJ, 1DD, 1GT, 1JD, 1JJ, 1LT, 1QJ, 1RD, 1RT, 1ST, 1XJ, 1YJ, 1YT, 22D, 22J, 22N, 23D, 255, 2A5, 2CD, 2ED, 2EN, 2F5, 2GD, 2GJ, 2IJ, 2JN, 2LN, 2MN, 2ND, 2O5, 2QD, 2QJ, 2U5, 2UJ, 2WN, 2XN, 30Z, 337, 33B, 33H, 33P, 34H, 34P, 37D, 38Z, 39H, 3AB, 3AP, 3AZ, 3D7, 3DH, 3FD, 3FZ, 3HD, 3HH, 3KZ, 3L7, 3LZ, 3MB, 3O7, 3OZ, 3PD, 3PP, 3Q7, 3RH, 3S7, 3SZ, 3UP, 3UZ, 3XB, 40P, 43B, 43H, 46V, 48B, 48V, 49B, 4AP, 4BB, 4E1, 4FP, 4HB, 4HH, 4HP, 4IH, 4MB, 4OP, 4OV, 4PH, 4RH, 4VB, 4VH, 4WH, 4WP, 4WV, 4X1, 4XH, 55T, 565, 58Z, 5C5, 5E7, 5ET, 5EZ, 5IN, 5KT, 5L7, 5MP, 5NN, 5O5, 5O7, 5OP, 5R7, 5RT, 5RZ, 5ST, 5SZ, 5TN, 5TZ, 5W7, 5XN, 5YN, 61T, 625, 62J, 64V, 661, 66J, 691, 6AV, 6EV, 6IJ, 6J1, 6K5, 6O1, 6OT, 6QJ, 6QT, 6RV, 6SJ, 6T1, 6TT, 6U5, 6UV, 6VV, 6W5, 6Y1, 6YT, 72D, 737, 77D, 791, 7A1, 7AZ, 7D7, 7GD, 7I1, 7IN, 7LN, 7M7, 7MN, 7N7, 7NN, 7RN, 7RZ, 7WN, 7X7, 7Z1, 801, 80V, 82D, 83B, 841, 84H, 877, 881, 887, 88B, 88V, 88Z, 89H, 89V, 8A1, 8AB, 8B7, 8BH, 8D1, 8DH, 8EB, 8EV, 8GD, 8GZ, 8HD, 8IV, 8L7, 8LZ, 8M1, 8MB, 8MD, 8O7, 8OB, 8Q7, 8QD, 8RD, 8S7, 8SH, 8SZ, 8UZ, 8W7, 8WV, 8XV, 8Y1, 90H, 91J, 93B, 93H, 94V, 981, 98H, 99J, 9AH, 9BB, 9C5, 9IH, 9IV, 9JV, 9KH, 9M1, 9OB, 9QJ, 9R1, 9RH, 9SH, 9UJ, 9VB, 9VJ, 9W5, 9X1, 9Y1, 9YB, 9YJ, 9YV, A25, A3P, A3Z, A4H, A61, A81, A8B, AAB, AAH, ABB, AC5, AEZ, AHP, AK1, AKB, AKH, ALZ, AMB, AO5, AOZ, APH, AQP, AR1, ARV, ARZ, AUV, AV5, AVB, AVV, AWV, AX1, AXB, AZ1, B2J, B4B, B4V, B6V, B87, B8H, B9B, BAB, BAH, BBH, BBV, BE7, BEB, BGJ, BHB, BIJ, BJB, BJT, BLJ, BOB, BOT, BQ7, BRV, BS7, BTT, BTV, BVB, BVJ, BVT, BWV, BX7, BXH, BYH, BYV, C25, C2J, C2N, C55, C65, C6J, C95, CCN, CDD, CED, CF5, CFJ, CGD, CIN, CJD, CO5, CRN, CUJ, CXJ, CXN, D37, D3P, D41, D55, D5P, D6T, D77, D81, D9H, DA1, DCD, DD1, DD5, DDH, DDP, DE7, DEP, DF5, DFD, DG7, DHH, DI1, DK1, DK5, DKT, DO1, DOP, DP1, DPD, DQ7, DR7, DRH, DS7, DTT, DU1, DWD, DX7, DYH, E0P, E2D, E3Z, E41, E4P, E71, E81, E87, E8B, EAZ, EDP, EED, EEN, EEV, EFZ, EGT, EI1, EKZ, ELB, EMB, EMN, EN7, EO1, EOT, EPP, EPZ, EQ7, ERN, EST, ETN, ETV, EUP, EUZ, EVT, EWD, EWN, EX1, EYB, EYN, EZD, EZP, F2J, F3B, F3Z, F4P, F65, F8B, F8Z, FCJ, FD5, FEZ, FFB, FFD, FG5, FGD, FGZ, FIJ, FJ5, FJJ, FLZ, FPD, FQD, FSZ, FXB, G07, G0D, G0Z, G3D, G3Z, G55, G6T, G7D, G7Z, G87, G8Z, GA5, GCJ, GD7, GE7, GET, GG5, GG7, GGT, GGZ, GI7, GJD, GKZ, GL7, GLT, GQT, GRT, GS7, GST, GU5, GUZ, GW5, GXJ, GZ7, GZZ, H3D, H3H, H4H, H9B, HAH, HED, HGD, HHP, HIH, HKH, HKP, HLN, HNH, HOB, HOP, HQP, HRD, HRH, HRN, HSH, HWD, HWH, HWP, HYN, I41, I6J, I71, I7N, I87, I8H, I9H, I9J, IA1, IAV, IE1, IFJ, IG7, IHH, II1, IIH, IIV, IJV, IK1, IL7, ILJ, ILN, IM1, INN, IOV, IRH, IUV, IX1, IXH, IXV, IYJ, J2D, J4V, J55, J61, J6J, J8B, J8V, J95, J9J, J9V, JA5, JBB, JD5, JDT, JF5, JFJ, JGJ, JGT, JIV, JJ1, JJD, JJV, JK5, JKT, JLB, JLT, JMN, JN5, JNJ, JQJ, JQN, JQT, JRD, JTB, JVJ, JVN, JVV, JWN, JY1, JYJ, K0B, K25, K3P, K65, K81, K95, K9H, KAH, KC5, KEP, KEZ, KG5, KHP, KK1, KKT, KLB, KLP, KLZ, KM1, KMB, KMP, KOT, KP1, KQP, KR1, KRT, KRZ, KTT, KW5, KX1, KZB, L0N, L0P, L8Z, L9B, LAZ, LBJ, LEN, LET, LFB, LFZ, LG7, LGZ, LIJ, LJJ, LKB, LKP, LLB, LLP, LLT, LMB, LMN, LN7, LO7, LOT, LPZ, LQT, LRN, LTN, LTT, LWP, LX7, LYN, M01, M0P, M2D, M2N, M37, M3B, M41, M61, M77, M87, M8D, M91, ME1, ME7, MEB, MFB, MFP, MGD, MI7, MKB, MM7, MMN, MN7, MNN, MO7, MOB, MOP, MPP, MQP, MS7, MW7, MXN, MYN, N5N, N65, N87, N8D, N8H, N95, NCD, NCJ, NDH, NE7, NFJ, NG5, NG7, NGJ, NJ5, NN7, NND, NO5, NQD, NQJ, NRN, NU5, NWH, NWN, NXH, NXN, NYJ, O0Z, O25, O37, O3B, O3P, O3Z, O41, O4B, O5Z, O61, O71, O7Z, O81, OA5, OAP, OBB, OBV, OC5, OEZ, OF5, OG7, OKP, OKZ, OMB, OO5, OOZ, OP5, OPP, OQT, OR1, OR7, OS7, OST, OTB, OTZ, OU5, OVV, OW5, OX7, OXB, OXV, OYV, OZ5, OZ7, P01, P0D, P0N, P3P, P4H, P4P, P5N, P65, P6V, P8V, PD1, PED, PEZ, PHH, PHP, PI1, PIN, PLN, PLP, PLZ, POP, PP1, PPH, PPV, PQD, PQN, PRV, PV5, PVH, PVV, PWH, PWP, PX1, PXV, PYH, PYN, Q07, Q0P, Q2N, Q37, Q3P, Q6J, Q6T, Q7D, Q8D, Q9J, QCD, QCJ, QD7, QED, QFP, QGT, QI7, QIN, QJN, QLJ, QMD, QMN, QMP, QND, QNJ, QOT, QQJ, QTN, QWN, QYJ, QYT, R0V, R0Z, R37, R3H, R4H, R77, R7D, R7N, R7Z, R81, R8V, R91, RA1, RCD, RCN, RD1, RED, REV, REZ, RGT, RGZ, RHD, RIV, RKH, RKZ, RLN, RMD, RNH, RO7, RQN, RRD, RRT, RRZ, RS7, RSH, RT1, RTV, RU1, RUZ, RVN, RVT, RW7, RWH, RX7, RY1, S0J, S6J, S87, S9H, SAZ, SCJ, SET, SFJ, SG7, SGZ, SI7, SM7, SO7, SOT, SQJ, SQT, SRH, SSH, STT, SW7, SX7, SXH, SYH, T0N, T0Z, T1D, T1T, T6V, T8Z, TBB, TBV, TCN, TD1, TEV, TGT, TKT, TLB, TM1, TO1, TOB, TQN, TR1, TRD, TT1, TTB, TTN, TUZ, TVB, TVN, TVT, TWD, TWV, TXB, TXV, TYV, U2J, U3Z, U61, U8V, U95, UA1, UC5, UEP, UEZ, UFJ, UG5, UJ5, ULZ, UO5, UOP, UOZ, UQP, URV, URZ, UUJ, UW5, UWV, UXJ, UXV, UYJ, V0H, V25, V4V, V55, V6V, V9J, V9V, VBB, VBJ, VCJ, VET, VGJ, VHP, VIH, VIN, VJJ, VJN, VLT, VMP, VNJ, VOB, VP5, VQJ, VQT, VRT, VRV, VSH, VSJ, VST, VTB, VTN, VUP, VW5, VWN, VXH, VXN, VYB, W07, W25, W3D, W3H, W4P, W4V, W57, W6V, W7D, W8H, W95, W9H, WAH, WAV, WCN, WD7, WDD, WDH, WE7, WEN, WF5, WGD, WHH, WK5, WKH, WN7, WNN, WPP, WPV, WQP, WR7, WRD, WRH, WRN, WS7, WU5, WUP, WVN, WWH, WWP, WX7, WXH, WXN, WYN, WYV, X0J, X2J, X2N, X4B, X4H, X4V, X6J, X87, X8B, X91, X9B, XAV, XCN, XEB, XFB, XHB, XHH, XHN, XKB, XLJ, XNH, XO1, XQ7, XS7, XSH, XUJ, XWN, XWV, XX7, XXH, XXV, Y0N, Y1J, Y1T, Y2N, Y3H, Y61, Y8V, Y91, YBV, YCN, YEB, YFJ, YHB, YHN, YIH, YJN, YJT, YLJ, YLN, YMB, YMN, YNH, YOB, YOV, YRH, YTB, YTN, YTT, YTV, YVB, YVH, YWH, YWV, YXB, YY1, YYJ, YYT, YYV, Z01, Z3D, Z3Z, Z71, Z8B, ZB7, ZBB, ZD5, ZDD, ZDP, ZG7, ZGD, ZGZ, ZKB, ZLP, ZM1, ZO5, ZP1, ZPD, ZQD, ZU1, ZX1, ZXB, ZZD, 102J, 106T, 10ET, 10GJ, 10LJ, 10TD, 12FJ, 12LJ, 13ED, 13GD, 13MD, 192J, 1D0T, 1DET, 1E3D, 1EFD, 1F0D, 1FWD, 1G0J, 1GGJ, 1GIJ, 1GUJ, 1I0J, 1ISJ, 1JOT, 1JTT, 1M0D, 1M3D, 1MFD, 1MWD, 1OKT, 1OOT, 1Q3D, 1QDT, 1QKT, 1QTD, 1QWD, 1SLJ, 1TDT, 1TFD, 1TOT, 1TTD, 1TTT, 1UGJ, 1ULJ, 1WFD, 1WWD, 20CJ, 20FJ, 20G5, 20IN, 20JD, 20MD, 20RN, 20WD, 20YN, 2295, 25RN, 260J, 26LJ, 288D, 28DD, 28FD, 296J, 29G5, 29K5, 29LJ, 2C05, 2C0J, 2C0N, 2CJJ, 2CK5, 2CLJ, 2CSJ, 2D25, 2DC5, 2DDD, 2DW5, 2F0J, 2FDD, 2FMD, 2FSJ, 2G65, 2G95, 2GK5, 2I0N, 2JC5, 2JCJ, 2JWD, 2K05, 2L6J, 2L9J, 2N0N, 2NIN, 2NN5, 2NSJ, 2NW5, 2NYN, 2Q0N, 2QNN, 2R0N, 2RFD, 2RWD, 2SJJ, 2SXJ, 2SYJ, 2W05, 2WC5, 2WD5, 2WMD, 2XCJ, 2YCJ, 2YJJ, 2YRN, 2YSJ, 300D, 302D, 304B, 3077, 3087, 308D, 30BH, 30DD, 30FP, 30G7, 30GD, 30MD, 30QP, 30YH, 320D, 333D, 333Z, 33WD, 344B, 34FB, 373Z, 37E7, 37EZ, 37G7, 3807, 38BB, 38E7, 38G7, 38HB, 38I7, 38X7, 390B, 394B, 399B, 39EB, 39FB, 39KB, 3ASH, 3AWH, 3B8B, 3BG7, 3BLB, 3BR7, 3BW7, 3C8D, 3D0P, 3D2D, 3DKP, 3E3D, 3E77, 3EBB, 3EFB, 3EKB, 3EQP, 3ERD, 3ERZ, 3EZZ, 3F4B, 3FEP, 3G2D, 3GCD, 3GED, 3GM7, 3GR7, 3GWD, 3GZD, 3H0B, 3HEP, 3HKB, 3IAH, 3ISH, 3K4B, 3KBH, 3KEB, 3KKB, 3L4B, 3L8B, 3M3D, 3MEP, 3MG7, 3MWP, 3OFP, 3OKB, 3OMP, 3OOB, 3OYB, 3P8H, 3PXH, 3QDP, 3QQD, 3QRD, 3QWD, 3R3D, 3R3Z, 3R8D, 3RG7, 3RM7, 3RQD, 3RR7, 3RZ7, 3SIH, 3W0H, 3WED, 3WM7, 3WQD, 3WW7, 3WYH, 3X8H, 3XE7, 3XG7, 3XKH, 3Y0B, 3Y4B, 3Y8H, 3YAH, 3YSH, 3YYB, 3Z4B, 3ZFP, 404V, 4061, 40EB, 40I1, 40IV, 40KH, 40M1, 40R1, 40XB, 40XV, 43QP, 4441, 444H, 444P, 4481, 448H, 4491, 449H, 44EB, 44EV, 44K1, 44KB, 44KP, 44M1, 44R1, 44RV, 44SH, 44U1, 44VP, 44YB, 46I1, 46K1, 46M1, 480H, 488H, 48AH, 48I1, 48K1, 48U1, 4991, 49EV, 49I1, 49O1, 49UV, 4A0H, 4A41, 4A4B, 4A8H, 4A91, 4ALB, 4ASH, 4BXV, 4E4B, 4EEP, 4EFB, 4ELP, 4EUV, 4EXB, 4FOB, 4I01, 4I0V, 4I4V, 4I61, 4I81, 4I91, 4IEV, 4IY1, 4K0H, 4K91, 4KI1, 4KKH, 4KKP, 4KUP, 4L3P, 4L4P, 4LAB, 4LMP, 4MA1, 4MK1, 4MMP, 4MP1, 4MU1, 4O0B, 4OFB, 4OKB, 4OM1, 4OU1, 4OYB, 4P41, 4P81, 4PO1, 4PYV, 4QLP, 4QQP, 4RAV, 4RK1, 4RRV, 4S8H, 4U3P, 4U91, 4U9V, 4UIV, 4UUP, 4VAV, 4VLP, 4VVV, 4X0B, 4X0V, 4XAB, 4XBV, 4XVV, 4XYV, 4Y0V, 4Y41, 4Y4H, 4Y4V, 4Y81, 4YAV, 4YEV, 4YIV, 4YK1, 4YKB, 4YM1, 4YR1, 4YUV, 4YYB, 5025, 503Z, 5095, 50G5, 50PN, 50QN, 50WP, 50Z7, 5205, 52RN, 53FP, 53M7, 53PZ, 53X7, 53ZZ, 54PP, 550N, 553P, 554P, 5557, 555N, 557Z, 5595, 55EN, 55G5, 55GZ, 55LZ, 55OZ, 55QN, 55Z7, 572N, 577Z, 5787, 57CN, 57FZ, 57QN, 57S7, 57ZZ, 58I7, 58X7, 5955, 5A95, 5AEP, 5CMN, 5CWN, 5E2N, 5EAP, 5ECN, 5EKP, 5EQN, 5F95, 5FLP, 5FQP, 5G05, 5GK5, 5GQ7, 5I37, 5II7, 5IM7, 5L3P, 5LCN, 5LFP, 5LGT, 5LKZ, 5LUP, 5LZZ, 5M07, 5N55, 5NQ7, 5NX7, 5OAZ, 5OFZ, 5OLT, 5OOT, 5P25, 5P95, 5PG5, 5PGZ, 5PPN, 5PQP, 5PW5, 5Q0N, 5Q87, 5QCN, 5QKP, 5QN7, 5QPN, 5QPP, 5QQT, 5QTT, 5QWP, 5QX7, 5S37, 5SS7, 5T6T, 5TQT, 5U4P, 5UGZ, 5W0P, 5W2N, 5W5P, 5WLN, 5WP5, 5WQN, 5XM7, 5Y0T, 5YOT, 5Z25, 5Z4P, 5Z57, 5ZG5, 5ZLZ, 5ZQ7, 5ZWP, 6005, 600V, 601J, 6055, 606V, 60A1, 60C5, 60GT, 60JJ, 60LJ, 60M1, 60R1, 60VT, 60YV, 610J, 61FJ, 6401, 64K1, 6505, 665T, 6665, 66A5, 66F5, 66G5, 66GT, 66KT, 66V5, 66XV, 68OV, 68YV, 690J, 69G5, 69O5, 69XJ, 69XV, 6A55, 6AA1, 6AA5, 6AF5, 6C9J, 6CA5, 6CGJ, 6CYJ, 6EK1, 6ER1, 6FLJ, 6FXJ, 6G0J, 6G65, 6GGJ, 6GJ5, 6GLJ, 6I81, 6I9V, 6J65, 6J6V, 6JET, 6JST, 6JWV, 6K01, 6KET, 6KST, 6L0J, 6L6T, 6LFJ, 6LRT, 6LXJ, 6MA1, 6MM1, 6MX1, 6O8V, 6OV5, 6R0T, 6RET, 6RKT, 6S6T, 6T8V, 6U01, 6U9J, 6UE1, 6UGJ, 6UJJ, 6ULJ, 6UU1, 6V0T, 6VA5, 6VF5, 6VG5, 6VKT, 6VXJ, 6WWV, 6WXV, 6X41, 6X6V, 6XIV, 6XJV, 6XOV, 6Y0V, 6YCJ, 6YXV, 7001, 702N, 7041, 707N, 7081, 70GZ, 70I7, 70KZ, 70ND, 70O7, 70OZ, 70R7, 70U1, 70UZ, 70WD, 70YN, 71QD, 71WD, 720N, 72CN, 72YN, 733Z, 73ED, 73ZD, 7401, 7441, 74M1, 74O1, 74R1, 7641, 76K1, 76M1, 76R1, 76U1, 76X1, 773Z, 7741, 7771, 7781, 77FZ, 77G7, 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8KRH, 8KU1, 8KYH, 8KZ1, 8L4B, 8LBB, 8MG7, 8MR7, 8O4V, 8OI1, 8OK1, 8OOV, 8OX1, 8RAV, 8RHH, 8RUV, 8RX1, 8U4V, 8UK1, 8V4B, 8V9B, 8VHH, 8VRH, 8VVV, 8VYV, 8W0H, 8WFD, 8X07, 8XAH, 8XR1, 8XU1, 8XYB, 8Y6V, 8Y8H, 8YBB, 8YFB, 8YHH, 8YKB, 8YLB, 8YUV, 8YVV, 8YYH, 8Z1D, 8Z4B, 8Z8D, 8Z91, 8ZCD, 8ZEZ, 8ZFD, 8ZFZ, 8ZK1, 8ZO1, 8ZX7, 90A5, 90BJ, 90BV, 90EB, 90EV, 90GJ, 90IJ, 90J5, 90JB, 90LB, 90O1, 90OV, 90XB, 90XV, 9225, 92K5, 9441, 94BH, 94EB, 94KB, 94XB, 9505, 9601, 960V, 96A1, 96J5, 96K1, 96V5, 96WV, 96XV, 984B, 98AV, 98BV, 98FB, 994H, 998B, 998V, 999B, 99A1, 99A5, 99E1, 99G5, 99O1, 99O5, 99WH, 9A05, 9A55, 9A95, 9AA5, 9ABV, 9AE1, 9AEV, 9AI1, 9AO1, 9AOV, 9B0J, 9B0V, 9B8V, 9B9H, 9BCJ, 9BFJ, 9BSJ, 9BVV, 9CCJ, 9CLJ, 9CSJ, 9E01, 9E4B, 9EA1, 9EAB, 9EAV, 9EK1, 9F05, 9F25, 9FA5, 9FBJ, 9FFJ, 9FJB, 9FSJ, 9FXJ, 9G25, 9G2J, 9GIJ, 9GSJ, 9HFB, 9HLB, 9IIJ, 9IJ1, 9J01, 9J0B, 9J0J, 9J9B, 9JCJ, 9JE1, 9K05, 9K41, 9K55, 9K61, 9K8B, 9KA5, 9KI1, 9KK5, 9KU5, 9L2J, 9LCJ, 9O05, 9O0V, 9O95, 9OI1, 9OO1, 9OOV, 9OWV, 9RRV, 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JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJ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JJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJJLJ

====Additional known quasi-minimal primes (not necessarily the next)====

P&lt;sub&gt;81993&lt;/sub&gt;SZ

==Unsolved families==

Families for which not even a probable prime is known nor can be ruled out as only contain composites (only count the numbers &gt; base (''b'')).

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||unsolved family (base-''b'' form)||unsolved family (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||current search limit of length||factorization of numbers in this family
|-
|13||9{5}||(113×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||116000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%28113*13%5En-5%29%2F12&amp;use=n&amp;n=1&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|13||A{3}A||(41×13&lt;sup&gt;''n''+1&lt;/sup&gt;+27)/4||111000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2841*13%5E%28n%2B1%29%2B27%29%2F4&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|-
|16||{3}AF||(16&lt;sup&gt;''n''+2&lt;/sup&gt;+619)/5||98000||[http://factordb.com/index.php?query=%2816%5E%28n%2B2%29%2B619%29%2F5&amp;use=n&amp;n=0&amp;VP=on&amp;VC=on&amp;EV=on&amp;OD=on&amp;PR=on&amp;FF=on&amp;PRP=on&amp;CF=on&amp;U=on&amp;C=on&amp;perpage=200&amp;format=1&amp;sent=Show]
|}

(If these three families contain primes (and they are excepted to contain primes), then the smallest prime in families 9{5} and A{3}A in base ''b'' = 13 will be index 3196 and 3197 quasi-minimal prime in base ''b'' = 13, and the smallest prime in families {3}AF in base ''b'' = 16 will be index 2347 quasi-minimal prime in base ''b'' = 16)

=== Base 17 ===

All searched to length 29000

* 1{7}
* 1F{0}7
* 4{7}A
* 51{0}D
* 70F{0}D
* 8{B}9
* 9{5}9
* 95{F}
* A{D}F
* B{0}B3
* B{0}DB
* {B}2BE
* {B}2E
* {B}E9
* {B}EE
* D0G{D}
* E9{B}
* F1{9}
* FD0{D}
* G{7}F

=== Base 21 ===

All searched to length 20000

* 2{7}9D
* 2F{C}A
* 4{3}B
* 5{0}DJ
* {5}FEK
* {7}ID
* 99{0}99H
* {9}0D
* {9}D
* B0{H}6H
* B3{0}EB
* B9{0}E5
* B{D}B
* B{H}6H
* DH{D}
* F{9}D
* {F}35
* G{0}FK
* H{0}7771
* H{D}
* {J}6J

=== Base 36 ===

All searched to length 20000

* 7{K}Z
* B{0}EUV
* HM{0}N
* N{0}YYN
* O{L}Z
* S{0}8H

==Primality certificates for the proven primes &gt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;==

See also: [[w:Primality certificate|Primality certificate]] and [[w:Elliptic curve primality|Elliptic curve primality]]

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b''||quasi-minimal prime (base-''b'' form)||quasi-minimal prime (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this prime||primality certificate of this prime
|-
|9||149||76&lt;sub&gt;329&lt;/sub&gt;2||(31×9&lt;sup&gt;330&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002359003642]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002359003642]
|-
|9||150||27&lt;sub&gt;686&lt;/sub&gt;07||(23×9&lt;sup&gt;688&lt;/sup&gt;−511)/8||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002495467486]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002495467486]
|-
|9||151||30&lt;sub&gt;1158&lt;/sub&gt;11||3×9&lt;sup&gt;1160&lt;/sup&gt;+10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002376318423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002376318423]
|-
|11||1065||A&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;58||11&lt;sup&gt;715&lt;/sup&gt;−58||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003576826487]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003576826487]
|-
|11||1066||7&lt;sub&gt;759&lt;/sub&gt;44||(7×11&lt;sup&gt;761&lt;/sup&gt;−367)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002505568840]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002505568840]
|-
|11||1067||557&lt;sub&gt;1011&lt;/sub&gt;||(607×11&lt;sup&gt;1011&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002361376522]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002361376522]
|-
|13||3165||50&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;44||5×13&lt;sup&gt;272&lt;/sup&gt;+56||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632397005]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632397005]
|-
|13||3166||9&lt;sub&gt;271&lt;/sub&gt;095||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;274&lt;/sup&gt;−6103)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431654]
|-
|13||3167||10&lt;sub&gt;286&lt;/sub&gt;7771||13&lt;sup&gt;290&lt;/sup&gt;+16654||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431633]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431633]
|-
|13||3168||9&lt;sub&gt;308&lt;/sub&gt;1||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;309&lt;/sup&gt;−35)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126705]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=308&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;308&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3169||B&lt;sub&gt;341&lt;/sub&gt;C4||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;+61)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431618]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431618]
|-
|13||3170||8B&lt;sub&gt;343&lt;/sub&gt;||(107×13&lt;sup&gt;343&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321018736]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321018736]
|-
|13||3171||710&lt;sub&gt;371&lt;/sub&gt;111||92×13&lt;sup&gt;374&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431609]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431609]
|-
|13||3172||75&lt;sub&gt;375&lt;/sub&gt;7||(89×13&lt;sup&gt;376&lt;/sup&gt;+19)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431596]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431596]
|-
|13||3173||9B0&lt;sub&gt;391&lt;/sub&gt;9||128×13&lt;sup&gt;392&lt;/sup&gt;+9||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396790]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396790]
|-
|13||3174||7B0B&lt;sub&gt;397&lt;/sub&gt;||(15923×13&lt;sup&gt;397&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431574]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590431574]
|-
|13||3175||10&lt;sub&gt;414&lt;/sub&gt;93||13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+120||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002523249240]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002523249240]
|-
|13||3176||81010&lt;sub&gt;415&lt;/sub&gt;1||17746×13&lt;sup&gt;416&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590431555]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3177||8110&lt;sub&gt;435&lt;/sub&gt;1||1366×13&lt;sup&gt;436&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002373259109]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3178||B7&lt;sub&gt;486&lt;/sub&gt;||(139×13&lt;sup&gt;486&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321015892]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321015892]
|-
|13||3179||B&lt;sub&gt;563&lt;/sub&gt;C||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000000217927]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=564&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;564&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3180||1B&lt;sub&gt;576&lt;/sub&gt;||(23×13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321021456]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], factor ''N''−1 is equivalent to factor [http://myfactorcollection.mooo.com:8090/cgi-bin/showSingleEntry?Base=13&amp;Exp=576&amp;c0=-&amp;EN= 13&lt;sup&gt;576&lt;/sup&gt;−1]
|-
|13||3181||80&lt;sub&gt;693&lt;/sub&gt;87||8×13&lt;sup&gt;695&lt;/sup&gt;+111||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636527]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615636532], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615636532]
|-
|13||3182||CC5&lt;sub&gt;713&lt;/sub&gt;||(2021×13&lt;sup&gt;713&lt;/sup&gt;−5)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615627353]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615627353]
|-
|13||3183||B&lt;sub&gt;834&lt;/sub&gt;74||(11×13&lt;sup&gt;836&lt;/sup&gt;−719)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430871]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430871]
|-
|13||3184||9&lt;sub&gt;968&lt;/sub&gt;B||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;969&lt;/sup&gt;+5)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000258566244]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000258566244]
|-
|13||3185||10&lt;sub&gt;1295&lt;/sub&gt;181||13&lt;sup&gt;1298&lt;/sup&gt;+274||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002615445013]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002615445013]
|-
|13||3186||9&lt;sub&gt;1362&lt;/sub&gt;5||(3×13&lt;sup&gt;1363&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/4||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321017776]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321017776]
|-
|13||3187||7&lt;sub&gt;1504&lt;/sub&gt;1||(7×13&lt;sup&gt;1505&lt;/sup&gt;−79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002320890755]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002320890755]
|-
|13||3188||930&lt;sub&gt;1551&lt;/sub&gt;1||120×13&lt;sup&gt;1552&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961452]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3189||720&lt;sub&gt;2297&lt;/sub&gt;2||93×13&lt;sup&gt;2298&lt;/sup&gt;+2||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002632396910]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002632396910]
|-
|13||3190||1770&lt;sub&gt;2703&lt;/sub&gt;17||267×13&lt;sup&gt;2705&lt;/sup&gt;+20||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430825]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430825]
|-
|13||3191||390&lt;sub&gt;6266&lt;/sub&gt;1||48×13&lt;sup&gt;6267&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000765961441]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|13||3192||B0&lt;sub&gt;6540&lt;/sub&gt;BBA||11×13&lt;sup&gt;6543&lt;/sup&gt;+2012||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002616382906]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002616382906]
|-
|13||3193||C&lt;sub&gt;10631&lt;/sub&gt;92||13&lt;sup&gt;10633&lt;/sup&gt;−50||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590493750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590493750]
|-
|14||649||34D&lt;sub&gt;708&lt;/sub&gt;||47×14&lt;sup&gt;708&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001540144903]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|14||650||4D&lt;sub&gt;19698&lt;/sub&gt;||5×14&lt;sup&gt;19698&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000884560233]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2328||880&lt;sub&gt;246&lt;/sub&gt;7||136×16&lt;sup&gt;247&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468140199]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, and this prime factor is &lt; 10&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;
|-
|16||2329||D4&lt;sub&gt;263&lt;/sub&gt;D||(199×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+131)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002468170238]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002468170238]
|-
|16||2330||E0&lt;sub&gt;261&lt;/sub&gt;4DD||14×16&lt;sup&gt;264&lt;/sup&gt;+1245||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388352]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388352]
|-
|16||2331||8C0&lt;sub&gt;290&lt;/sub&gt;ED||140×16&lt;sup&gt;292&lt;/sup&gt;+237||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388307]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388307]
|-
|16||2332||DA&lt;sub&gt;305&lt;/sub&gt;5||(41×16&lt;sup&gt;306&lt;/sup&gt;−17)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388284]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388284]
|-
|16||2333||CE80&lt;sub&gt;422&lt;/sub&gt;D||3304×16&lt;sup&gt;423&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588388257]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588388257]
|-
|16||2334||5F&lt;sub&gt;544&lt;/sub&gt;6F||6×16&lt;sup&gt;546&lt;/sup&gt;−145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002604723967]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002604723967]
|-
|16||2335||88F&lt;sub&gt;545&lt;/sub&gt;||137×16&lt;sup&gt;545&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413679658]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|16||2336||BE0&lt;sub&gt;792&lt;/sub&gt;BB||190×16&lt;sup&gt;794&lt;/sup&gt;+187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387938]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387938]
|-
|16||2337||D9&lt;sub&gt;1052&lt;/sub&gt;||(68×16&lt;sup&gt;1052&lt;/sup&gt;−3)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002321036020]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002321036020]
|-
|16||2338||FAF&lt;sub&gt;1062&lt;/sub&gt;45||251×16&lt;sup&gt;1064&lt;/sup&gt;−187||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588387610]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588387610]
|-
|16||2339||F8&lt;sub&gt;1517&lt;/sub&gt;F||(233×16&lt;sup&gt;1518&lt;/sup&gt;+97)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633744824]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633744824]
|-
|16||2340||20&lt;sub&gt;1713&lt;/sub&gt;321||2×16&lt;sup&gt;1716&lt;/sup&gt;+801||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588386735]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588386735]
|-
|16||2341||300F&lt;sub&gt;1960&lt;/sub&gt;AF||769×16&lt;sup&gt;1962&lt;/sup&gt;−81||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003588368750]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003588368750]
|-
|16||2342||90&lt;sub&gt;3542&lt;/sub&gt;91||9×16&lt;sup&gt;3544&lt;/sup&gt;+145||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000633424191]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000633424191]
|-
|16||2343||5BC&lt;sub&gt;3700&lt;/sub&gt;D||(459×16&lt;sup&gt;3701&lt;/sup&gt;+1)/5||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000993764322]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000993764322]
|-
|16||2344||D0B&lt;sub&gt;17804&lt;/sub&gt;||(3131×16&lt;sup&gt;17804&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003589278511]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003589278511]
|-
|18||547||80&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;B||8×18&lt;sup&gt;299&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355574745]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has sum-of-two-cubes algebraic factorization, 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is an algebraic factor of ''N''+1, factordb entry of 6×18&lt;sup&gt;99&lt;/sup&gt;+1 is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000900149167]
|-
|18||548||H&lt;sub&gt;766&lt;/sub&gt;FH||18&lt;sup&gt;768&lt;/sup&gt;−37||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590430490]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590430490]
|-
|18||549||C0&lt;sub&gt;6268&lt;/sub&gt;C5||12×18&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+221||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590442437]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590442437]
|-
|20||3301||H&lt;sub&gt;247&lt;/sub&gt;A0H||(17×20&lt;sup&gt;250&lt;/sup&gt;−59677)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502619]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502619]
|-
|20||3302||7&lt;sub&gt;249&lt;/sub&gt;A7||(7×20&lt;sup&gt;251&lt;/sup&gt;+1133)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502602]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502602]
|-
|20||3303||J7&lt;sub&gt;270&lt;/sub&gt;||(368×20&lt;sup&gt;270&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325395462]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325395462]
|-
|20||3304||J&lt;sub&gt;330&lt;/sub&gt;CCC7||20&lt;sup&gt;334&lt;/sup&gt;−58953||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502572]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502572]
|-
|20||3305||40&lt;sub&gt;387&lt;/sub&gt;404B||4×20&lt;sup&gt;391&lt;/sup&gt;+32091||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502563]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502563]
|-
|20||3306||EC0&lt;sub&gt;429&lt;/sub&gt;7||292×20&lt;sup&gt;430&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633348702]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633348702]
|-
|20||3307||G&lt;sub&gt;447&lt;/sub&gt;99||(16×20&lt;sup&gt;449&lt;/sup&gt;−2809)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840126753]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840126753]
|-
|20||3308||3A&lt;sub&gt;527&lt;/sub&gt;3||(67×20&lt;sup&gt;528&lt;/sup&gt;−143)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502531]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502531]
|-
|20||3309||E&lt;sub&gt;566&lt;/sub&gt;C7||(14×20&lt;sup&gt;568&lt;/sup&gt;−907)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502516]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502516]
|-
|20||3310||JCJ&lt;sub&gt;629&lt;/sub&gt;||393×20&lt;sup&gt;629&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000001559454258]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|20||3311||J&lt;sub&gt;655&lt;/sub&gt;05J||20&lt;sup&gt;658&lt;/sup&gt;−7881||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502490]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 has a large prime factor, factordb entry of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591067052], and primality certificate of this prime factor is [http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591067052]
|-
|20||3312||50&lt;sub&gt;1163&lt;/sub&gt;AJ||5×20&lt;sup&gt;1165&lt;/sup&gt;+219||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590502412]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590502412]
|-
|20||3313||CD&lt;sub&gt;2449&lt;/sub&gt;||(241×20&lt;sup&gt;2449&lt;/sup&gt;−13)/19||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325393915]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325393915]
|-
|20||3314||G0&lt;sub&gt;6269&lt;/sub&gt;D||16×20&lt;sup&gt;6270&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590539457]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003590539457]
|-
|22||7984||I7G0&lt;sub&gt;254&lt;/sub&gt;H||8882×22&lt;sup&gt;255&lt;/sup&gt;+17||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591372788]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591372788]
|-
|22||7985||D0&lt;sub&gt;255&lt;/sub&gt;5EEF||13×22&lt;sup&gt;259&lt;/sup&gt;+60339||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591371932]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591371932]
|-
|22||7986||IK&lt;sub&gt;322&lt;/sub&gt;F||(398×22&lt;sup&gt;323&lt;/sup&gt;−125)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384145]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384145]
|-
|22||7987||C0&lt;sub&gt;340&lt;/sub&gt;G9||12×22&lt;sup&gt;342&lt;/sup&gt;+361||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000840384159]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000840384159]
|-
|22||7988||77E&lt;sub&gt;348&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(485×22&lt;sup&gt;350&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369779]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369779]
|-
|22||7989||J&lt;sub&gt;379&lt;/sub&gt;KJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;381&lt;/sup&gt;+443)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591369027]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591369027]
|-
|22||7990||J&lt;sub&gt;388&lt;/sub&gt;EJ||(19×22&lt;sup&gt;390&lt;/sup&gt;−2329)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591367729]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591367729]
|-
|22||7991||DJ&lt;sub&gt;400&lt;/sub&gt;||(292×22&lt;sup&gt;400&lt;/sup&gt;−19)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002325880110]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002325880110]
|-
|22||7992||E&lt;sub&gt;404&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(2×22&lt;sup&gt;406&lt;/sup&gt;+373)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591366298]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591366298]
|-
|22||7993||66F&lt;sub&gt;453&lt;/sub&gt;B3||(971×22&lt;sup&gt;455&lt;/sup&gt;−705)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365809]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365809]
|-
|22||7994||L0&lt;sub&gt;454&lt;/sub&gt;B63||21×22&lt;sup&gt;457&lt;/sup&gt;+5459||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591365331]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591365331]
|-
|22||7995||L&lt;sub&gt;483&lt;/sub&gt;G3||22&lt;sup&gt;485&lt;/sup&gt;−129||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591364730]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591364730]
|-
|22||7996||E60&lt;sub&gt;496&lt;/sub&gt;L||314×22&lt;sup&gt;497&lt;/sup&gt;+21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632703239]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632703239]
|-
|22||7997||I&lt;sub&gt;626&lt;/sub&gt;AF||(6×22&lt;sup&gt;628&lt;/sup&gt;−1259)/7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724334]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724334]
|-
|22||7998||K0&lt;sub&gt;760&lt;/sub&gt;EC1||20×22&lt;sup&gt;763&lt;/sup&gt;+7041||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000632724415]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000000632724415]
|-
|22||7999||J0&lt;sub&gt;767&lt;/sub&gt;IGGJ||19×22&lt;sup&gt;771&lt;/sup&gt;+199779||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591362567]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591362567]
|-
|22||8000||7&lt;sub&gt;959&lt;/sub&gt;K7||(22&lt;sup&gt;961&lt;/sup&gt;+857)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591361817]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591361817]
|-
|22||8001||L&lt;sub&gt;2385&lt;/sub&gt;KE7||22&lt;sup&gt;2388&lt;/sup&gt;−653||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591360774]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591360774]
|-
|22||8002||7&lt;sub&gt;3815&lt;/sub&gt;2L||(22&lt;sup&gt;3817&lt;/sup&gt;−289)/3||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003591359839]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003591359839]
|-
|24||3400||I0&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;I5||18×24&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+437||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633360037]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633360037]
|-
|24||3401||D0&lt;sub&gt;259&lt;/sub&gt;KKD||13×24&lt;sup&gt;262&lt;/sup&gt;+12013||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270725]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270725]
|-
|24||3402||C7&lt;sub&gt;298&lt;/sub&gt;||(283×24&lt;sup&gt;298&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002326181235]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002326181235]
|-
|24||3403||20&lt;sub&gt;313&lt;/sub&gt;7||2×24&lt;sup&gt;314&lt;/sup&gt;+7||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002355610241]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002355610241]
|-
|24||3404||BC0&lt;sub&gt;331&lt;/sub&gt;B||276×24&lt;sup&gt;332&lt;/sup&gt;+11||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002633359842]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002633359842]
|-
|24||3405||N&lt;sub&gt;2644&lt;/sub&gt;LLN||24&lt;sup&gt;2647&lt;/sup&gt;−1201||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593270089]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593270089]
|-
|24||3406||D&lt;sub&gt;2698&lt;/sub&gt;LD||(13×24&lt;sup&gt;2700&lt;/sup&gt;+4403)/23||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269876]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269876]
|-
|24||3407||A0&lt;sub&gt;2951&lt;/sub&gt;8ID||10×24&lt;sup&gt;2954&lt;/sup&gt;+5053||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593269654]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593269654]
|-
|24||3408||88N&lt;sub&gt;5951&lt;/sub&gt;||201×24&lt;sup&gt;5951&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593275880]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|24||3409||N00N&lt;sub&gt;8129&lt;/sub&gt;LN||13249×24&lt;sup&gt;8131&lt;/sup&gt;−49||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593391606]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593391606]
|-
|30||2613||AN&lt;sub&gt;206&lt;/sub&gt;||(313×30&lt;sup&gt;206&lt;/sup&gt;−23)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327651073]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327651073]
|-
|30||2614||M&lt;sub&gt;241&lt;/sub&gt;QB||(22×30&lt;sup&gt;243&lt;/sup&gt;+3139)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593408295]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593408295]
|-
|30||2615||M0&lt;sub&gt;547&lt;/sub&gt;SS7||22×30&lt;sup&gt;550&lt;/sup&gt;+26047||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593407988]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000003593407988]
|-
|30||2616||C0&lt;sub&gt;1022&lt;/sub&gt;1||12×30&lt;sup&gt;1023&lt;/sup&gt;+1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000785448736]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_1.html ''N''−1 primality test], ''N''−1 is trivially 100% factored
|-
|30||2617||5&lt;sub&gt;4882&lt;/sub&gt;J||(5×30&lt;sup&gt;4883&lt;/sup&gt;+401)/29||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002327649423]||[http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002327649423]
|-
|30||2619||OT&lt;sub&gt;34205&lt;/sub&gt;||25×30&lt;sup&gt;34205&lt;/sup&gt;−1||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000800812865]||proven prime by [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/prove3_2.html ''N''+1 primality test], ''N''+1 is trivially 100% factored
|}

==Unproven PRPs==

{|class=wikitable
|base (''b'')||index of this quasi-minimal prime in base ''b'' (assuming the primality of all PRP in base ''b'')||unproven PRP (base-''b'' form)||unproven PRP (algebraic ((''a''×''b''&lt;sup&gt;''n''&lt;/sup&gt;+''c'')/''d'') form)||factordb entry of this PRP
|-
|11||1068||57&lt;sub&gt;62668&lt;/sub&gt;||(57×11&lt;sup&gt;62668&lt;/sup&gt;−7)/10||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003573679860]
|-
|13||3194||C5&lt;sub&gt;23755&lt;/sub&gt;C||(149×13&lt;sup&gt;23756&lt;/sup&gt;+79)/12||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003590647776]
|-
|13||3195||80&lt;sub&gt;32017&lt;/sub&gt;111||8×13&lt;sup&gt;32020&lt;/sup&gt;+183||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000490878060]
|-
|16||2345||DB&lt;sub&gt;32234&lt;/sub&gt;||(206×16&lt;sup&gt;32234&lt;/sup&gt;−11)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002383583629]
|-
|16||2346||4&lt;sub&gt;72785&lt;/sub&gt;DD||(4×16&lt;sup&gt;72787&lt;/sup&gt;+2291)/15||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003615909841]
|-
|22||8003||BK&lt;sub&gt;22001&lt;/sub&gt;5||(251×22&lt;sup&gt;22002&lt;/sup&gt;−335)/21||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003594696838]
|-
|30||2618||I0&lt;sub&gt;24608&lt;/sub&gt;D||18×30&lt;sup&gt;24609&lt;/sup&gt;+13||[http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000003593967511]
|}

All these PRPs pass the [[w:Miller–Rabin primality test|Miller–Rabin primality test]] to bases 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59 and 61, and pass the [[w:Lucas pseudoprime#Strong Lucas pseudoprimes|strong Lucas primality test]] with parameters (''P'', ''Q'') defined by Selfridge's Method ''A'', and [[w:Trial division|trial factored]] to 10&lt;sup&gt;16&lt;/sup&gt;. (Thus, they pass the [[w:Baillie–PSW primality test|Baillie–PSW primality test]])

==Proof==

===Base 2===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.

===Base 3===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 12 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}2 (since any digits 1 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 4===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (2,1), (2,3), (3,1), (3,3)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 11, 31, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 13, 23 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 5===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 12, 21, 111, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,4}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,2):
** 12 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 12, 23, 43, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}3 and 1{0}1{0}3 (since any digit combo 11 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 1{0}1{0}3 family, since 10103 is prime, we only need to consider the families 1{0}13 and 11{0}3 (since any digit combo 010 between (1,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 1{0}13 is 100000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000013, which can be written as 1(0^93)13 and equal the prime 5^95+8 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000034686071 factordb])
***** All numbers of the form 11{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** Since 12, 34, 104 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{1,4}4 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the families 1{4}4 and 11{4}4 (since any digit combo 11 or 41 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 1{4}4 is 14444.
**** All numbers of the form 11{4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 21, 23, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 21, 23, 34 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 34, 21 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 313, 111, 131, 3101 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,3}1 and 3{0,3}11 (since any digit combo 10, 11, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,3}1 family, we can separate this family to four families:
***** For the 30{0,3}01 family, we have the prime 30301, and the remain case is the family 30{0}01.
****** All numbers of the form 30{0}01 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the 30{0,3}31 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (30,31), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (30,31) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 30{0}31, and this prime is 300031.
***** For the 33{0,3}01 family, note that there must be an even number of 3's between (33,01), or the result number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** Since 33331 is prime, any digit combo 33 between (33,01) will produce smaller primes.
******* Thus, the only possible prime is the smallest prime in the family 33{0}01, and this prime is 33001.
***** For the 33{0,3}31 family, we have the prime 33331, and the remain case is the family 33{0}31.
****** All numbers of the form 33{0}31 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 34, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,4):
** 34 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 43, 21, 401 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 414, 111 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}1 and 4{4}11 (since any digit combo 14 or 11 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}1 is 44441.
**** All numbers of the form 4{4}11 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 43, 12, 32 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}2 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 43, 34, 414 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 6===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (2,1), (2,5), (3,1), (3,5), (4,1), (4,5), (5,1), (5,5)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 11, 21, 31, 51 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4401 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}1 and 4{0}41 (since any digits combo 40 and 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}41 is 40041
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 15, 25, 35, 45 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 7===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,5), (1,6), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (2,4), (2,5), (2,6), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3), (3,4), (3,5), (3,6), (4,1), (4,2), (4,3), (4,4), (4,5), (4,6), (5,1), (5,2), (5,3), (5,4), (5,5), (5,6), (6,1), (6,2), (6,3), (6,4), (6,5), (6,6)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 14, 16, 41, 61, 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2,5}1 (since any digits 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since the digit sum of primes must be odd (otherwise the number will be divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime), there is an odd total number of 1 and 5 in the {}
**** If there are &gt;=3 number of 1 and 5 in the {}:
***** If there is 111 in the {}, then we have the prime 11111
***** If there is 115 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 151 in the {}, then the prime 115 is a subsequence
***** If there is 155 in the {}, then the prime 155 is a subsequence
***** If there is 511 in the {}, then the current number is 15111, which has digit sum = 12, but digit sum divisible by 3 will cause the number divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, and we cannot add more 1 or 5 to this number (to avoid 11111, 155, 515, 551 as subsequence), thus we must add at least one 2 to this number, but then the number has both 2 and 5, and will have either 25 or 52 as subsequence, thus cannot be minimal prime
***** If there is 515 in the {}, then the prime 515 is a subsequence
***** If there is 551 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
***** If there is 555 in the {}, then the prime 551 is a subsequence
**** Thus there is only one 1 (and no 5) or only one 5 (and no 1) in the {}, i.e. we only need to consider the families 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 and 1{0,2}5{0,2}1
***** For the 1{0,2}1{0,2}1 family, since 1211 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0,2}1
****** Since all numbers of the form 1{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 3 and cannot be prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}2{0}1
******* Since 11201 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}1{0}21
******** The smallest prime of the form 11{0}21 is 1100021
******** All numbers of the form 101{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime
******** The smallest prime of the form 1001{0}21 is 100121
********* Since this prime has no 0 between 1{0}1 and 21, we do not need to consider more families
***** For the 1{0,2}5{0,2}1 family, since 25 and 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0}5{0}1
****** Since 1051 is prime, we only need to consider the family 15{0}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 15{0}1 is 150001
* Case (1,2):
** Since 14, 16, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,1,2}2 (since any digits 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 1112 and 1222 are primes, there is at most one 1 and at most one 2 in {}
**** If there are one 1 and one 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 6, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is one 1 but no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 4, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
**** If there is no 1 but one 2 in {}, then the form is 1{0}2{0}2
***** Since 1022 and 1202 are primes, we only need to consider the number 122
****** 122 is not prime.
**** If there is no 1 and no 2 in {}, then the digit sum is 3, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** Since 14, 16, 23, 43, 113, 133 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,5}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 155 is prime, we only need to consider the family 1{0}3 and 1{0}5{0}3
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}3 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}5{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,4):
** 14 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** Since 14, 16, 25, 65, 115, 155 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,3}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 1{0,3}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,6):
** 16 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 25, 41, 61, 221 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,1}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1 and 2{0}1{0}1
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,2):
** Since 23, 25, 32, 52, 212 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,4):
** Since 23, 25, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,6):
** Since 23, 25, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 32, 41, 61 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3,5}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 551 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,3}1 and 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 55 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 3{0,1,3}1 family, since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0,1}1 and 3{3}3{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes, thus for the digits between (3,1), all 3's must be before all 0's and 1's, and thus we can let the red 3 in 3{3}3{0,1}1 be the rightmost 3 between (3,1), all digits before this 3 must be 3's, and all digits after this 3 must be either 0's or 1's)
***** For the 3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}1
******* All numbers of the form 3{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}1
******* The smallest prime of the form 3{1}1 is 31111
****** If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then there must be &lt;3 1's between (3,1), or 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are 2 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 6, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are 1 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be either 3101 or 3011
******** Neither 3101 nor 3011 is prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number must be 301
******** 301 is not prime.
***** For the 3{3}3{0,1}1 family:
****** If there are at least one 3 between (3,3{0,1}1) and at least one 1 between (3{3}3,1), then 33311 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are no 3 between (3,3{0,1}1), then the form will be 33{0,1}1
******* If there are at least 3 1's between (33,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 2 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 12, thus the number is divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 1's between (33,1), then the digit sum is 11, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 1's between (33,1), then the form will be 33{0}1
******** The smallest prime of the form 33{0}1 is 33001
****** If there are no 1 between (3{3}3,1), then the form will be 3{3}3{0}1
******* If there are at least 2 0's between (3{3}3,1), then 33001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}301
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}301 is 33333301
******* If there are no 0's between (3{3}3,1), then the form is 3{3}31
******** The smallest prime of the form 3{3}31 is 33333333333333331
**** For the 3{0,1,3}5{0,1,3}1 family, since 335 is prime, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}1
***** Numbers containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1,3}3{0,1,3}1
******* Since 3031 and 131 are primes, we only need to consider the family 35{3}3{0,1,3}1 (since any digits combo 03, 13 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
******** Since 533 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{0,1}1 (since any digits combo 33 between (35,1) will produce smaller primes)
********* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 353{1}{0}1 (since any digits combo 01 between (353,1) will produce smaller primes)
********** If there are at least 3 1's between (353,{0}1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
********** If there are exactly 2 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 20, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
********** If there are exactly 1 1's between (353,{0}1), then the form is 3531{0}1
*********** The smallest prime of the form 3531{0}1 is 3531001, but it is not minimal prime since 31001 is prime.
********** If there are no 1's between (353,{0}1), then the digit sum is 15, thus the number is divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
***** Numbers not containing 3 between (3{0,1}5,1):
****** The form is 3{0,1}5{0,1}1
******* If there are &gt;=2 0's and &gt;=1 1's between (3,1), then at least one of 30011, 30101, 31001 will be a subsequence.
******* If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{0}5{0}1
******** All numbers of the form 3{0}5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* If there are no 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}5{1}1
******** If there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 31151, 31511, 35111
********* None of 31151, 31511, 35111 are primes.
******** If there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 351
********* 351 is not prime.
******* If there are exactly 1 0's between (3,1), then the form will be 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are &gt;=3 1's between (3,1), then 31111 will be a subsequence.
******** If there are exactly 2 1's between (3,1), then the number can only be 311051, 310151, 310511, 301151, 301511, 305111, 311501, 315101, 315011, 351101, 351011, 350111
********* Of these numbers, 311051, 301151, 311501, 351101, 350111 are primes.
********** However, 311051, 301151, 311501 have 115 as subsequence, and 350111 has 5011 as subsequence, thus only 351101 is minimal prime.
******** No matter 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3{1}5{1}0{1}1, if there are exactly 1 1's between (3,1), then the digit sum is 13, thus the number is divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
******** If there are no 1's between (3,1), then the number is 3051 for 3{1}0{1}5{1}1 or 3501 for 3{1}5{1}0{1}1
********* Neither 3051 nor 3501 is prime.
* Case (3,2):
** 32 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 32, 23, 43, 313 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,5,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are &gt;=2 5's in {}, then 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}3
**** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly 1 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,3,6}5{0,3,6}3
**** Since 335, 65, 3503, 533, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0}53 (since any digit 3, 6 between (3,5{0,3,6}3) and any digit 0, 3, 6 between (3{0,3,6}5,3) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 3{0}53 is 300053
* Case (3,4):
** Since 32, 14, 304, 344, 364 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{3,5}4 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 3334 and 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{5}4 and 3{5}34 (since any digits combo 33, 35 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}4 is 35555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555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with 9234 5's, which can be written as 3(5^9234)4 and equal the prime (23*7^9235-11)/6 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002766595757 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002766595757 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since 35555 and 5554 are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}34 is 355555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555534 (not minimal prime, since 35555, 553, and 5554 are primes)
* Case (3,5):
** Since 32, 25, 65, 335 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,1,4,5}5 (since any digits 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 155 or 515 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least one 1's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 14 or 41 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 115 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 1's and no 4's or 5's in {}, then the family will be 3{0}1{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 3{0}1{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,4,5}5
**** If there are at least to 4's in {}, then 344 and 445 will be subsequences.
**** If there is no 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}5
***** Since 3055 and 3505 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{0}5 and 3{5}5
****** All numbers of the form 3{0}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 3{5}5 is 35555
**** If there is exactly one 4's in {}, then the family will be 3{0,5}4{0,5}5
***** Since 304, 3545 are primes, we only need to consider the families 34{0,5}5 (since any digits 0 or 5 between (3,4{0,5}5) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 34{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,6):
** Since 32, 16, 56, 346 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}6 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,2):
** Since 41, 43, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,4):
** Since 41, 43, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,5,6}4 (since any digits 1, 3 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 5's in {}, then there cannot be 2 in {} (since if so, then either 25 or 52 will be a subsequence) and there cannot be 6 in {} (since if so, then either 65 or 56 will be a subsequence), thus the family is 4{0,4,5}5{0,4,5}4
**** Since 445, 4504, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5{5}4 (since any digit 4 between (4,5{0,4,5}4) and any digit 0, 4 between (4{0,4,5}5,4) will produce smaller primes)
***** If there are at least two 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then 40054 will be a subsequence.
***** If there is no 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}5{5}4, which is equivalent to 4{5}4
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{5}4 is 45555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
***** If there is exactly one 0's between (4,5{0,4,5}4), then the family will be 4{5}0{5}5{5}4
****** Since 4504 is prime, we only need to consider the family 40{5}5{5}4 (since any digit 5 between (4,0{5}5{5}4) will produce small primes), which is equivalent to 40{5}4
******* The smallest prime of the form 40{5}4 is 405555555555555554 (not minimal prime, since 4555 and 5554 are primes)
* Case (4,5):
** Since 41, 43, 25, 65, 445 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 4555 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 5's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 5's in {}, then the family will be 4{0}5
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}5 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,6):
** Since 41, 43, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,2,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 52, 56, 41, 61, 551 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1,3}1 (since any digits 2, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 3's in {}, then 533 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}1
**** Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5{1}{0}1
***** Since 11111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1, 51{0}1, 511{0}1, 5111{0}1 (since any digits combo 1111 between (5,1) will produce small primes)
****** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 6, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 51{0}1 is 5100000001
****** All numbers of the form 511{0}1 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 5111{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,1}3{0,1}1
**** If there is at least one 1's between (5,3{0,1}1), then 131 will be a subsequence.
***** Thus we only need to consider the family 5{0}3{0,1}1
****** If there are no 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly one 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 13, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are exactly three 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the digit sum is 15, and the number will be divisible by 6 and cannot be prime.
****** If there are at least four 1's between (5{0}3,1), then 11111 will be a subsequence.
****** If there are exactly two 1's between (5{0}3,1), then the family will be 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1
******* Since 5011 is prime, we only need to consider the family 5311{0}1 (since any digit 0 between (5,1{0}1) will produce small primes, this includes the leftmost three {} in 5{0}3{0}1{0}1{0}1, and thus only the rightmost {} can contain 0)
******** The smallest prime of the form 5311{0}1 is 531101
* Case (5,2):
** 52 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** Since 52, 56, 23, 43, 533, 553 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,1}3 (since any digits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are at least two 1's in {}, then 113 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 12, and the number will be divisible by 3 and cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 1's in {}, then the digit sum is 11, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
* Case (5,4):
** Since 52, 56, 14, 544 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,3,5}4 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,3}4
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,3}4 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 5's and at least one 3's in {}, then either 535 or 553 will be a subsequence.
*** If there are exactly one 5's and no 3's in {}, then the digit sum is 20, and the number will be divisible by 2 and cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least two 5's in {}, then 5554 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 52, 56, 25, 65, 515, 535 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,4,5}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there are no 4's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,5}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are no 5's in {}, then the family will be 5{0,4}5
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,4}5 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least one 4's and at least one 5's in {}, then either 5455 or 5545 will be a subsequence.
* Case (5,6):
** 56 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,2):
** Since 61, 65, 32, 52 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,4,6}2 (since any digits 1, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}2 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 65, 23, 43 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,4):
** Since 61, 65, 14 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}4 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are exactly two 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there are at least three 3's in {}, then 3334 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is exactly one 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}3{0,2,4,6}4
**** If there is 0 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6034 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 23 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 43 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6,3{0,2,4,6}4), then 6634 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 0 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 304 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 2 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 32 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 4 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 344 will be a subsequence.
**** If there is 6 between (6{0,2,4,6}3,4), then 364 will be a subsequence.
**** Thus the number can only be 634
***** 634 is not prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,6):
** Since 61, 65, 16, 56 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,2,3,4,6}6 (since any digits 1, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** If there is no 3's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,2,4,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,2,4,6}6 are divisible by 2, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is no 2's and no 4's in {}, then the family will be 6{0,3,6}6
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}6 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 2's in {}, then either 32 or 23 will be a subsequence.
*** If there is at least one 3's and at least one 4's in {}, then either 346 or 43 will be a subsequence.

===Base 8===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,5), (1,7), (2,1), (2,3), (2,5), (2,7), (3,1), (3,3), (3,5), (3,7), (4,1), (4,3), (4,5), (4,7), (5,1), (5,3), (5,5), (5,7), (6,1), (6,3), (6,5), (6,7), (7,1), (7,3), (7,5), (7,7)

* Case (1,1):
** Since 13, 15, 21, 51, 111, 141, 161 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{0,7}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 177, 701 are primes, we only need to consider the number 171 and the family 1{0}1 (since any digits combo 07, 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** 171 is not prime.
**** All numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as 10^n+1 = (2^n+1) * (4^n-2^n+1) (n≥1) (and since if n≥1, 2^n+1 ≥ 2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, 4^n-2^n+1 ≥ 4^1-2^1+1 = 3 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** Since 13, 15, 27, 37, 57, 107, 117, 147, 177 are primes, we only need to consider the family 1{6}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 1{6}7 is 16667 (not minimal prime, since 667 is prime)
* Case (2,1):
** 21 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,5):
** Since 21, 23, 27, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75, 225, 255 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 2{0}5 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** Since 35, 37, 21, 51, 301, 361 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{1,3,4}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 13, 343, 111, 131, 141, 431, 3331, 3411 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{3}11, 33{1,4}1, 3{3,4}4{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 13, 14, 33, 41, 43 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 3{3}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 33{1,4}1 family, since 111 and 141 are primes, we only need to consider the families 33{4}1 and 33{4}11 (since any digits combo 11, 14 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 33{4}1 is 3344441
***** All numbers of the form 33{4}11 are divisible by 301, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 3{3,4}4{4}1 family, since 3331 and 3344441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 3{4}1, 3{4}31, 3{4}341, 3{4}3441, 3{4}34441 (since any digits combo 33 or 34444 between (3,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 3{4}1 are divisible by 31, thus cannot be prime.
***** Since 4443 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 (since any digit combo 444 between (3,3{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** None of 3431, 34431, 34341, 344341, 343441, 3443441, 3434441, 34434441 are primes.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 35, 37, 13, 23, 53, 73, 343 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 21, 51, 401, 431, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{1,4,6}1 (since any digits 0, 2, 3, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 111, 141, 161, 661, 4611 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}11, 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1, 4{4}6{4}1 (since any digits combo 11, 14, 16, 61, 66 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}11 is 44444444444444411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4,6}4{1,4,6}1 family, we can separate this family to 4{4,6}41, 4{4,6}411, 4{4,6}461
***** For the 4{4,6}41 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}41 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,41) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}41 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
***** For the 4{4,6}411 family, since 661 and 6441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{4}411 and 4{4}6411 (since any digits combo 64 or 66 between (4,411) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}411 is 444444441
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}6411 is 4444444444444446411 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 444641 are primes)
***** For the 4{4,6}461 family, since 661 is prime, we only need to consider the family 4{4}461
****** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}461 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
**** For the 4{4}6{4}1 family, since 6441 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}61 and 4{4}641 (since any digits combo 44 between (4{4}6,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}61 is 4444444461 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}641 is 444641
* Case (4,3):
** Since 45, 13, 23, 53, 73, 433, 463 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,4}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4043 and 4443 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}3 and 44{0}3 (since any digits combo 04, 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}3 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 44{0}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 27, 37, 57, 407, 417, 467 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,7}7 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747 is prime, we only need to consider the families 4{4}7, 4{4}77, 4{7}7, 44{7}7 (since any digits combo 74 between (4,7) will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}7 is 44444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444444447, with 220 4's, which can be written as (4^220)7 and equal the prime (4*8^221+17)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000416605822 factordb])
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{4}77 is 4444477
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{7}7 is 47777
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{7}7 is 4477777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777, with 851 7's, which can be written as 44(7^851) and equal the prime 37*8^851-1 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000413677646 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 47777 is prime)
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 53, 57, 15, 35, 45, 65, 75 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2,5}5 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 225, 255, 5205 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}5 and 5{0,5}25 (since any digits combo 20, 22, 25 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0,5}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 5{0,5}25 family, since 500025 and 505525 are primes, we only need to consider the number 500525 the families 5{5}25, 5{5}025, 5{5}0025, 5{5}0525, 5{5}00525, 5{5}05025 (since any digits combo 000, 055 between (5,25) will produce smaller primes)
***** 500525 is not prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}25 is 555555555555525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}025 is 55555025
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0025 is 5555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555555550025, with 184 5's, which can be written as (5^183)0025 and equal the prime (5*8^187-20333)/7 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350205912 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 55555025 and 555555555555525 are primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}0525 is 5550525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}00525 is 5500525
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}05025 is 5555555555555555555555505025 (not minimal prime, since 5550525, 55555025, and 555555555555525 are primes)
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** Since 65, 21, 51, 631, 661 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}1 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Numbers containing 4: (note that the number cannot contain two or more 4's, or 6441 will be a subsequence)
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}4{0,1,7}1
***** Since 141, 401, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,7}4{1}1
****** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}41 and 6{0,7}411
******* For the 6{0,7}41 family, since 60741 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}{0}41
******** Since 6777 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}41, 67{0}41, 677{0}41
********* All numbers of the form 6{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 67{0}41 are divisible by 13, thus cannot be prime.
********* All numbers of the form 677{0}41 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******* For the 6{0,7}411 family, since 60411 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{7}411
******** The smallest prime of the form 6{7}411 is 67777411 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
*** Numbers not containing 4:
**** The form is 6{0,1,7}1
***** Since 111 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,7}1 and 6{0,7}1{0,7}1
****** All numbers of the form 6{0,7}1 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
****** For the 6{0,7}1{0,7}1 family, since 711 and 6101 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0}1{7}1
******* Since 60171 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0}11 and 61{7}1
******** All numbers of the form 6{0}11 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
******** The smallest prime of the form 61{7}1 is 617771 (not minimal prime, since 6777 is prime)
* Case (6,3):
** Since 65, 13, 23, 53, 73, 643 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,5):
** 65 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,7):
** Since 65, 27, 37, 57, 667 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,1,4,7}7 (since any digits 2, 3, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 107, 117, 147, 177, 407, 417, 717, 747, 6007, 6477, 6707, 6777 are primes, there cannot be digits combo 00, 10, 11, 14, 17, 40, 41, 47, 70, 71, 74, 77 between them
**** If there is 1 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}17
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}17 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is 7 between them, then there cannot be 1, 4, 7 before it and cannot be 0, 1, 4, 7 after it, thus the form will be 6{0}77
***** All numbers of the form 6{0}77 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** If there is neither 1 nor 7 between them, then the form is 6{0,4}7
***** Since 6007, 407 at primes, we only need to consider the families 6{4}7 and 60{4}7 (since any digits combo 00, 40 between them will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by 3, 5, or 15, thus cannot be prime.
****** All numbers of the form 60{4}7 are divisible by 21, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 73, 75, 21, 51, 701, 711 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 747, 767, 471, 661, 7461, 7641 are primes, we only need to consider the families 7{4,7}4{4}1, 7{7}61, 7{7}7{4,6,7}1 (since any digits combo 46, 47, 64, 66, 67 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 7{4,7}4{4}1 family, since 747, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{7}{4}1 (since any digits combo 47 between (7,4{4}1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}1 is 7777777777771
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}41 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777741, with 79 7's, which can be written as (7^79)41 and equal the prime 8^81-31 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462449 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777441, with 84 7's, which can be written as (7^84)441 and equal the prime 8^87-223 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000000294462776 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4441 is 777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777774441, with 233 7's, which can be written as (7^233)4441 and equal the prime 8^237-1759 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002352073382 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}44441 is 7777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777777744441, with 56 7's, which can be written as (7^56)44441 and equal the prime 8^61-14047 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002350250002 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since 7777777777771 is prime)
***** All numbers of the form 7{7}444441 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 7{7}4444441 is 77774444441
****** Since this prime has just 4 7's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 7's
******* The smallest prime of the form 7{4}1 is 744444441
******* All numbers of the form 77{4}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form 777{4}1 is 777444444444441 (not minimal prime, since 444444441 and 744444441 are primes)
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 73, 75, 27, 37, 57, 717, 747, 767 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.

===Base 10===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,3), (1,7), (1,9), (2,1), (2,3), (2,7), (2,9), (3,1), (3,3), (3,7), (3,9), (4,1), (4,3), (4,7), (4,9), (5,1), (5,3), (5,7), (5,9), (6,1), (6,3), (6,7), (6,9), (7,1), (7,3), (7,7), (7,9), (8,1), (8,3), (8,7), (8,9), (9,1), (9,3), (9,7), (9,9)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,3):
** 13 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,9):
** 19 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 23, 29, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 251, 281 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 2221 and 20201 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}1, 2{0}21, 22{0}1 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}21 is 20021
**** The smallest prime of the form 22{0}1 is 22000001
* Case (2,3):
** 23 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** Since 23, 29, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 227, 257, 277 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,8}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 887 and 2087 are primes, we only need to consider the families 2{0}7 and 28{0}7 (since any digit combo 08 or 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 2{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** All numbers of the form 28{0}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (2,9):
** 29 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,3):
** Since 31, 37, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,9):
** Since 31, 37, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 349 are primes, we only need to consider the family 3{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 3{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (4,1):
** 41 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,3):
** 43 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** 47 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,9):
** Since 41, 43, 47, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89, 409, 449, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{6}9 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,1):
** Since 53, 59, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 521 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 881 is prime, we only need to consider the families 5{0,5}1 and 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 (since any digit combo 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 5{0,5}1 family, since 5051 and 5501 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}1 and 5{5}1 (since any digit combo 05 or 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 5{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 5{5}1 is 555555555551
**** For the 5{0,5}8{0,5}1 family, since 5081, 5581, 5801, 5851 are primes, we only need to consider the number 581
***** 581 is not prime.
* Case (5,3):
** 53 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,7):
** Since 53, 59, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 557, 577, 587 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,2}7 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 227 and 50207 are primes, we only need to consider the families 5{0}7, 5{0}27, 52{0}7 (since any digits combo 22 or 020 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 5{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 5{0}27 is 5000000000000000000000000000027
**** The smallest prime of the form 52{0}7 is 5200007
* Case (5,9):
** 59 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,3):
** Since 61, 67, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,9):
** Since 61, 67, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 6{0,3,6,9}9 and 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 6{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 409, 43, 6469, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,3,6,9}49
***** Since 349, 6949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,6}49
****** Since 60649 is prime, we only need to consider the family 6{6}{0}49 (since any digits combo 06 between {6,49} will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form 6{6}49 is 666649
******** Since this prime has just 4 6's, we only need to consider the families with &lt;=3 6's
********* The smallest prime of the form 6{0}49 is 60000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 66{0}49 is 66000049
********* The smallest prime of the form 666{0}49 is 66600049
* Case (7,1):
** 71 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,3):
** 73 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 71, 73, 79, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 727, 757, 787 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,9):
** 79 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,1):
** Since 83, 89, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 821, 881 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0,5}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 8501 is prime, we only need to consider the family 8{0}{5}1 (since any digits combo 50 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** Since 80051 is prime, we only need to consider the families 8{0}1, 8{5}1, 80{5}1 (since any digits combo 005 between them will produce smaller primes)
***** All numbers of the form 8{0}1 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form 8{5}1 is 8555555555555555555551 (not minimal prime, since 555555555551 is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 80{5}1 is 80555551
* Case (8,3):
** 83 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** Since 83, 89, 17, 37, 47, 67, 97, 827, 857, 877, 887 are primes, we only need to consider the family 8{0}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 8{0}7 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (8,9):
** 89 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** Since 97, 11, 31, 41, 61, 71, 991 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,2,5,8}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 251, 281, 521, 821, 881, 9001, 9221, 9551, 9851 are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1, 9{0}2{0}1, 9{0}5{0,8}1, 9{0,5}8{0}1 (since any digits combo 00, 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,5,8}0{2,5,8}1 family, since any digits combo 22, 25, 28, 52, 55, 82, 85, 88 between (9,1) will produce smaller primes, we only need to consider the numbers 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 901, 9021, 9051, 9081, 9201, 9501, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0}2{0}1 family, since 9001 is prime, we only need to consider the numbers 921, 9201, 9021
***** None of 921, 9201, 9021 are primes.
**** For the 9{0}5{0,8}1 family, since 9001 and 881 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 951, 9051, 9501, 9581, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
**** For the 9{0,5}8{0}1 family, since 9001 and 5581 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801
***** 95801 is the only prime among 981, 9081, 9581, 9801, 90581, 95081, 95801, but it is not minimal prime since 5801 is prime.
* Case (9,3):
** Since 97, 13, 23, 43, 53, 73, 83 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,6,9}3 (since any digits 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}3 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (9,7):
** 97 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,9):
** Since 97, 19, 29, 59, 79, 89 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{0,3,4,6,9}9 (since any digits 1, 2, 5, 7, 8 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 449 is prime, we only need to consider the families 9{0,3,6,9}9 and 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 (since any digit combo 44 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 9{0,3,6,9}9 are divisible by 3, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{0,3,6,9}4{0,3,6,9}9 family, since 9049, 349, 9649, 9949 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{0,3,6,9}9
***** Since 409, 43, 499 are primes, we only need to consider the family 94{6}9 (since any digits 0, 3, 9 between (94,9) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form 94{6}9 is 946669

===Base 12===

The possible (first digit,last digit) combo for a quasi-minimal prime with ≥3 digits are:

(1,1), (1,5), (1,7), (1,B), (2,1), (2,5), (2,7), (2,B), (3,1), (3,5), (3,7), (3,B), (4,1), (4,5), (4,7), (4,B), (5,1), (5,5), (5,7), (5,B), (6,1), (6,5), (6,7), (6,B), (7,1), (7,5), (7,7), (7,B), (8,1), (8,5), (8,7), (8,B), (9,1), (9,5), (9,7), (9,B), (A,1), (A,5), (A,7), (A,B), (B,1), (B,5), (B,7), (B,B)

* Case (1,1):
** 11 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,5):
** 15 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,7):
** 17 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (1,B):
** 1B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,1):
** Since 25, 27, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 221, 241, 2A1, 2B1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** The smallest prime of the form 2{0}1 is 2001
* Case (2,5):
** 25 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,7):
** 27 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (2,B):
** Since 25, 27, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 2BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 2{0,2,9}B (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B, 200B, 202B, 222B, 229B, 292B, 299B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B (since any digits combo 00, 02, 22, 29, 90, 92, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 20B, 22B, 29B, 209B, 220B are primes.
* Case (3,1):
** 31 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,5):
** 35 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,7):
** 37 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (3,B):
** 3B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,1):
** Since 45, 4B, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 401, 421, 471 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{4,A}1 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since A41 and 4441 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{A}1 and 44{A}1 (since any digit combo 44, A4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{A}1 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 44{A}1 is 44AAA1
* Case (4,5):
** 45 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (4,7):
** Since 45, 4B, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 447, 497 are primes, we only need to consider the family 4{0,7}7 (since any digit 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4707 and 4777 are primes, we only need to consider the families 4{0}7 and 4{0}77 (since any digit combo 70, 77 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 4{0}7 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 4{0}77 is 400000000000000000000000000000000000000077
* Case (4,B):
** 4B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,1):
** 51 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,5):
** Since 51, 57, 5B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 565 are primes, we only need to consider the family 5{0,5,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 5{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (5,7):
** 57 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (5,B):
** 5B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,1):
** 61 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,5):
** Since 61, 67, 6B, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5, 655, 665 are primes, we only need to consider the family 6{0,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 6A05 and 6AA5 are primes, we only need to consider the families 6{0}5 and 6{0}A5 (since any digit combo A0, AA between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form 6{0}5 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form 6{0}A5 is 600A5
* Case (6,7):
** 67 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (6,B):
** 6B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,1):
** Since 75, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, 701, 721, 771, 7A1 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{4,B}1 (since any digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 7BB, 7441 and 7B41 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 741, 7B1, 74B1
**** None of 741, 7B1, 74B1 are primes.
* Case (7,5):
** 75 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (7,7):
** Since 75, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 747, 797 are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{0,7}7 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** All numbers of the form 7{0,7}7 are divisible by 7, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (7,B):
** Since 75, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 70B, 77B, 7BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 7{2,9}B (since any digits 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 222B, 729B is prime, we only need to consider the families 7{9}B, 7{9}2B, 7{9}22B (since any digits combo 222, 29 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}B is 7999B
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}2B is 79992B (not minimal prime, since 992B and 7999B are primes)
**** The smallest prime of the form 7{9}22B is 79922B (not minimal prime, since 992B is prime)
* Case (8,1):
** 81 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,5):
** 85 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,7):
** 87 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (8,B):
** 8B is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,1):
** 91 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,5):
** 95 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (9,7):
** Since 91, 95, 17, 27, 37, 57, 67, 87, A7, B7, 907 are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{4,7,9}7 (since any digit 0, 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 447, 497, 747, 797, 9777, 9947, 9997 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 (since any digits combo 44, 49, 74, 77, 79, 94, 99 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** None of 947, 977, 997, 9477, 9977 are primes.
* Case (9,B):
** Since 91, 95, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, 90B, 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the family 9{2,7,9}B (since any digit 0, 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, A, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 27, 77B, 929B, 992B, 997B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2,7}2{2}B, 97{2,9}B, 9{7,9}9{9}B (since any digits combo 27, 29, 77, 92, 97 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the 9{2,7}2{2}B family, since 27 and 77B are primes, we only need to consider the families 9{2}2{2}B and 97{2}2{2}B (since any digits combo 27, 77 between (9,2{2}B) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form 9{2}2{2}B is 9222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
***** The smallest prime of the form 97{2}2{2}B is 9722222222222B (not minimal prime, since 222B is prime)
**** For the 97{2,9}B family, since 729B and 929B are primes, we only need to consider the family 97{9}{2}B (since any digits combo 29 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
***** Since 222B is prime, we only need to consider the families 97{9}B, 97{9}2B, 97{9}22B (since any digit combo 222 between (97,B) will produce smaller primes)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
****** The smallest prime of the form 97{9}2B is 979999992B (not minimal prime, since 9999B is prime)
****** All numbers of the form 97{9}22B are divisible by 11, thus cannot be prime.
**** For the 9{7,9}9{9}B family, since 77B and 9999B are primes, we only need to consider the numbers 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B
***** None of 99B, 999B, 979B, 9799B, 9979B are primes.
* Case (A,1):
** Since A7, AB, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, A41 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,2,A}1 (since any digits 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 221, 2A1, A0A1, A201 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{A}{0}1 and A{A}{0}21 (since any digits combo 0A, 20, 22, 2A between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the A{A}{0}1 family:
***** All numbers of the form A{0}1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form AA{0}1 is AA000001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAA{0}1 is AAA0001
***** The smallest prime of the form AAAA{0}1 is AAAA1
****** Since this prime has no 0's, we do not need to consider the families {A}1, {A}01, {A}001, etc.
**** All numbers of the form A{A}{0}21 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
* Case (A,5):
** Since A7, AB, 15, 25, 35, 45, 75, 85, 95, B5 are primes, we only need to consider the family A{0,5,6,A}5 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, B between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 565, 655, 665, A605, A6A5, AA65 are primes, we only need to consider the families A{0,5,A}5 and A{0}65 (since any digits combo 56, 60, 65, 66, 6A, A6 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** All numbers of the form A{0,5,A}5 are divisible by 5, thus cannot be prime.
**** The smallest prime of the form A{0}65 is A00065
* Case (A,7):
** A7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (A,B):
** AB is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,1):
** Since B5, B7, 11, 31, 51, 61, 81, 91, B21 are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,4,A,B}1 (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 4B, AB, 401, A41, B001, B0B1, BB01, BB41 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{A}0{4,A}1, B{0,4}4{4,A}1, B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1, B{B}B{A,B}1 (since any digits combo 00, 0B, 40, 4B, A4, AB, B0, B4 between them will produce smaller primes)
**** For the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need consider the families B0{4}{A}1 and B{A}0{A}1
***** For the B0{4}{A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B0{4}1 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
***** For the B{A}0{A}1 family, since A0A1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A}01 and B0{A}1
****** The smallest prime of the form B{A}01 is BAA01
****** The smallest prime of the form B0{A}1 is B0AAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since AAAA1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, since 4441 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0}4{4,A}1 and B{0,4}4{A}1
***** For the B{0}4{4,A}1 family, since B001 is prime, we only need to consider the families B4{4,A}1 and B04{4,A}1
****** For the B4{4,A}1 family, since A41 is prime, we only need to consider the family B4{4}{A}1
******* Since 4441 and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the numbers B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1
******** None of B41, B441, B4A1, B44A1, B4AA1, B44AA1 are primes.
****** For the B04{4,A}1 family, since B04A1 is prime, we only need to consider the family B04{4}1
******* The smallest prime of the form B04{4}1 is B04441 (not minimal prime, since 4441 is prime)
***** For the B{0,4}4{A}1 family, since 401, 4441, B001 are primes, we only need to consider the families B4{A}1, B04{A}1, B44{A}1, B044{A}1 (since any digits combo 00, 40, 44 between (B,4{A}1) will produce smaller primes)
****** The smallest prime of the form B4{A}1 is B4AAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B04{A}1 is B04A1
****** The smallest prime of the form B44{A}1 is B44AAAAAAA1 (not minimal prime, since BAAA1 is prime)
****** The smallest prime of the form B044{A}1 is B044A1 (not minimal prime, since B04A1 is prime)
**** For the B{0,4,A,B}A{0,A}1 family, since all numbers in this family with 0 between (B,1) are in the B{A}0{4,A}1 family, and all numbers in this family with 4 between (B,1) are in the B{0,4}4{4,A}1 family, we only need to consider the family B{A,B}A{A}1
***** Since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{A,B}A1 and B{A,B}AA1
****** For the B{A,B}A1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}A1 and B{B}AA1
******* All numbers of the form B{B}A1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
****** For the B{A,B}AA1 family, since BAAA1 is prime, we only need to consider the families B{B}AA1
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}AA1 is BBBAA1
**** For the B{B}B{A,B}1 family, since AB and BAAA1 are primes, we only need to consider the families B{B}B1, B{B}BA1, B{B}BAA1 (since any digits combo AB or AAA between (B{B}B,1) will produce smaller primes)
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}B1 is BBBB1
***** All numbers of the form B{B}BA1 are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** The smallest prime of the form B{B}BAA1 is BBBAA1
* Case (B,5):
** B5 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,7):
** B7 is prime, and thus the only minimal prime in this family.
* Case (B,B):
** Since B5, B7, 1B, 3B, 4B, 5B, 6B, 8B, AB, B2B are primes, we only need to consider the family B{0,9,B}B (since any digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, A between them will produce smaller primes)
*** Since 90B and 9BB are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}{9}B
**** Since 9999B is prime, we only need to consider the families B{0,B}B, B{0,B}9B, B{0,B}99B, B{0,B}999B
***** All numbers of the form B{0,B}B are divisible by B, thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}9B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}9B and B{B}9B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,9B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}9B is B0000000000000000000000000009B
******* All numbers of the from B{B}9B is either divisible by 11 (if totally number of B's is even) or factored as 10^(2*n)-21 = (10^n-5) * (10^n+5) (if totally number of B's is odd number 2*n-1 (n≥1)) (and since if n≥1, 10^n-5 ≥ 10^1-5 = 7 &gt; 1, 10^n+5 ≥ 10^1+5 = 15 &gt; 1, this factorization is nontrivial), thus cannot be prime.
***** For the B{0,B}99B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}99B and B{B}99B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,99B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}99B is B00099B
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}99B is BBBBBB99B
***** For the B{0,B}999B family:
****** Since B0B9B and BB09B are primes, we only need to consider the families B{0}999B and B{B}999B (since any digits combo 0B, B0 between (B,999B) will produce smaller primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{0}999B is B0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000999B, with 1765 0's, which can be written as B(0^1765)999B and equal the prime 11*12^1769+16967 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378273165 factordb]) ([http://factordb.com/cert.php?id=1100000002378273165 primality certificate]) (not minimal prime, since B00099B and B0000000000000000000000000009B are primes)
******* The smallest prime of the form B{B}999B is BBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBBB999B, with 245 B's, which can be written as (B^244)999B and equal the prime 12^248-3769 ([http://factordb.com/index.php?id=1100000002378270237 factordb]) (not minimal prime, since BBBBBB99B is prime)

== Examples of families which can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

It is not known if this problem is solvable:

Problem: Given strings ''x'', ''y'', ''z'', and a base ''b'', does there exist a prime number whose base-''b'' expansion is of the form ''x''{''y''}''z''?

It will be necessary for our algorithm to determine if families of the form ''x''{''y''}''z'' contain a prime &gt; ''b'' or not. We use two different heuristic strategies to show that such families contain no primes &gt; ''b''.

In the first strategy, we mimic the well-known technique of “covering congruences”, by finding some finite set ''S'' of primes ''p'' such that every number in a given family is divisible by some element of ''S''. In the second strategy, we attempt to find an algebraic factorization, such as difference-of-squares factorization, difference-of-cubes factorization, and Aurifeuillian factorization for numbers of the form ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;.

Examples of first strategy: (we can show that the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in ''S'', if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥1 for 5{1} in base 9 and 2{5} in base 11 and {4}D in base 16 and {8}F in base 16, ''n''≥0 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 10, all numbers of the form 4{6}9 are divisible by 7
* In base 6, all numbers of the form 4{0}1 are divisible by 5
* In base 15, all numbers of the form 9{6}8 are divisible by 11
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 5{1} are divisible by some element of {2, 5}
* In base 11, all numbers of the form 2{5} are divisible by some element of {2, 3}
* In base 14, all numbers of the form B{0}1 are divisible by some element of {3, 5}
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 6{4}7 are divisible by some element of {3, 5, 13}
* In base 13, all numbers of the form 3{0}95 are divisible by some element of {5, 7, 17}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}D are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {8}F are divisible by some element of {3, 7, 13}

Examples of second strategy: (we can show that both factors are &gt; 1, if ''n'' makes corresponding numbers &gt; ''b'' (i.e. ''n''≥2 for {1} in base 9, ''n''≥0 for 1{0}1 in base 8 and B{4}1 in base 16, ''n''≥1 for other examples), thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 9, all numbers of the form {1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 8, all numbers of the form 1{0}1 factored as sum of cubes
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{8} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 8{F} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {F}7 factored as difference of squares
* In base 9, all numbers of the form 3{1} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form {4}1 factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the form 1{5} factored as difference of squares
* In base 16, all numbers of the from {C}D factored as ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;
* In base 16, all numbers of the form B{4}1 factored as difference of squares

Examples of combine of the two strategies: (we can show that for the part of the first strategy, the corresponding numbers are &gt; all elements in S, and for the part of the second strategy, both factors are &gt; 1, if n makes corresponding numbers &gt; b, thus these factorizations are nontrivial)

* In base 14, numbers of the form 8{D} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 12, numbers of the form {B}9B are divisible by 13 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 14, numbers of the form {D}5 are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is even and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is odd
* In base 17, numbers of the form 1{9} are divisible by 2 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even
* In base 19, numbers of the form 1{6} are divisible by 5 if ''n'' is odd and factored as difference of squares if ''n'' is even

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 such that these families can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b'' ==

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-powers factorization

=== 1{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 1{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 1{0}5 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 1{0}6 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}7 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== 1{0}z ===

(none)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

(none)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {1} ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with ''r''&gt;1: Difference-of-''r''th-powers factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 4 (length 2), 8 (length 3), 16 (length 2), 27 (length 3), 36 (length 2), 100 (length 2), 128 (length 7), 196 (length 2), 256 (length 2), 400 (length 2), 512 (length 3), 576 (length 2), 676 (length 2))

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 1{2} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 1{3} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(''b''+2) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 361)
* ''b'' == 1 mod 2 such that 3(''b''+2) is square: Combine of finite covering set {2} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd) (such bases are 25, 73, 145, 241, 361, 505, 673, 865)

=== 1{4} ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(''b''+3) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization

=== 1{z} ===

(none)

=== 2{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 2{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2''b''−1 are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 25, 841)

=== {2}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 2(''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 49)

=== 2{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 3{0}2 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 3{0}4 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {3}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 3(2''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 121)

=== 3{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 4{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;

=== 4{0}3 ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {4}1 ===

* ''b'' such that ''b'' and 4(3''b''+1) are both squares: Difference-of-squares factorization (such bases are 16, 225)

=== 4{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 5{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 5{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}
* ''b'' = 6''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; with ''m'' == 2 or 3 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is odd) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is even) (such bases are 24, 54, 294, 384, 864, 1014)

=== 6{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== 6{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== 7{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

=== 7{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 83, 307 mod 455: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13} (such bases are 83, 307, 538, 762, 993)
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-cubes factorization

=== 8{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 20 mod 21: Finite covering set {3, 7}
* ''b'' == 47, 83 mod 195: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13} (such bases are 47, 83, 242, 278, 437, 473, 632, 668, 827, 863, 1022)
* ''b'' = 467: Finite covering set {3, 5, 7, 19, 37}
* ''b'' = 722: Finite covering set {3, 5, 13, 73, 109}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;: Sum-of-cubes factorization
* ''b'' = 128: Cannot have primes since 7''n''+3 cannot be power of 2

=== 8{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== 9{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== 9{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 32 mod 33: Finite covering set {3, 11}

=== A{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}

=== B{z} ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 11: Finite covering set {11}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 307: Finite covering set {5, 11, 29}
* ''b'' = 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}

=== C{0}1 ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 13: Finite covering set {13}
* ''b'' == 142 mod 143: Finite covering set {11, 13}
* ''b'' = 296, 901: Finite covering set {7, 11, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 562, 828, 900: Finite covering set {7, 13, 19}
* ''b'' = 563: Finite covering set {5, 7, 13, 19, 29}
* ''b'' = 597: Finite covering set {5, 13, 29}

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

(none)

=== {y}z ===

(none)

=== z{0}1 ===

(none)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;''r''&lt;/sup&gt; with odd ''r''&gt;1: Sum-of-''r''th-power factorization (some bases still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but they only have this prime, they are 128 (length 7), 216 (length 3), 343 (length 3), 729 (length 3))
* ''b'' = 4''m''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;: Aurifeuillian factorization of ''x''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;+4''y''&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; (base 4 still have primes, since for the corresponding length this factorization is trivial, but it only have this prime, at length 2)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}t ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 7: Finite covering set {7}

=== {z}u ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}
* ''b'' == 34 mod 35: Finite covering set {5, 7}

=== {z}v ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 5: Finite covering set {5}

=== {z}w ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 1 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}
* ''b'' == 14 mod 15: Finite covering set {3, 5}
* ''b'' = ''m''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;: Difference-of-squares factorization
* ''b'' == 4 mod 5: Combine of finite covering set {5} (when length is even) and difference-of-squares factorization (when length is odd)

=== {z}x ===

* ''b'' == 1 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}
* ''b'' == 0 mod 3: Finite covering set {3}

=== {z}y ===

* ''b'' == 0 mod 2: Finite covering set {2}

== Large known (probable) primes (length ≥10000) in these families (for bases 2≤''b''≤1024) ==

Format: base (length)

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

=== 1{0}1 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}2 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}3 ===

(none)

=== 1{0}4 ===

53 (13403)

113 (10647)

=== 1{0}z ===

113 (20089)

123 (64371)

=== 1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

(none)

=== 10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}) ===

208 (26682)

607 (11032)

828 (19659)

=== 11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1) ===

201 (31276)

222 (52727)

227 (36323)

327 (135983)

425 (11231)

710 (24112)

717 (37508)

719 (13420)

=== {1} ===

152 (270217)

184 (16703)

200 (17807)

311 (36497)

326 (26713)

331 (25033)

371 (15527)

485 (99523)

629 (32233)

649 (43987)

670 (18617)

684 (22573)

691 (62903)

693 (41189)

731 (15427)

752 (32833)

872 (10093)

932 (20431)

=== {1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}) ===

(none)

=== 1{z} ===

107 (21911)

170 (166429)

278 (43909)

303 (40175)

383 (20957)

515 (58467)

522 (62289)

578 (129469)

590 (15527)

647 (21577)

662 (16591)

698 (127559)

704 (62035)

845 (39407)

938 (40423)

969 (24097)

989 (26869)

=== 2{0}1 ===

101 (192276)

206 (46206)

218 (333926)

236 (161230)

257 (12184)

305 (16808)

467 (126776)

578 (44166)

626 (174204)

695 (94626)

752 (26164)

788 (72918)

869 (49150)

887 (27772)

899 (15732)

932 (13644)

=== 2{z} ===

432 (16003)

=== 3{0}1 ===

912 (132174)

=== 3{z} ===

72 (1119850)

212 (34414)

218 (23050)

270 (89662)

303 (198358)

312 (51566)

422 (21738)

480 (93610)

513 (38032)

527 (46074)

566 (23874)

650 (498102)

686 (16584)

758 (15574)

783 (12508)

800 (33838)

921 (98668)

947 (10056)

=== 4{0}1 ===

107 (32587)

227 (13347)

257 (160423)

355 (10990)

410 (144079)

440 (56087)

452 (14155)

482 (30691)

542 (15983)

579 (67776)

608 (20707)

635 (11723)

650 (96223)

679 (69450)

737 (269303)

740 (58043)

789 (149140)

797 (468703)

920 (103687)

934 (101404)

962 (84235)

=== 4{z} ===

14 (19699)

68 (13575)

254 (15451)

800 (20509)

=== 5{0}1 ===

326 (400786)

350 (20392)

554 (10630)

662 (13390)

926 (40036)

=== 5{z} ===

258 (212135)

272 (148427)

299 (64898)

307 (26263)

354 (25566)

433 (283919)

635 (36163)

678 (40859)

692 (45447)

719 (20552)

768 (70214)

857 (23083)

867 (61411)

972 (36703)

=== 6{0}1 ===

108 (16318)

129 (16797)

409 (369833)

522 (52604)

587 (24120)

643 (164916)

762 (11152)

789 (27297)

986 (21634)

=== 6{z} ===

68 (25396)

332 (15222)

338 (42868)

362 (146342)

488 (33164)

566 (164828)

980 (50878)

986 (12506)

1016 (23336)

=== 7{0}1 ===

398 (17473)

1004 (54849)

=== 7{z} ===

97 (192336)

170 (15423)

194 (38361)

202 (155772)

282 (21413)

283 (164769)

332 (13205)

412 (29792)

560 (19905)

639 (10668)

655 (53009)

811 (31784)

814 (17366)

866 (108591)

908 (61797)

962 (31841)

992 (10605)

997 (15815)

=== 8{0}1 ===

23 (119216)

53 (227184)

158 (123476)

254 (67716)

320 (52004)

410 (279992)

425 (94662)

513 (19076)

518 (11768)

596 (148446)

641 (87702)

684 (23387)

695 (39626)

785 (900326)

788 (11408)

893 (86772)

908 (243440)

920 (107822)

962 (47222)

998 (81240)

1013 (43872)

=== 8{z} ===

138 (35686)

412 (12154)

788 (11326)

990 (23032)

=== 9{0}1 ===

248 (39511)

592 (96870)

=== 9{z} ===

431 (43574)

446 (152028)

458 (126262)

599 (11776)

846 (12781)

=== A{0}1 ===

173 (264235)

198 (47665)

311 (314807)

341 (106009)

449 (18507)

492 (42843)

605 (12395)

708 (17563)

710 (31039)

743 (285479)

744 (137056)

786 (68169)

800 (15105)

802 (149320)

879 (25004)

929 (13065)

977 (125873)

986 (48279)

1004 (10645)

=== A{z} ===

368 (10867)

488 (10231)

534 (80328)

662 (13307)

978 (14066)

=== B{0}1 ===

710 (15272)

740 (33520)

878 (227482)

=== B{z} ===

153 (21660)

186 (112718)

439 (18752)

593 (16064)

602 (36518)

707 (10573)

717 (67707)

=== C{0}1 ===

68 (656922)

219 (29231)

230 (94751)

312 (21163)

334 (83334)

353 (20262)

359 (61295)

457 (10024)

481 (45941)

501 (20140)

593 (42779)

600 (11242)

604 (17371)

641 (26422)

700 (91953)

887 (13961)

919 (45359)

923 (64365)

992 (10300)

=== {#}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3) ===

(none)

=== {#}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2) ===

(none)

=== #{z} (for even bases b, # = b/2−1) ===

(none)

=== y{z} ===

38 (136212)

83 (21496)

113 (286644)

188 (13508)

401 (103670)

417 (21003)

458 (46900)

494 (21580)

518 (129372)

527 (65822)

602 (17644)

608 (36228)

638 (74528)

663 (47557)

723 (24536)

758 (50564)

833 (12220)

904 (13430)

938 (50008)

950 (16248)

=== z{0}1 ===

202 (46774)

251 (102979)

272 (16681)

297 (14314)

298 (60671)

326 (64757)

347 (69661)

363 (142877)

452 (71941)

543 (10042)

564 (38065)

634 (84823)

788 (13541)

869 (12289)

890 (37377)

953 (60995)

1004 (29685)

=== {z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family) ===

53 (21942)

124 (16426)

175 (31626)

188 (22036)

316 (48538)

365 (25578)

373 (24006)

434 (10090)

530 (11086)

545 (12346)

560 (15072)

596 (12762)

701 (12576)

706 (10656)

821 (13536)

833 (17116)

966 (14820)

983 (11272)

=== {z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y) ===

(none)

=== {z}1 ===

(none)

=== {z}y ===

317 (13896)

== Bases 2≤''b''≤1024 which have these families as unsolved families ==

Unsolved families are families which are neither primes (&gt;''b'') found nor can be ruled out as contain no primes &gt; ''b''

(using A−Z to represent digit values 10 to 35, z−a to represent digit values ''b''−1 to ''b''−26 (e.g. &quot;z&quot; means 1 in base 2, 2 in base 3, 3 in base 4, ..., 8 in base 9, 9 in base 10, A in base 11, B in base 12, ..., Y in base 35, Z in base 36, ...), only consider bases which these families are interpretable, e.g. digit &quot;7&quot; is only interpretable for bases ≥8, and digit &quot;u&quot; (means ''b''−6) is only interpretable for bases ≥7)

1{0}1: 38, 50, 62, 68, 86, 92, 98, 104, 122, 144, 168, 182, 186, 200, 202, 212, 214, 218, 244, 246, 252, 258, 286, 294, 298, 302, 304, 308, 322, 324, 338, 344, 354, 356, 362, 368, 380, 390, 394, 398, 402, 404, 410, 416, 422, 424, 446, 450, 454, 458, 468, 480, 482, 484, 500, 514, 518, 524, 528, 530, 534, 538, 552, 558, 564, 572, 574, 578, 580, 590, 602, 604, 608, 620, 622, 626, 632, 638, 648, 650, 662, 666, 668, 670, 678, 684, 692, 694, 698, 706, 712, 720, 722, 724, 734, 744, 746, 752, 754, 762, 766, 770, 792, 794, 802, 806, 812, 814, 818, 836, 840, 842, 844, 848, 854, 868, 870, 872, 878, 888, 896, 902, 904, 908, 922, 924, 926, 932, 938, 942, 944, 948, 954, 958, 964, 968, 974, 978, 980, 988, 994, 998, 1002, 1006, 1014, 1016 (length limit: ≥8388608)

1{0}2: 167, 257, 323, 353, 383, 527, 557, 563, 623, 635, 647, 677, 713, 719, 803, 815, 947, 971, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}3: 646, 718, 998 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}4: 139, 227, 263, 315, 335, 365, 485, 515, 647, 653, 683, 773, 789, 797, 815, 857, 875, 893, 939, 995, 1007 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}5

1{0}6

1{0}7

1{0}8

1{0}9

1{0}A

1{0}B

1{0}C

1{0}D

1{0}E

1{0}F

1{0}G

1{0}z: 173, 179, 257, 277, 302, 333, 362, 392, 422, 452, 467, 488, 512, 527, 545, 570, 575, 614, 622, 650, 677, 680, 704, 707, 734, 740, 827, 830, 851, 872, 886, 887, 902, 904, 908, 929, 932, 942, 947, 949, 962, 973, 1022 (length limit: 2000)

1{0}11 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 198, 213, 318, 327, 353, 375, 513, 591, 647, 732, 734, 738, 759, 948, 951, 957, 1013, 1014 (length limit: 2000)

10{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z}): 575 (length limit: 247000)

11{0}1 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{0}1): 813, 863, 962, 1017 (length limit: ≥100000)

{1}0z (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1} or {1}z): 137, 161, 167, 217, 229, 232, 253, 261, 317, 325, 337, 347, 355, 375, 403, 411, 421, 427, 457, 479, 483, 505, 507, 537, 547, 577, 597, 599, 601, 613, 627, 631, 632, 641, 643, 649, 657, 679, 688, 697, 707, 711, 729, 733, 737, 742, 762, 773, 787, 793, 797, 817, 819, 841, 843, 853, 859, 861, 874, 877, 895, 899, 907, 913, 916, 917, 927, 957, 959, 997, 1003, 1009, 1015, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{1}: 185, 269, 281, 380, 384, 385, 394, 452, 465, 511, 574, 601, 631, 632, 636, 711, 713, 759, 771, 795, 861, 866, 881, 938, 948, 951, 956, 963, 1005, 1015 (length limit: ≥100000)

11{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form 1{z})

{1}2 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 31, 61, 91, 93, 143, 247, 253, 293, 313, 329, 371, 383, 391, 393, 403, 415, 435, 443, 451, 491, 493, 513, 523, 527, 537, 541, 553, 565, 581, 587, 601, 613, 615, 623, 627, 635, 663, 729, 735, 757, 763, 775, 783, 823, 843, 865, 873, 877, 883, 897, 931, 941, 943, 955, 983, 1013, 1015, 1021, 1023 (length limit: 2000)

{1}z

1{2}: 265, 355, 379, 391, 481, 649, 661, 709, 745, 811, 877, 977 (length limit: 2000)

1{3}: 107, 133, 179, 281, 305, 365, 473, 485, 487, 491, 535, 541, 601, 617, 665, 737, 775, 787, 802, 827, 905, 911, 928, 953, 955, 995

1{4}: 83, 143, 185, 239, 269, 293, 299, 305, 319, 325, 373, 383, 395, 431, 471, 503, 551, 577, 581, 593, 605, 617, 631, 659, 743, 761, 773, 781, 803, 821, 857, 869, 897, 911, 917, 923, 935, 983, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

1{z}: 581, 992, 1019 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}1: 365, 383, 461, 512, 542, 647, 773, 801, 836, 878, 908, 914, 917, 947, 1004 (length limit: ≥100000)

2{0}3: 79, 149, 179, 254, 359, 394, 424, 434, 449, 488, 499, 532, 554, 578, 664, 683, 694, 749, 794, 839, 908, 944, 982 (length limit: 2000)

2{1} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {1}): 109, 117, 137, 147, 157, 175, 177, 201, 227, 235, 256, 269, 271, 297, 310, 331, 335, 397, 417, 427, 430, 437, 442, 451, 465, 467, 481, 502, 517, 547, 557, 567, 572, 577, 591, 597, 607, 627, 649, 654, 655, 667, 679, 687, 691, 697, 715, 727, 739, 759, 766, 782, 787, 796, 797, 808, 817, 821, 829, 841, 852, 877, 881, 899, 903, 907, 937, 947, 955, 1007, 1011, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{2}1: 106, 238, 262, 295, 364, 382, 391, 397, 421, 458, 463, 478, 517, 523, 556, 601, 647, 687, 754, 790, 793, 832, 872, 898, 962, 1002, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

2{z}: 588, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}1: 718 (length limit: ≥100000)

3{0}2: 223, 283, 359, 489, 515, 529, 579, 619, 669, 879, 915, 997 (length limit: 2000)

3{0}4: 167, 391, 447, 487, 529, 653, 657, 797, 853, 913, 937 (length limit: 2000)

{3}1: 79, 101, 189, 215, 217, 235, 243, 253, 255, 265, 313, 338, 341, 378, 379, 401, 402, 413, 489, 498, 499, 508, 525, 535, 589, 591, 599, 611, 621, 635, 667, 668, 681, 691, 711, 717, 719, 721, 737, 785, 804, 805, 813, 831, 835, 837, 849, 873, 911, 915, 929, 933, 941, 948, 959, 999, 1013, 1019 (length limit: 2000)

3{z}: 275, 438, 647, 653, 812, 927, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}1: 32, 53, 155, 174, 204, 212, 230, 332, 334, 335, 395, 467, 512, 593, 767, 803, 848, 875, 1024 (length limit: ≥100000)

4{0}3: 83, 88, 97, 167, 188, 268, 289, 293, 412, 419, 425, 433, 503, 517, 529, 548, 613, 620, 622, 650, 668, 692, 706, 727, 763, 818, 902, 913, 937, 947, 958 (length limit: 2000)

{4}1: 46, 77, 103, 107, 119, 152, 198, 203, 211, 217, 229, 257, 263, 291, 296, 305, 332, 371, 374, 407, 413, 416, 440, 445, 446, 464, 467, 500, 542, 545, 548, 557, 566, 586, 587, 605, 611, 614, 632, 638, 641, 653, 659, 698, 701, 731, 733, 736, 755, 786, 812, 820, 821, 827, 830, 887, 896, 899, 901, 922, 923, 935, 941, 953, 977, 983, 991, 1004 (length limit: 2000)

4{z}: 338, 998 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{0}1: 308, 512, 824 (length limit: ≥100000)

5{z}: 234, 412, 549, 553, 573, 619, 750, 878, 894, 954 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{0}1: 212, 509, 579, 625, 774, 794, 993, 999 (length limit: ≥100000)

6{z}: 308, 392, 398, 518, 548, 638, 662, 878 (length limit: ≥100000)

7{0}1: (none)

7{z}: 321, 328, 374, 432, 665, 697, 710, 721, 727, 728, 752, 800, 815, 836, 867, 957, 958, 972 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{0}1: 86, 140, 182, 263, 353, 368, 389, 395, 422, 426, 428, 434, 443, 488, 497, 558, 572, 575, 593, 606, 698, 710, 746, 758, 770, 773, 824, 828, 866, 911, 930, 953, 957, 983, 993, 1014 (length limit: ≥100000)

8{z}: 378, 438, 536, 566, 570, 592, 636, 688, 718, 830, 852, 926, 1010 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{0}1: 724, 884 (length limit: ≥100000)

9{z}: 80, 233, 530, 551, 611, 899, 912, 980 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{0}1: 185, 338, 417, 432, 614, 668, 773, 863, 935, 1000 (length limit: ≥100000)

A{z}: 214, 422, 444, 452, 458, 542, 638, 668, 804, 872, 950, 962 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{0}1: 560, 770, 968 (length limit: ≥100000)

B{z}: 263, 615, 912, 978 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{0}1: 163, 207, 354, 362, 368, 480, 620, 692, 697, 736, 753, 792, 978, 998, 1019, 1022 (length limit: ≥100000)

C{z}

D{0}1

D{z}

E{0}1

E{z}

F{0}1

F{z}

G{0}1

{&amp;#35;}$ (for bases ''b'' == 1 mod 3, # = (''b''−1)/3, $ = (''b''+2)/3): 808, 829, 859, 1006 (length limit: 2000)

{&amp;#35;}$ (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2): 31, 37, 55, 63, 67, 77, 83, 89, 91, 93, 97, 99, 107, 109, 117, 123, 127, 133, 135, 137, 143, 147, 149, 151, 155, 161, 177, 179, 183, 189, 193, 197, 207, 211, 213, 215, 217, 223, 225, 227, 233, 235, 241, 247, 249, 255, 257, 263, 265, 269, 273, 277, 281, 283, 285, 287, 291, 293, 297, 303, 307, 311, 319, 327, 347, 351, 355, 357, 359, 361, 367, 369, 377, 381, 383, 385, 387, 389, 393, 397, 401, 407, 411, 413, 417, 421, 423, 437, 439, 443, 447, 457, 465, 467, 469, 473, 475, 481, 483, 489, 493, 495, 497, 509, 511, 515, 533, 541, 547, 549, 555, 563, 591, 593, 597, 601, 603, 611, 615, 619, 621, 625, 627, 629, 633, 635, 637, 645, 647, 651, 653, 655, 659, 663, 667, 671, 673, 675, 679, 683, 687, 691, 693, 697, 707, 709, 717, 731, 733, 735, 737, 741, 743, 749, 753, 755, 757, 759, 765, 767, 771, 773, 775, 777, 783, 785, 787, 793, 797, 801, 807, 809, 813, 817, 823, 825, 849, 851, 853, 865, 867, 873, 877, 887, 889, 893, 897, 899, 903, 907, 911, 915, 923, 927, 933, 937, 939, 941, 943, 945, 947, 953, 957, 961, 967, 975, 977, 983, 987, 993, 999, 1003, 1005, 1009, 1017 (length limit: ≥262143)

&amp;#35;{z} (for even bases ''b'', # = ''b''/2−1): 108, 278, 296, 338, 386, 494, 626, 920 (length limit: 2000)

${&amp;#35;} (for odd bases ''b'', # = (''b''−1)/2, $ = (''b''+1)/2)

x{z}

y{z}: 128, 233, 268, 383, 478, 488, 533, 554, 665, 698, 779, 863, 878, 932, 941, 1010 (length limit: ≥200000)

z{0}1: 123, 342, 362, 422, 438, 479, 487, 512, 542, 602, 757, 767, 817, 830, 872, 893, 932, 992, 997, 1005, 1007 (length limit: ≥100000)

{y}z: 143, 173, 176, 213, 235, 248, 253, 279, 327, 343, 353, 358, 373, 383, 401, 413, 416, 427, 439, 448, 453, 463, 481, 513, 522, 527, 535, 547, 559, 565, 583, 591, 598, 603, 621, 623, 653, 659, 663, 679, 691, 698, 711, 743, 745, 757, 768, 785, 793, 796, 801, 808, 811, 821, 835, 845, 847, 853, 856, 883, 898, 903, 927, 955, 961, 971, 973, 993, 1005, 1013, 1019, 1021 (length limit: 2000)

{z0}z1 (almost cannot be quasi-minimal prime, since this is not simple family): 97, 103, 113, 186, 187, 220, 304, 306, 309, 335, 414, 416, 428, 433, 445, 459, 486, 498, 539, 550, 557, 587, 592, 597, 598, 617, 624, 637, 659, 665, 671, 677, 696, 717, 726, 730, 740, 754, 766, 790, 851, 873, 890, 914, 923, 929, 943, 944, 965, 984, 985, 996, 1004, 1005 (length limit: ≥17326)

zy{z} (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form y{z})

{z}yz (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}y): 215, 353, 517, 743, 852, 899, 913 (length limit: 2000)

{z}01 (not quasi-minimal prime if there is smaller prime of the form {z}1)

{z}1: 93, 113, 152, 158, 188, 217, 218, 226, 227, 228, 233, 240, 275, 278, 293, 312, 338, 350, 353, 383, 404, 438, 464, 471, 500, 533, 576, 614, 641, 653, 704, 723, 728, 730, 758, 779, 788, 791, 830, 878, 881, 899, 908, 918, 929, 944, 953, 965, 968, 978, 983, 986, 1013 (length limit: 2000)

{z}k

{z}l

{z}m

{z}n

{z}o

{z}p

{z}q

{z}r

{z}s

{z}t

{z}u

{z}v

{z}w: 207, 221, 293, 375, 387, 533, 633, 647, 653, 687, 701, 747, 761, 785, 863, 897, 905, 965, 1017 (length limit: 2000)

{z}x: (none)

{z}y: 305, 353, 397, 485, 487, 535, 539, 597, 641, 679, 731, 739, 755 (length limit: 2000)

== List of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families ==

[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list of lengths for quasi-minimal primes in some simple families for bases 2≤''b''≤1024]

NB: this family is not interpretable in this base (e.g. family 7{0}1 and 7{z} in bases &lt;=7, family {z}x in bases &lt;=3) (including the case which this family has either leading zeros (leading zeros do not count) or ending zeros (numbers ending in zero cannot be prime &gt; base) in this base)

RC: this family can be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

unknown: this family has no primes or PRPs found, nor can this family be proven to only contain composite numbers (only count numbers &gt; base)

Background color: red for title (bases or families), green for length &gt; 10000, orange for 2500 &lt; length ≤ 10000, white for length ≤ 2500, cyan for &quot;RC&quot;, pink for &quot;NB&quot;, yellow for &quot;unknown&quot;.

Search limit for lengths: ≥8388608 for 1{0}1, ≥200000 for y{z}, ≥100000 for ''d''{0}1 (''d'' = one of digits in {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C}) and ''d''{z} (''d'' = one of digits in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B}) and z{0}1 and {1}, ≥5000 for 1{0}2, {z}y, 1{0}z, {z}1, {y}z, ≥2500 for other families.

== References ==

* [https://mersenneforum.org/showthread.php?t=24972 mersenneforum thread of this problem]

* [https://docs.google.com/document/d/e/2PACX-1vQct6Hx-IkJd5-iIuDuOKkKdw2teGmmHW-P75MPaxqBXB37u0odFBml5rx0PoLa0odTyuW67N_vn96J/pub Minimal elements for the base ''b'' representations of the primes which are &gt; ''b'' for bases ''b''≤16]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/glossary/xpage/MinimalPrime.html article “minimal prime” in The Prime Glossary]

* [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_prime_(recreational_mathematics article “minimal prime” in Wikipedia]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/puzzles/puzz_178.htm the puzzle of minimal primes (when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required) in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://www.primepuzzles.net/problems/prob_083.htm the problem of minimal primes in The Prime Puzzles &amp; Problems Connection]

* [https://github.com/xayahrainie4793/non-single-digit-primes my data for these M(Lb) sets for 2 ≤ b ≤ 16]

* [http://www.cs.uwaterloo.ca/~shallit/Papers/minimal5.pdf Shallit’s proof of base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://scholar.colorado.edu/downloads/hh63sw661 proofs of minimal primes in bases b≤10, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/reports/mepn.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://cs.uwaterloo.ca/~cbright/talks/minimal-slides.pdf the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://doi.org/10.1080/10586458.2015.1064048 the article for this minimal prime problem in bases b≤30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://github.com/curtisbright/mepn-data data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 30, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 1000000 for b=17, 707000 for b=19, 506000 for b=21, 292000 for b=25, 486000 for b=26, 543000 for b=28, 233000 for b=29]

* [https://github.com/RaymondDevillers/primes data for these M(Lb) sets and unsolved families for 2 ≤ b ≤ 50, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required, search limits of lengths: 10000 for all b]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/article/730 article for minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.bitman.name/math/table/497 data for minimal primes in bases 2 ≤ b ≤ 16, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/sierp.html the Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/rieselprob.html the Riesel problem]

* [https://oeis.org/A076336/a076336c.html the dual Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Sierp-conjectures.htm generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/Riesel-conjectures.htm generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030, some primes found in these conjectures are minimal primes in base b, especially, all primes for k&amp;lt;b (if exist for a (k,b) combo) are always minimal primes in the base b) (also some examples for simple families contain no primes &amp;gt; b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/tab/CRUS_tab.htm list for the status of the generalized Sierpinski conjectures and the generalized Riesel conjectures in bases b≤1030]

* [https://www.utm.edu/staff/caldwell/preprints/2to100.pdf article for generalized Sierpinski conjectures in bases b≤100]

* [http://www.kurims.kyoto-u.ac.jp/EMIS/journals/INTEGERS/papers/i61/i61.pdf article for the mixed (original+dual) Sierpinski problem]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenRepu.txt generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤160, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://web.archive.org/web/20021111141203/http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~aads/primes.html generalized repunit primes (primes of the form (bn−1)/(b−1)) in bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://jeppesn.dk/generalized-fermat.html generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1000, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.noprimeleftbehind.net/crus/GFN-primes.htm generalized Fermat primes (primes of the form b2^n+1) in even bases b≤1030, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [http://www.fermatquotient.com/PrimSerien/GenFermOdd.txt list of generalized half Fermat primes (primes of the form (b2^n+1)/2) sorted by n, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://harvey563.tripod.com/wills.txt primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, the smallest such prime for base b (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MM_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn−1 for bases b≤2049, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Williams_prime_MP_least the smallest primes of the form (b−1)*bn+1 for bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Riesel_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn−1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://www.rieselprime.de/ziki/Proth_prime_small_bases_least_n the smallest primes of the form k*bn+1 for k≤12 and bases b≤1024, these primes (if exists) is always minimal prime in base b if b&gt;k]

* [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/2PACX-1vTKkSNKGVQkUINlp1B3cXe90FWPwiegdA07EE7-U7sqXntKAEQrynoI1sbFvvKriieda3LfkqRwmKME/pubhtml list for the smallest primes in given simple family in bases b≤1024]

* [https://www.rose-hulman.edu/~rickert/Compositeseq/ a problem related to this project]

* [http://www.worldofnumbers.com/Appending%201s%20to%20n.txt a problem related to this project]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primecount.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by count]

* [https://stdkmd.net/nrr/prime/primedifficulty.txt near- and quasi- repdigit (probable) primes sorted by difficulty]

* [http://www.prothsearch.com/fermat.html factoring status of Fermat numbers]

* [http://www.rieselprime.de/dl/CRUS_pack.zip srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, pfgw, and llr softwares]

* [https://www.bc-team.org/app.php/dlext/?cat=3 srsieve, sr1sieve, sr2sieve, sr5sieve software]

* [https://sourceforge.net/projects/openpfgw/ pfgw software]

* [http://jpenne.free.fr/index2.html llr software]

* [http://www.ellipsa.eu/public/primo/primo.html PRIMO software]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/prove/index.html website for primality proving]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/curios/page.php?number_id=22380 the largest base 10 minimal prime in Prime Curios!]

* [https://oeis.org/A071062 OEIS sequence for base 10 minimal primes, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://oeis.org/A326609 OEIS sequence for the largest base b minimal prime, when the restriction of prime&gt;base is not required]

* [https://primes.utm.edu/primes/lists/all.txt top proven primes]

* [http://www.primenumbers.net/prptop/prptop.php top PRPs]

* [http://factordb.com online factor database, including many primes which are minimal primes in a small base]</text>
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      <text bytes="749" xml:space="preserve">The [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Major project|major project]] provides a scaffolded &quot;capstone&quot; experience and consists of four parts:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection|topic selection]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]

This project helps [[emerging scholars]] to bring together and demonstrate their applied psychology knowledge and skills to produce useful real-world resources. 

Consider adding this work to your resume and showcasing it in your [[w:Electronic portfolio|e-portfolio]].&lt;noinclude&gt;

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="37171" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Safety as a psychological need:&lt;br&gt;What is safety and what are its implications as a psychological need?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://youtu.be/ayudIkO5CxA}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
{{expand}}

== What is safety? ==
Safety is a perception that one &quot;feels safe&quot; and is &quot;confident that they will not be harmed&quot; (Gorman, 2010).

== Theories ==

=== Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ===
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs2.svg|thumb|302x302px|Figure 1. Five-tier model of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs was originally proposed by Abraham Maslow in his 1943 article, A Theory of Human Motivation, and was continually refined throughout his career (Maslow, 1943; Maslow &amp; Frager, 1987). The model examines human motivation and suggests an individual's basic needs must be met before they can begin to grow and develop. A pyramid is often used to represent the model and the identified needs at the base of the pyramid (deficiency needs) must be satisfied before higher needs (growth needs, which are physically higher on the pyramid) can be addressed (Figure 1; Figure 2).

==== Five-tier model ====
Maslow identified five key human needs influencing motivation (Figure 1):

# Physiological needs (e.g. food, water, air, shelter);
# Safety needs (e.g. safey{{sp}} and security);
# Social belonging and love needs (e.g. meaningful social, family, and community connections);
# Esteem needs (i.e. self-esteem and being held in esteem by others); and
# Self-actualisation needs (i.e. seeking and achieving growth and potential) (Malow{{sp}}, 1943).

Each need must be met for any further needs to be addressed.

==== Eight-tier model ====
[[File:Expanded Maslow's Needs.webp|thumb|305x305px|Figure 2. Eight-tier model of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs]]

Maslow later developed the model and added three additional needs (Figure 2):

# Cognitive needs (curiosity, knowledge, understanding, purpose, and predictability);
# Aesthetic needs (appreciation of aesthetic qualities in the environment); and
# Transcendence (motivation influenced by values that transcend oneself, e.g. religion, experiencing nature, and caring for others) (Maslow, 1970).

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs reflects safety and security as a psychological need by identifying the concepts as a foundational necessity for psychological functioning and higher achievement.

=== Attachment Theories ===
Attachment theory was first developed by John Bowlby (1950), who defined attachment as &quot;lasting psychological connectedness between human beings&quot; (Bowlby, 1969). He suggested a child's attachment to their parent is an evolutionary protective mechanism to ensure they receive safety and security, increasing the child's survival chances.  

Adult attachment styles are often consistent with attachment styles developed during childhood and adolescence (Kim et al., 2021). A systematic review and meta-analysis from 2021 found anxiety-related and avoidance-related attachment to parental figures were particularly persistent into adulthood, with external social relationships found to positively impact attachment styles that were avoidant but not anxious (Kim et al., 2021).

The level of parental involvement in childhood and adolescence can impact a child's attachment style to parents, caregivers, and peers. Overprotective parenting behaviours and unattainable expectations that restrict the autonomy and self-determination of the child can contribute to more anxious and/or avoidant attachment styles. This pattern presents commonly in families living in Asia or who have immigrated from Asian countries (Kim et al., 2012). Kim and colleagues (2012) studied families of South Korean descent living in the US, parenting styles, and attachment styles of the children. They found some cultural aspects of parentaing{{sp}}, including expectations of achievement for academic and extracurricular activities and of choice of university, career, and spouse, triggered anxiety, negatively impacted interpersonal relationships, and was associated with a negative self-concept. Anxious and avoidant attachment styles were more likely to be developed in childhood and continued into adult life (Kim et al., 2012). In contrast, underprotective and uninvolved parenting such as neglect has been associated with the same outcomes as overprotective parenting with high expectations (Bowlby, 1969). Attachment styles can affect an individual's functioning throughout adulthood.  

==== Types of Attachment ====
John Bowlby (1960) identified four styles of attachment: secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganised. A child's attachment style shapes their adult attachment style, although this can change over time. A secure attachment is formed when the caregiver appropriately and quickly responds to the child's needs. Avoidant attachments are formed when the child avoids interaction with the caregiver, likely due to previously unmet needs. Ambivalent attachments are formed in infants who are 'anxious' about being separate from their caregiver and 'clingy'. Disorganised attachment is often observed in infants with attachment disorders, as there is a confusing relationship between wanting their needs met and being fearful of their caregiver.

==== Stages of Attachment ====
{{expand}}

==== Schaffer &amp; Emerson ====
In 1964, Schaffer &amp; Emerson (1964) devised stages through observations to describe how infants form attachments to caregivers:

# Asocial;
# Indiscriminate attachment;
# Specific attachment; and
# Multiple attachment

The stages were based on measures of stranger anxiety, separation anxiety, and social referencing. According to their model, an infant aged 0-6 weeks will not necessarily respond to social stimuli and will produce age-appropriate facial expressions, such as a smile (asocial stage). After reaching 6 weeks of age, an infant will respond positively to any caregiver and will become distressed if interaction stops (indiscriminate attachment stage). Once the infant is 3 months of age, they will begin to recognise familiar caregivers. From 7-9 months of age, the infant will begin to prefer a single caregiver and fear strangers (specific period). During this time they will experience separation anxiety, such as if held by another caregiver. Infants aged 10 months and older begin to form multiple attachments with family members and familiar caregivers other than the primary caregiver (multiple attachment). Many infants will have developed attachments to multiple caregivers by 18 months of age, which are often hierarchical in nature. Stronger attachments were had with caregivers who quickly and correctly met the infant's needs, rather than who spends the most time with the infant.{{fact}}

==== Ainsworth ====
Ainsworth developed four stages of attachment (Ainsworth, 1970; Ainsworth 2014):

# Pre-attachment;
# Attachment in the making;
# Clear-cut attachment; and
# Goal-corrected partnership.

Hierarchical Attachment Representations

An improved hierarchical structure was proposed in 2016 to further describe attachment models that include attachment elements specific to relationships (Gillath et al., 2016). They posited that attachment-specific behaviours are not constant and are influenced by specific interpersonal relationships, the context, and episodic factors. Episodic factors are temporary influences on attachment and may include goals and behavioural strategies. 

==== The Self Regulation Model of Attachment Trauma and Addiction ====
[[File:Self-Regulation Model of Attachment Trauma and Addition.jpg|thumb|545x545px|Figure 3. The self-regulation model of attachment trauma and addition.]]

The self-regulation model of attachment trauma and addiction (SRM) related trauma-related attachment disorder with self-regulation difficulties (Padykula &amp; Conklin, 2009). It was developed to provide a clinical perspective of addiction and trauma, and how they are impacted by attachment, particularly disordered attachment. The model suggests trauma can &quot;injure&quot; an individual's attachment style and ability to self-regulate, and suggests sustance{{sp}} use is an effort to self-regulate to cope with the injured attachment system and experienced trauma. The benefits of this model are that multiple contributing factors are considered when working with individual and it informs a method to measure and identify addictive behaviours and various presentations of self-regulation.

The SRM suggests the concept of dialectical poles of self-regulation (Figure 3). Every individual falls along a multi-faceted spectrum of over or under-regulation regarding:

* Behaviour (pathological caretaking ↔ harm to self and/or others);
* Physiology (hyperarousal ↔ dissassociation);
* Affect (over-emote ↔ alexithymia);
* Interpersonal domains (pathological dependence ↔ counterdependence);
* Cognition (negative self-concept ↔ positive self-concept); and 
* Self-pathological (grandiosity ↔ self-loathing).  
For individuals suffering with addiction and a history of trauma, such as in this model, chronic dysregulation is often experienced at extreme ends of the various dialectical poles. 

Disrupted and disordered attachment resulting from trauma results from feeling unsafe and insecure. Safety is foundational psychological need to assist with functional self-regulation.{{fact}}

== Childhood Experiences of Trauma ==
Trauma is an emotional response to an individual's experience that they perceive as stressful and are unable to manage the associated emotions. Trauma can result in trauma disorders such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), acute stress disorder (ASD), reactive attachment disorder (RAD), disinhibited social engagement disorder (DSED), adjustment disorders, and other related disorders. While the impact of trauma is caused by a psychological response, the responses and possibly disorders that follow can have overwhelmingly physical, as well as psychological, symptoms (Wamser-Nanny &amp; Vandenberg, 2013).

=== Common types of childhood trauma ===

* Abuse and neglect
* Unstable family home
* Exposure to family violence
* Natural disasters
* Perception.

=== Out of home care ===
There are three main forms of out of home care for children in Australia - kinship, foster, and residential care.

'''Kinship Care'''

When a child is first removed from their family, child protection bodies first seek to find an appropriate placement with kin, known as a kinship care placement. Kin can include immediate and extended family, friends, and other people in the child 's community, such as ex-step-parents. For children who are Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander, kinship placements are deemed the most appropriate placements to maintain vital connections to culture and community, which is a key feature of their culture. By keeping connection to community and culture, displaced children can reduce the number of changes presented by a new placement and the loss of stability and security. Along with case plans developed with a social worker or case manager to maintain and build capacity around care domains such as stability and security, cultural plans are common practice to help children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds continue to feel connected and continue positively learning and experiencing their culture.

Kinship care placements have the most favourable outcomes for children in out of home care, compared to other types of care. Children in kinship care will typically experience fewer behavioural issues and mental illnesses, improved well-being, and fewer placement moves than children in other forms of out-of-home care (Winokur et al., 2014). They are also more likely to successfully achieve permanency, such as Enduring Parental Responsibility (in Australian Capital Territory), compared to foster placements. This may be due to difficulties faced by blood relatives securing adoption rather than other forms of permanency, so as not to alter the family tree and the child's sense of family and belonging.

Kinship care placements are generally more stable and are more likely to end after placement restoration with the birth parents, rather than by relationship or placement breakdown (Perry et al., 2021). This may be due to fewer lifestyle changes and increased feelings of stability and security, resulting in less frequent and less severe behavioural issues, which are often the reason for placement breakdown (Font, 2015). Alternatively, this may be due to behavioural issues that present prior to placement impacting a child 's suitability for a kinship placement and the kinship carer's willingness and capacity to provide care (Font, 2015).

Adults who have transitioned to independence from kinship care placements report strong relationships with their kinships carers, very similar to the bond usually held by a child and their biological parent (Dolbin-Macnab et al., 2009). The increased stability, safety, and security from the caregiving relationships between children and their kinship carers can have significant psychological benefits for the child.

In Australia, kinship carers receive payments and can access further funds to cover the additional costs borne by caring for children, such as food, shelter, and medical needs. This is not the case for all countries or for informal kinship placements where child protective services are not officially involved. The unexpected placement of the child can lead to lack of money and financial insecurity, which becomes stressful for the carer and for the child. Research conducted in Denmark and USA found worse outcomes for kinship carers compared to foster carers - kinship carers receive less financial support, reduced access to respite care, reduced eligibility to access government financial support, and reduced access to professional and peer support (Sakai et al., 2011).

====== Foster Care ======
If no appropriate kinship care placements are available, a child may be placed with foster carers. This may be in a short-term placement initially, or planned to be long-term. 

Children who were initially placed in foster care at age 3 or less on average remained in their placements for 5 years longer than children who were placed at older than 3 (Oosterman et al., 2007). Neglect, abuse, family issues, and abandonment as reasons for entering the out of home care system were associated with a greater number of foster placements than were children voluntarily placed into care and behavioural issues.

While a child becomes more independent with age, they still require a sense of psychological security and safety, and this need is also reflected in children in the out of home care system (Kungl et al., 2019). Foster children however require greater and more frequent proximity and reassurance to feel the same sense of security and safety. This may be due to the relationship with the caregiver being newer than with a birth parent, meaning the relationship may still be progressing through the stages of attachment and the child is still forming a schema of their relationship with the caregiver (Kungl et al., 2019). When a child experiences their first and likely susequent placement breakdowns, their experiences of psychological safety are negatively impacted, feeling as though they cannot develop safe attachments with caregivers due to their own self-esteem, fear of being judged or not accepted, and they do not expect they will benefit from the developing an attachment long-term. This is mirrored across all types of out of home care. Placement stability is a necessity to ensure safety, and in turn, psychological wellbeing.

====== Residential Care ======
Children placed in residential care often do not feel safe in their placement and experience difficulties developing safe and secure relationships with caregivers and peers. Attachment disorders are common in children in residential care. This is often resulting from the trauma they experienced with their birth families prior to removal from home, the trauma of the removal, the trauma of multiple placement breakdowns, and the inability to form secure attachments with residential carers due to high staff turnover, casual staff rosters, and the rotating roster of staff. Trauma-informed case management can protect from further psychological harm and promote psychological healing of children, young people, carers, and families who have experienced trauma (Topitzes et al., 2019). Ongoing connection to their birth family, where safe and appropriate, can maintain a sense of belonging and psychological safety for the child (Collings et al., 2021). This is particularly important for children Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander descent, given the cultural importance of family and community and the very recent Stolen Generation.

===== Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy =====
Dyadic Developmental Psychotherapy (DDP) was developed by Dan Hughes and is a form of family therapy used to support primarily with attachments and feelings of safety and security within relationships between children and their caregivers (Becker‐Weidman &amp; Hughes, 2008). DDP focuses on developing the understanding and abilities of the child, caregiver, and therapist to attune to each other's needs, with the therapist removed from the therapeutic relationship after the capacity is sufficiently developed. DDP is funded by some public health systems, such as through Canberra, Australia's public Child at Risk Health Unit (CARHU). By increasing the child and caregiver's attunement to needs, they can each exist in the relationship with healthier attachments and more psychological safety and security.

===== Cognitive Behavioural Therapy =====
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) can be an effective therapy for assisting with healing from various forms of trauma, including domestic abuse and childhood trauma. CBT is a very common form of therapy in Australia and is publicly funded under Medicare.

==== Therapeutic Life Story Work ====
A child's understanding of where they come from and their journey, or life story, to their present experience is a crucial element of healing from the trauma and lack of safety experienced by the child. Life story work promotes trust, feelings of safety, and ability to adapt to changes (Coman &amp; Rainey, 2016).

== Domestic Abuse and Wellbeing ==
Domestic abuse, otherwise known as domestic violence or intimate partner violence, is defined by Wong and Bouchard (2021) as &quot;any act of physical violence (e.g., punching, choking, slapping) or psychological abuse (e.g., manipulation, verbal assault, threatening) that occurs between current or former partners/spouses [and] can also include sexual harm (e.g., coerced sex, sexual assault) and economic abuse (e.g., financial control/deprivation)&quot;. Domestic abuse is illegal in Australia and many countries across the world. Survivors of domestic violence are facing overwhelmingly unsafe environments, which negatively impacts psychological wellbeing.

Help-seeking behaviours for domestic abuse vary across different groups. Survivors who are Black Muslim women in America may first seek help first from social and community, religious, professional services, and finally law enforcement (Oyewuwo-Gassikia, 2020). Female survivors are more likely to suffer abuse for many years before seeking help, compared to male survivors who on average seek help after six months of suffering abuse. Male survivors are more likely to suffer psychological abuse and less likely to report the abuse, while female survivors more likely to suffer physical, financial, and a combination of abuse (Peraica et al., 2021). Help-seeking may be inhibited by lack of knowledge of options, accommodation insecurity, financial insecurity, lack of social support, fear of losing one's children, fear of the abusive partner, and the complex psychological mechanisms involved in domestic abuse (Weatherall &amp; Tennent, 2021).

Increasing and maintaining social and community support, engagement in education and employment, capacity-building, and formal support services for domestic violence and other community services can serve as protective factors for domestic abuse and support survivors to break free of the abuse (Sinko et al., 2021).

Perpetrator interventions can have varying success with reduction in and prevention of future abuse (Karakurt et al., 2019).

== Workplace Safety and Security ==
{{expand}}

=== Leadership and Performance ===
An employee's feelings of psychological safety at work and with the people they work with can be positively influenced by organisational leadership. Leaders have the power to enhance and improve employee psychological safety in the workplace to the benefit of the employee and the organisation. Leadership style and values play an important role in the psychological safety of employees. Consultation in the development and/or evaluation of processes or projects regarding the organisation and regarding decisions that will impact employees can assist employees to feel valued and feel a sense of control, which is important for psychological safety. Modelling the values a leader wishes to see in their employees such as participation, contribution, productivity, and support and acceptance of others can influence others to demonstrate and take on the same behaviours and values in the workplace (Wong et al., 2010).The same applies inversely. Psychologically unsafe workplace cultures, which can be fostered by leaders, can lead to burnout and poor performance (Hoprekstad et al., 2019). Aggression and bullying in the workplace is very common in the healthcare sector, resulting in a psychologically unsafe working environment. Europe's healthcare sector has one of the highest rates of workplace violence, with up to 90% of staff suffering verbal abuse, 64% verbal threats, and 32% physical violence (Pompeii et al., 2013). The negative environment can cause employees to experience sadness, anger, and fear, resulting in counter-productive work behaviour (Fida et al., 2018). Psychological safety is needed to improve and maintain psychological wellbeing.

Psychological safety is a necessity for effective employee workplace performance. Employees need to feel they can suggest ideas, work with others, and attempt creative solutions to problem-solving. Psychological safety is needed to mediate the risk of being viewed as a social outcast for breaking the social norms and organisational traditions, offending another employee or leader for voicing contrary beliefs, or being viewed as incompetent and a failure if the employee's input is not appropriate or successful (Newman et al., 2017). The employee alone is risking their social and professional reputation, their self-esteem and self-efficacy, and potentially future employment facilitated by maintaining positive professional networks. Without psychological safety, it is easy for the risks to simply not be taken, preventing future growth and development of the individual employee and the organisation. Fostering a culture where employees are comfortable expressing themselves, seeking and providing honest and constructive feedback, working with others, and take measured risks can increase psychological safety and mediate the aforementioned risks (Edmondson, 1999).

Increased feelings of psychological safety can improve the quality and frequency of information sharing. This can be influenced by feeling safe with organisational leaders such as an employee's direct supervisor, and the sense of trust, perceived approachability, and whether the employee believes they will receive judgement or support from their leader. It is important to note that organisations in collectivist societies are more likely to willingly share information with less prompting as it is seen as for the value of the organisational community to proactively share information (Yin et al., 2019). 

Reflection on past experiences can support future learning and development, which can be extremely beneficial for developing new and old sought-after skills, knowledge, and values. Organisational teams who are open to learning can more easily practice reflection, develop skills, knowledge and values, and alter their practice to better suit their own needs and organisational needs (Bunderson &amp; Sutcliffe, 2003). A culture of acceptance surrounding reflection can increase psychological safety, creating an environment where employees feel comfortable taking risks and asking for help, knowing their skills and experiences will be valued (Wong et al., 2010). This willingness to reflect and adapt can increase employee and organisational ability to adapt to new challenges, which can increase individual self-efficacy and control, improve the strength of the team, and increase workplace social support (Košir et al., 2015). These benefits are associated with preventing or reducing burnout. Increased psychological safety allows for individuals and teams to grow and change through reflection, resulting in improved organisational and individual outcomes.

=== Burnout ===
Burnout, or occupational burnout, is a syndrome resulting from a combination of cumulative and long-term occupational stress and individual differences (Salminen et al., 2017). The World Health Organization updated its definition of burnout in the 11th revision of the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) to be, &quot;1) feelings of energy depletion or exhaustion; 2) increased mental distance from one’s job, or feelings of negativism or cynicism related to one's job; and 3) a sense of ineffectiveness and lack of accomplishment&quot; (World Health Organization, 2018). Burnout can be measured with tools such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory (MBI), which utilises twenty-two questions to measure emotional exhaustion, depersonalisation, personal accomplishment, cynicism, and professional effifacy{{sp}}. Variations of the inventory exist for employees in human services, health professions, education, students, and a general inventory (Maslach et al., 2016).

While burnout results from chronic stress, it does not have to remain a chronic experience. Individuals recover from burnout and with effective self-care and environmental strategies, they can assist in the prevention of future burnout. Circumstantial burnout, resulting from environment and things the individual can control, can be treated and managed by problem-solving any pre-existing workplace challenges, enriching personal lives such as through hobbies and social supports, and taking a period of leave from work (Abedini et al., 2018). Existential burnout, resulting from questioning the meaning of the role and professional efficacy, can be treated and managed by the employee and others (e.g. supervisor) acknowledging the presence of the burnout, developing and strengthening meaningful workpace{{sp}} connections, rediscovering meaningful purpose within the work, and re-examining professional identity (Abedini et al., 2018).

== Conclusion ==
Maslow's hierarchy of needs identifies safety and security as a basic physiological and psychological requirement to reach the growth and development needed for positive psychological wellbeing. Attachment theories help to explain the underlying mechanisms of safe attachments to thrive in one's environment. Childhood trauma and involvement with the child protection system and out of home care is associated with a loss of safety and has many negative impacts psychologically, although many impacts can be mediated by a restoration of safety. Domestic abuse is another example of a loss of safety that through an increase of safety, the psychological wellbeing of both the survivor and the perpetrator can be improved. Safety in the workplace can be created and fostered by leaders and employees alike, and is necessary to recover from and treat burnout, and maintain psychological wellbeing. Safety is a psychological need that can be fostered and developed to meet the best possible outcomes.

== See also ==
{{ic|Use alphabetical order. Rename links so they are more user-friendly, as per Tutorial 1.}}

* [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Transgenerational trauma]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Stolen Generations and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Indigenous Australian transgenerational trauma and psychological well-being]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Childhood trauma and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Trauma-informed therapy]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Childhood neglect and emotion]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Vicarious trauma effects on the emotionality of mental health workers]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout]]

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Becker‐Weidman, A., &amp; Hughes, D. (2008). Dyadic developmental psychotherapy: an evidence‐based treatment for children with complex trauma and disorders of attachment. ''Child &amp; Family Social Work'', ''13''(3), 329-337.

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Gillath, O., Karantzas, G. C., &amp; Fraley, R. C. (2016). ''Adult attachment: A concise introduction to theory and research''. Academic Press.

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Hoprekstad, Ø. L., Hetland, J., Bakker, A. B., Olsen, O. K., Espevik, R., Wessel, M., &amp; Einarsen, S. V. (2019). How long does it last? Prior victimization from workplace bullying moderates the relationship between daily exposure to negative acts and subsequent depressed mood. ''European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology'', ''28''(2), 164-178.

Karakurt, G., Koç, E., Çetinsaya, E. E., Ayluçtarhan, Z., &amp; Bolen, S. (2019). Meta-analysis and systematic review for the treatment of perpetrators of intimate partner violence. ''Neuroscience &amp; Biobehavioral Reviews'', ''105'', 220-230.

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Kim, S., Baek, M., &amp; Park, S. (2021). Association of Parent–child Experiences with Insecure Attachment in Adulthood: A Systematic Review and Meta‐analysis. ''Journal Of Family Theory &amp; Review'', ''13''(1), 58-76. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1111/jftr.12402&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Košir, K., Tement, S., Licardo, M., &amp; Habe, K. (2015). Two sides of the same coin? The role of rumination and reflection in elementary school teachers' classroom stress and burnout. ''Teaching and Teacher Education'', ''47'', 131-141.

Kungl, M., Gabler, S., Bovenschen, I., Lang, K., Zimmermann, J., &amp; Spangler, G. (2019). Attachment, dependency, and attachment-related behaviors in foster children: A closer look at the nature of the foster child–caregiver relationship. ''Developmental Child Welfare'', ''1''(2), 107-123. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/2516103219845374&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maslach, C., Jackson, S. E., Leiter, M. P., Schaufeli, W. B., &amp; Schwab, R. L. (2016). Maslach burnout inventory manual. Menlo Park. ''CA: Mind Garden Inc''.

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. ''Psychological review'', ''50''(4), 370.

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__TOC__

==Overview==
[[File:Bindweed plant breaking through asphalt 8 - P1030678.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Growth needs drive and guide individuals towards their ultimate potential (Rogers, 1980)]]

Growth [[wikipedia:Need|needs]] emerge once basic [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs#Physiological_needs|physiological]] (i.e., biological disturbances such as hunger and thirst) and psychological (i.e., mental requirements such as [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs#Esteem_needs|esteem]] and [[wikipedia:Belongingness|belonging]]) needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943). These growth needs function to drive and guide individuals towards their ultimate potential - a process called [[wikipedia:Self-actualization|self-actualisation]] (Maslow, 1971).

When an individual pursues growth needs, they are subscribing (consciously or unconsciously) to a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Growth mindset development|growth mindset]], which may have a phenomenal influence on behaviour (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998). People who pursue growth needs embrace challenges, striving towards personal development through effort (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998), which positively affects their psychological health (Miu &amp; Yeager, 2015) and performance (O'Rouke et al., 2014). 

This chapter considers psychological theory and research evidence about growth needs, the influence of growth needs on behaviour, and how this information can be helpful for improving one's quality of life (see Figure 1). 

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|1}}}|title=Mindset exercise}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
#'''Reflect on these attitudes:'''
#*Intelligence is dynamic and something one can greatly improve.
#*Effort drives improvement
#*Intelligence is a generally  fixed value determined by genetics/upbringing and can only be marginally improved.
#*Effort implies a lack of talent/ability.
#'''Consider:'''
#*Which statements resonate with you the most?
#*Do your feelings towards intelligence or effort extend to other areas of your life (e.g., physical ability, career, finances)?
#*Consider that the latter attitudes reflect a fixed mindset, whereas the first two reflect a growth one. 
#*After reading through the chapter, return to this section to see if your mindset has shifted.
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|width=100%|title=Focus questions}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
*What are growth needs?
*What is a growth mindset?
*How does the behaviour of those who pursue growth needs differ from those who don't?
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== Needs ==
A need is an essential condition within an individual (Cannon, 1932). Supporting or undermining needs promotes or halts growth, well-being, and life respectively. Needs generate energised, goal-directed, and persistent action (i.e., [[wikipedia:Motivation|motivated]] behaviour; see Figure 2). How they differ from one another is through their influence on the direction of said behaviour (Murray, 1937). Needs can thus be categorised on the basis of the sort of behaviour they motivate. The sources of motivation that encourage eating and drinking are logically distinguishable from the needs that drives mastery of a hobby, for example.

=== Deficiency needs ===
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
'''Case study'''
It's a typical for Friday night in for Jane, who lives alone after moving away from home for university. Jane logs onto Facebook to check on what her friends are up to and see if anyone is online to chat. In this instance, the deficiency need for relatedness prompted Jane to seek out supportive interpersonal relationships via Facebook (Sheldon et al., 2011; Sheldon &amp; Schuler, 2011). 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Motivation diagram.png|thumb|''Figure 2''. Needs are one component of the three-factor model of internal motivation|450x450px]]

[[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs#Stages|Deficiency needs]] render an individual deprived in some way. This state of deprivation may loosely involve or directly pertain to a plethora of subjects including food, job security, group membership, or social status (Maslow, 1971). In the seminal paper ''A theory of human motivation'', Maslow (1943) posited a wildly popular, graded categorisation of needs: the [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs#Physiological_needs|hierarchy of human needs]] (see Figure 3). In this model, the more urgently a needs is felt (i.e., the more essential it is for sustaining life), the lower it appears on the pyramid. Physiological needs like oxygen, water, food, sex, sleep, and shelter form the foundation of the structure as crucial requirements for life. These are [[wikipedia:Homeostasis|homeostatic]] sources of motivation towards the behaviour necessary to avoid bodily damage that would otherwise result in biological decay, pathology, and death (Cannon, 1932).  

Each need presents itself sequentially. That is, each level of need generally arises after the previous demand is fulfilled. Table 1 depicts the order in which these deficiency needs typically present, as well as some of their common manifestations. It is important to note that the hierarchies are not strictly separate, but rather are closely interrelated (Maslow, 1954). As such, there is often overlap between the sections. Moreover, while recent research continues to empirically support much of Maslow's needs postulation (Noltemeyer et al., 2020), copious other research finds clear shortcomings (Goebel &amp; Brown, 1981; Alderfer, 1969).     

'''Table 1.'''     

''Psychological Deficiency Needs and Respective Examples (adapted from Maslow, 1971).'' 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Deficiency Need
!Examples
|-
|Safety
|[https://www.beyondblue.org.au/the-facts/what-is-mental-health Mental heath], [[wikipedia:Personal_security|personal security]], [[wikipedia:Emotional_security|emotional security]], [[wikipedia:Economic_security|financial security]] 
|-
|Love and Belonging
|[https://dictionary.apa.org/need-for-affiliation Affiliation], family, friendship, [[wikipedia:Intimacy|intimacy]]
|-
|Esteem Needs
|Respect, freedom/autonomy, status, [[wikipedia:Self-esteem|self-esteem]]
|}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=10}}
Deficiency needs are like vitamins; they are essential because their absence impedes physical and psychological development.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

[[File:Needs_Hierarchy.png|thumb|500x500px|''Figure 3''. Growth needs surface after deficiency needs are satisfied (Maslow, 1943).]]

=== Growth needs ===
Growth needs - or self-actualisation needs - are the impetus and compass which drive and guide individuals towards their ultimate potential (Rogers, 1980). While identifying previous needs is a relatively simple task (i.e., deficiency needs are the motivational force to combat a given deficiency), growth needs are a more obscure concept. In contrast to deficiency need's emergency-like motives, growth needs generate subtle feelings of restlessness, disconnectedness, and yearning (Maslow, 1943). These motives are felt less intensely within the individual but lead to outcomes infinitely more profound: to self-actualisation.

Growth needs motivate individuals towards self-actualisation (see Figure 4). However, without an accurate understanding of exactly what is meant by &quot;self-actualisation&quot;, this explanation is insufficient. Self-actualisation can be understood as the overarching control motive that combines the following 14 &quot;meta-needs&quot;: wholeness, truth, beauty, spontaneity, justice, simplicity, humour, transcendence, uniqueness, perfection, completion, richness or totality, effortlessness, and autonomy (Maslow,1971). 

As displayed by Table 2, self-actualisation is a [[Developmental psychology/Chapter 6/Play|developmental striving]] process consisting of two key directions: autonomy and openness to experience. Early humanistic work (Rogers, 1959) posited two concepts pertaining to self-actualisation: the [[wikipedia:Actualizing_tendency|actualising tendency]] and [[wikipedia:Actualizing_tendency#Application_to_psychotherapy|organismic valuing process]], which provide impetus (or &quot;forward thrust of life&quot;) and direction respectively. In other words, the actualising tendency fuels a person's desire to grow, and the organismic valuing process provides the person with an innate ability to discern whether certain experiences promote or hinder that growth (Rogers, 1964; Sheldon et al., 2003). In essence, self-actualisation is about leaving behind timidity, defensiveness, and dependence. It necessitates the courageous venturing towards creation, mastery, objective understanding, and self-regulation (Rogers, 1980).      

'''Table 2.''' 

''Trajectory and Consequences of Self-actualisation (adapted from Deci &amp; Ryan, 1991; Mittelman, 1991).''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Direction
!Implication
|-
|Autonomy 
|Moving away from [[wikipedia:Heteronomy|heteronomy]] and towards self-sufficiency. Independent regulation of thoughts, feelings and behaviour. 
|-
|Openness to experience
|Development of the ability to receive any information (e.g., facts, perceptual information, and/or feelings) without repressing, ignoring, filtering, or distorting it due to any source of bias (e.g., desires, fears, or past experience). 
|}

[[File:Deficiency_and_Growth_Needs.png|thumb|700x700px|''Figure 4.'' Growth needs lead to self-actualisation]]

One method of identifying growth needs is to note the pathological states that arise from their absence (Maslow, 1971). Table 3 provides some examples of growth needs and the negative psychological effects their absence may have on on a person's affect. Observing pathology is useful because it can simplify the challenging task of identifying growth needs by addressing symptoms like disintegration, dishonesty and humourlessness, rather than the more obscure sentiments of growth, development and potential.            

'''Table 3.'''          

''Absence of Growth Needs and Resultant Pathological States (adapted from Maslow, 1971).''         
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!Absent need 
!Pathological state
|-
|Wholeness 
|Disarray, confusion, overwhelming sense of chaos and disintegration 
|-
|Aliveness
|Apathy, disinterest, emotional detachment, humourlessness 
|-
|Individuality
|Low self-esteem, negative self-schema, insecurity 
|}

{{Robelbox|theme=3|title=Quiz|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt; 

Which of the following best exemplifies a '''growth need?'''}

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Hunger
- Thirst
- The desire to succeed academically 
+ The desire to learn

{'''Self-actualisation''' refers to:}

|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ The developmental striving whereby an individual seeks to achieve their ultimate abilities, capacities, and potentialities
- The developmental striving whereby an individual makes peace with their shortcomings 
- A fixed psychological phenomenon whereby individuals overestimate their potential
- An out-of-body experience. Individuals believe that their &quot;self&quot; has materially &quot;actualized&quot; 

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

== Growth needs on behaviour ==
Mindsets are mental frameworks used to interpret information and guide [[wikipedia:Cognition|cognition]] (i.e., perception, attention, knowledge formation, [[wikipedia:Working_memory|working memory]], etc.). Growth needs motivate people towards growth behaviours (e.g., skill mastery, challenging tasks, and deep learning). When people pursue this growth, they are nurturing what is called a growth mindset (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998).

=== Mindsets ===
[[File:Fixed_and_growth_mindsets.png|thumb|450x450px|''Figure 5''. Fixed-minded individuals react poorly to challenging situations compared to growth-seekers.]]

A common reason people do not pursue growth needs is due to harboring a fixed, not growth mindset (Dweck, 1999). The difference between the two (see Figure 5) comes down to opposing [[wikipedia:Belief#Psychology|belief sets]]. Those that possess growth mindsets consider ability as subject to improvement through effort (see Table 4), whereas those with a fixed mindset believe the inverse: that those same qualities are predetermined by some external force (e.g., genetics, environment, opportunity, etc.).

'''Table 4.'''

''Growth versus Fixed Attitudes Towards Development (adapted from Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998).''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Metric
!Growth Mindset
!Fixed Mindset
|-
|'''Intelligence'''
|Is readily developed through effort.
|Is determined by genetics. 
|-
|'''Effort'''
|Is the main driver of development.
|Is a last resort for those without natural ability and should be avoided.
|-
|'''Challenge'''
|Is an opportunity to learn.
|Represents an opportunity for incompetence and should be avoided.
|} 

A fixed mindset is incredibly limiting. If one believes that they have a set value for intelligence for example, then every interaction with a problem becomes an [[wikipedia:Motivation#Extrinsic|extrinsically]] motivated demonstration to prove one's innate ability (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000). Those with a fixed mindset become consumed by the need to prove themselves and avoid a negative [[wikipedia:Self-concept|self-concept]] (Wilson &amp; Ross, 2001). In contrast, the growth-seeking individual sees problems as an opportunity to improve; positive self-concept is sustained through [[wikipedia:Motivation#Intrinsic|intrinsically]] motivated behaviour, learning, and reaching their ultimate potential. One study (Moser et al., 2011) comparing children who displayed growth-seeking behaviour with children who displayed the opposite revealed a clear distinction in brain activity between the two groups. While the brains of growth-seekers lit up with electrical activity (see Figure 6), their counterparts saw very little activity, adding [https://www.corbett.com.au/about-us/what-is-neurophysiology/ neurophysiological] evidence to the growing body of empirical support in favor of Dweck's mindset theory.

=== Behaviour and outcomes ===
Validation-seeking behaviour (i.e., trying to meet societal [[wikipedia:Carl_Rogers#Development_of_the_personality|conditions of worth]]) represents another common reason for not pursuing growth needs (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998), and leads to worse psychological outcomes. When validation-seeking people pursue external rewards like money, fame, and popularity, they suffer more psychological distress (anxiety, depression, and narcissism) than growth-seekers even if/when they actually attain those things (Kasser, 2002). An unfortunate example of this occurs with professional fashion models. Despite immense wealth, fame, and popularity, they tend to suffer from psychological ill-being, [[wikipedia:Maladjustment|personality maladjustment]], and superficial relationships (Meyer et al, 2007). In contrast, growth mindset interventions have been shown to reduce the onset of depression (Miu &amp; Yeager, 2015) and help alleviate depression and anxiety in adolescence (Schleider &amp; Weisz, 2016).

[[File:Brain_activity.jpg|thumb|''Figure 6.'' Higher electrical activity within the brains of growth-seeking children during problem solving (adapted from Moser et al., 2011)]]

Another difference between fixed and growth outcomes stems from goal setting strategy. A growth mindset positively correlates with the adoption of [[wikipedia:Goal_orientation#Learning|mastery goals,]] which lead individuals to work harder, persist longer, and perform better cognitively (Elliot &amp; Dweck, 1988; Spence, 1983). In contrast, people with fixed mindset are more likely to resort to cheating  (Blackwell et al., 2007), coping (e.g., by finding someone worse at the task than them; Nussbaum &amp; Dweck, 2008), or avoidance (Moser et al., 2011). Growth-seekers set goals around effort, process, and learning, while those with a fixed mindset set goals centered around results (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998). 

=== Cultivating a growth mindset ===
Mindsets and patterns of behaviour are malleable (Dweck, 2008). Simply learning this fact can help those with a fixed mindset cultivate a growth one (Yeager et al., 2013). Adolescents who were taught that their intelligence, thoughts, and feelings came from their brains - and could all be changed - more strongly endorsed a growth mindset and increased prosocial behaviour compared to the control group (Yeager et al., 2013). Blackwell et al., (2007) echo these findings; when researches told kids that difficult problems create new neuron connections which make you smarter, they increased grades. This worked especially well for kids who were already struggling (likely fostering fixed mindset; Yeager et al, 2016).       

Praise and rewards play a huge role in mindset development (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998; Rogers, 1959). Praising wisely (i.e., praising process elements like effort, strategies, focus, perseverance and improvement, rather than talent or intelligence) leads to growth-mindset-fostering students who are hardy and resilient (Gunderson et al., 2013). Similarly, rewarding effort, strategy, and progress, rather than correct answers, leads to more effort, diverse strategies, engagement, and perseverance in student when dealing with difficult math problems (O'Rouke et al., 2014).      
== Criticisms/limitations ==
{{expand}}

=== Humanism ===
Psychological perspectives about growth needs are based on early humanistic psychological theory, which isn't without its flaws. For example, despite its popularity, there's little empirical research supporting Maslow's needs hierarchy (Wahba &amp; Bridwell, 1976), and a great deal that rejects it in its original state (Goebel &amp; Brown, 1981). A two-part model fits the data better, with deficit needs below and self-actualisation needs on the top (Wahba &amp; Bridwell, 1976). 

=== Mindsets ===
Mindset research has been criticised for being difficult to replicate (Li &amp; Bates, 2019). However, Bryan et al., (2019) note that the research aimed at replication was poorly constructed and that research with sound validity has replicated the findings surrounding mindsets and their benefits (Bryan et al., 2019).   

Another common criticism comes from psychologists who believe that growth mindsets as a concept flies in the face of over 100 years of intelligence research. This usually stems from the [https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/a-myth-that-keeps-growing-and-growing misinterpretation mindsets are entirely responsible for intelligence]. Genetics certainly play a large role in determining intelligence (Byrne, 2009). A growth mindset simply facilitates the realisation of a person's intelligence, which is likely why it works so well when an individual is struggling (Yeager et al., 2016).  

An important limitation concerns the small [[effect size]] of much of the mindset research. Dweck (2019) addressed this, stating that while psychologists are used to [[Cohen's d|Cohen's guidelines]], smaller effect sizes in education research are the norm.    

== Conclusion ==
This section presents answers the focus questions and provides the key &quot;take-home&quot; messages, as well as how to implement them in one's life (see Table 5).
{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|13}}}|width=100%|title=Answers to the focus questions}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
*Growth needs refer to psychological needs which guide one towards a path of intrinsic development (Maslow, 1971).
*A growth mindset sees abilities as greatly improvable through effort, and views challenges as an opportunity to do so (Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998).
*Those who pursue growth engage in tasks that revolve around enjoyment, skill mastery, learning, and personal development. Those who don't, typically pursue validation or other extrinsic rewards, to their detriment (Kasser, 2002).
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

'''Table 5.'''

''Key Points and How to Implement Them''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
!Take-away
!Implementation
|-
|Individuals are motivated to satisfy their needs (Maslow, 1987).  
|Observe the pull of needs in your life and try to be conscious of why you're pursuing certain behaviours (Maslow, 1971). Remember that pursuing deficiency needs is not inherently bad, but essential (Cannon, 1932).
|-
|Self-actualisation describes an individual pursuing their ultimate potential (Rogers, 1980). 
|As part of his suggestions for self-actualisation, Maslow (1971) invites one to view life as a series of choices between growth and regression. Choose growth (e.g., sign up for that challenging skill-building class you've been thinking about, rather than binge watch that series you've already seen a thousand times).
|-
|The intrinsically motivated pursuit of growth leads to better psychological health (Miu &amp; Yeager, 2015; Schleider &amp; Weisz, 2016) and performance (Spence, 1983;) than pursuing extrinsic rewards, even if one attains those rewards (Kasser, 2002). 
|Set goals centered around activity enjoyment, mastery, and learning. See difficult tasks as an opportunity for growth, not as an indicator of your ability.
|-
|How and what we praise and reward influences mindset development (Rogers, 1959; Mueller &amp; Dweck, 1998; O'Rouke et al., 2014).
|Praise and reward yourself and others for process (i.e., effort, strategies, focus, perseverance and improvement) rather than descriptive characteristics like talent or intelligence.
|}
Finally, remember that your mindsets and patterns of behaviour are malleable (Dweck, 2008). Just by reading this chapter, you've likely begun to cultivate a growth mindset (Yeager et al., 2013).

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Flourishing|Flourishing]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[wikipedia:Implicit_theories_of_intelligence|Implicit theories of intelligence]] (Wikipedia)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Positive psychology]] (Wikiversity)
* [[wikipedia:Self-actualization|Self-actualisation]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Jonah complex|The Jonah complex]] (Book Chapter, 2021)

==References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

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Blackwell, L., Trzesniewski, K., &amp; Dweck, C. (2007). Implicit Theories of Intelligence Predict Achievement Across an Adolescent Transition: A Longitudinal Study and an Intervention. ''Child Development,'' 78(1), 246-263.https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.00995.x

Bryan, C., Yeager, D., &amp; O’Brien, J. (2019). Replicator degrees of freedom allow publication of misleading failures to replicate.''Proceedings Of The National Academy Of Sciences,''116(51), 25535-25545. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1910951116

Byrne, B., Coventry, W. L., Olson, R. K., Samuelsson, S., Corley, R., Willcutt, E. G., Wadsworth, S., &amp; DeFries, J. C. (2009). Genetic and environmental influences on aspects of literacy and language in early childhood: Continuity and change from preschool to grade 2. ''Journal of Neurolinguistics,'' 22(3), 219–236. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jneuroling.2008.09.003

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Dweck, C. S. (2019). The Choice to Make a Difference. ''Perspectives on Psychological Science,'' 14(1), 21–25. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804180

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Goebel, B. L., &amp; Brown, D. R. (1981). Age differences in motivation related to Maslow’s need hierarchy.
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Gunderson, E. A., Gripshover, S. J., Romero, C., Dweck, C. S., Goldin-Meadow, S., &amp; Levine, S. C. (2013). Parent praise to 1- to 3-year-olds predicts children's motivational frameworks 5 years later. ''Child development,'' 84(5), 1526–1541. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12064

Kasser, T. (2002). The high price of materialism. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

Li, Y., &amp; Bates, T. (2019). You can’t change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that’s how we get hard things done: Testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability. ''Journal Of Experimental Psychology: General,'' 148(9), 1640-1655. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000669

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}}

==External links ==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_X0mgOOSpLU  Developing a growth mindset] (TED Talk; Dweck, 2014)
*[https://www.opencolleges.edu.au/informed/features/develop-a-growth-mindset/ 25 ways to develop a growth mindset] (Briggs, 2015)

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==Overview ==
Reviews from many theorists across studies among {{awkward}} Martela &amp; Ryan (2015) suggest that beneficence is the sense of being able to give inherently and does improve well-being. Ryan  and Deci (2018) disussed how prosocial behaviors are associated with enhanced well being. The mechanisms that explain this connection is evidenced from the self-determination theory to increase well-being and mediated by satisfaction of innate psychological needs for [[wikipedia:Autonomy|autonomy]], competence, and relatedness. Findings from Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) together with Martela and Ryan (2015) propose that  benevolent acts are driven by three innate psychological needs of competence, autonomy as one feels more connected with others and relatedness  as one feels effective in helping which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health. When strained {{missing}} leads to diminished motivation and well-being. Martela and  Ryan (2015) also illustrate  that human beings are equipped with an inherent prosocial tendency that motivates and rewards us for benevolent acts  and even toddlers are intrinsically motivated to act prosocially.

A study by Martela and Ryan (2015) showed that beneficence is associated with prosocial behaviors  together with mechanisms such as love, humanity and promoting the good of others, explain the connection in the ability to give inherently enhancing wellbeing. In everyday language, the term &quot;need&quot; is used by humans {{gr}} Martela &amp; Ryan (2015)  to refer to desired outcomes for physiological, psychological health and well-being. Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) also describes  the term &quot;need&quot; to denote the presence of a particular desire that is necessary for an organism to live a healthy life or preference often related to a &amp;nbsp;deficit which varies in&amp;nbsp;priority amongst people although universal. Another study by Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) and Deci and Ryan (2000) suggest that, {{missing}} beneficence the sense of giving inherently improves well being and plays a significant role in basic psychological needs with evidence from the  [[Self-determination theory|self- determination theory]]  showing that an increase in well being is mediated by the satisfaction from an innate psychological need of [[wikipedia:Competence_(human_resources)|Competence]], [[wikipedia:Autonomy|Autonomy]] and [[wikipedia:Social_relation|Relatedness]]. More so, according to the theorist  Maslow, Van den Broeck et al. (2016) there is a hierarchy of needs for  every human motivation that dictates a person's behavior known as the five psychological needs in terms of physiological (clothing, food ), safety  ( job, security), love and belonging needs (friendship, love, family) and esteem (self actualisation ){{gr}}.                             
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=5}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is beneficence?
* Key motivation for beneficence and existing psychological needs
* Implications of basic Psychological needs showcasing beneficence on individuals{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is beneficence? ==
Beneficence illustrated by Pieper and Thomson (2016) echoes utilitarianism as one benchmark for good outcomes and kindness in the promotion of the value of charitable works. Martela and Ryan (2015) together with Kinsinger (2009) all examine beneficence as actions or personal qualities with acts of kindness, generosity, charity, love and  humanity with huge  internal virtue in  doing good to others with a moral obligation. Pieper and Thomson (2016) examine beneficence as one of the fundamental ethics in health care practice in line with the principle of beneficence to promote good, not harm and maximise possible benefits while minimising any potential harm on others.

==== Basic psychological needs ====
According to  Van den Broeck et al. (2016) there are three innate [[psychological needs]]  that drive human behaviour (competence, autonomy, and relatedness) which when satisfied yield enhanced self-motivation and mental health and  are core aspects of the [[Self-determination theory|self determination theory]]. The criteria for  basic psychological needs are (psychological, inherent, essential, distinct and universal) explained {{missing}} Martela and Ryan (2015) connected with beneficence the sense of being able to give inherently.

==== Build on literature ====
Researchers in the study of  motivation describe three fundamental aspects  of psychological needs that drive human behaviour  Autonomy, Competence and Relatedness. Discussion around beneficence and existing psychological needs from Martela and Ryan (2015)&amp;nbsp; explained that although well-being benefits of beneficence, it's partially explained by the sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness, &amp;nbsp;following  results &amp;nbsp;from study{{gr}} conducted &amp;nbsp;after beneficence satisfaction was added to the mix,  showing an independent effect on well-being across the studies{{gr}}. A multicultural comparison of the four pathways to meaningful work from Martela and Riekki (2018) {{missing}} three different countries, Finland, India, and United States across&amp;nbsp; countries  show that  in quest for meaningfulness, we look for the intrinsic qualities of life that go beyond mere survival expressed through autonomy, competence and relatedness connecting to other people through caring relationships and being able to contribute in the society is ultimate to people for what makes life worth living.    

== Key motivation for beneficence and existing psychological needs ==

The interest in the experience of well-being as both a research topic and a goal has significantly increased in recent decades, evolving into several psychological mechanisms that explain basic psychological needs and their connection with beneficence, the act of being kind as a moral obligation{{gr}}. According to Vansteenkiste et al. (2020), people have a limited set of basic psychological needs essential for flourishing and well-being, set at three: autonomy, competence, and relatedness  are essential to developing and maintaining intrinsic motivation. A frustration of these three needs represented a more threatening experience than the mere absence of their fulfilment. Evidence from self-determination theory by Martela and Riekki (2018) shows that meaningful work is a key element of positive functioning influenced by four psychological satisfactions across cultures, notably autonomy (sense of volition), competence (sense of efficacy), relatedness (sense of caring relationships), and beneficence (sense of making a positive contribution). Beneficence is also a motivation for meaningful work argued Martela and Riekki (2018). 

==== The three basic Psychological needs ====
The self determination theory explains basic psychological needs according to Van den Broeck et al. (2016) and  Martela &amp; Riekki (2018) as having  three major  important ingredients  essential for ongoing psychological growth and well-being  that plays a significant role and which fosters intrinsic motivation.
* '''Autonomy''' - freedom to make self choices  which when satisfied gives a sense of integrity argued Martela  and  Riekki (2018)
*  '''Competence''' - concerns the experience of effectiveness and mastery  which becomes satisfied as one  is  of capably engaging  in activities, experiences and  opportunities extending skills and expertise noted Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) together with  Martela and Riekki (2018)
*'''Relatedness''' - brings out&amp;nbsp; experience of warmth, bonding, and care  satisfied by connecting and feeling significant to others. A frustration comes with a sense of social alienation and exclusion   noted Martela &amp; Riekki (2018).  Finally, Relatedness frustration comes with a sense of social alienation.

[[File:SelfDeterminationTheory.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. Three innate basic psychological needs comprise  the Self Determination Theory.]]

==== &lt;big&gt;Maslow's motivational  hierarchy needs&lt;/big&gt; ====
[[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] studies how humans intrinsically engage in behavioral  [[motivation]]. According to  Van den Broeck et al. (2016), the most widely known academic model of needs was proposed by  needs theorist [[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Abraham Maslow]], in 1943  that  focused  on internal factors to explain behavior describing the five basic psychological needs as  essential  and universal  with emphasis  on  needs  to be achieved from bottom to top for everyone to attain optimal potential. These  hierarchy of needs are in terms of Physiological perspective (clothing, food, sleep, sex, hunger), safety (security, job), love and belonging needs (love, family, friendship), esteem ( self actualisation)(.Martela and Ryan (2015) &amp;nbsp;along  with Ryan and Deci (2000)  suggest that human beings universality of need satisfactions across demographics are equipped with an inherent pro‐social tendency that motivates and rewards us for benevolent acts with research suggesting that even toddlers are intrinsically motivated to act pro‐socially. It only differs from individual on what priority of needs mean to them. 

Unfortunately, {{missing}} were limitations  in  Maslow's hierarchy theory as many behavioral scientists  like VanDeVeer (1990) noted  Maslow’s pyramid  as not having as  much contemporary theoretical importance  nor was it universal  in his discussion on claims that humans in order to survive experience needs  across cultures in the same order firstly, food needs, shelter, and warmth since collective societies focused rather on social needs as more important than psychological needs. Hence, failed to  recognise cultural and individual differences in that people experience these needs in different order{{gr}}. 

==== &lt;big&gt;Intrinsic / Extrinsic motivation&lt;/big&gt; ====
[[File:Muhammad Intrinsic vs Extrinsic Motivation.png|thumb|''Figure 2''.  Differences between  intrinsic motivation  (personal self exploration) from within versus extrinsic for  external reasons]]

Although [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] based research primarily on [[intrinsic motivation]] Vansteenkiste et al. (2020)  internal reasons for motivated behavior, later studies addressed extrinsically motivated activities reflecting on the extent to which people truly take in ambient values or practices {{gr}}. So both motivations are based on the different reasons and goals that give rise to action. Next, given the fact that to reach your full potential  entails ongoing psychological need satisfaction, Martela  and Ryan (2015)  noted that, the biological psychological need theory has become relevant not only  for  intrinsic motivation and internalised motivation but also to well being. Ryan and Deci (2018) explained that for  the full functioning of an individual, is  a need for continuing&amp;nbsp; psychological need satisfactions and basic psychological need theory relevant not only to intrinsic, internalised motivation but also to well-being more generally including prosocial tendencies. In contrast, offering external rewards for partaking in an  activity can undermine intrinsic motivation because controlling rewards shifts one’s perceived locus  from internal moves to external thereby weakening the &amp;nbsp;sense of autonomy.

* '''Intrinsic motivation'''   -  [[Intrinsic motivation]]  according to Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) and Ryan and  Deci (2000) is the internal  passion and [[motivation]] regulated behavior  that requires a sense of effectiveness and autonomy satisfaction. In the absence of autonomy, one may engage in the activity to please others, get approval, or avoid feelings of guilt. Ryan and  Deci (2000) also  explain the self determination model of motivation and need satisfaction is linked with  intrinsic  motivation and foundations of nature which is inherent.
* '''Extrinsic motivation -'''  [[Extrinsic motivation]]  is behaviour driven by external rewards stated by Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) together with  Ryan and  Deci (2018)  like fame, praise, money or avoid punishment not because it's enjoyable or satisfying but hope to get  something in return.

==== &lt;big&gt;Cognitive perspective&lt;/big&gt; ====
Neurological evidence from Martela and  Ryan (2015) shows that decisions to act pro‐socially activate reward centers of the brain and based on such findings, suggests that the warm glow of giving may be a fundamental component of human nature. Feeling beneficent is  an inherent and direct source of enhanced feelings of wellness. Research from Ryan and  Deci (2000) and  Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) indicate that human behavior is associated with these basic need satisfactions which tends to provide an adaptive advantage with psychological needs&amp;nbsp;forming a fundamental part of an individuals’ functioning. Finally,  findings from Vansteenkiste et al. (2020)  show that individuals’ brain morphometry and the ventral stratum grey matter volume correlates positively with peoples’ experienced need satisfaction.

== Implications of basic psychological needs showcasing  beneficence on individuals ==

The implications of basic psychological needs, benevolence in individuals is both positive and negative. 

===== &lt;big&gt;Enhanced well-being&lt;/big&gt; =====
A growing body of empirical work Martela and Ryan (2015) suggest that giving to others is beneficial for our own mental health and is associated with enhanced well-being and joy. Acts of beneficence include acts of kindness, volunteering, spending money on others, and research has shown that the emotional benefits derived from prosocial spending are cross-culturally seen to improve healthy development and emotions. Beneficent actions and motives, according to Pieper and Thomson (2016), have traditionally occupied a central place in morality, and common examples nowadays are found in social welfare programs, communal support of health-related research, scholarships for needy and meritorious students, policies to improve the welfare of animals, disaster relief, programs to benefit children and the incompetent, and preferential hiring and admission policies. More so, a growing body of empirical work by Martela and Ryan (2015) also suggest that giving to others, acts of kindness, and spending money on others are beneficial for our own well being, along with prosocial behaviour. Meaningfulness as regards life and meaningfulness as regards work are facets of the same psychological construct argued Martela and Riekki (2018).

===== &lt;big&gt;Great experience&lt;/big&gt; =====
Beneficence is one of the drivers of any public health system  (Pieper and  Thomson, 2016), the ideal that people within a society should promote health in general as a social good to others  and more specifically, provide a level of health-care for the disadvantaged in society and to do  harm, is not the same as actively providing benefit. Beneficence is the principle  of research merit, justice and integrity explained  Pieper and Thomson (2016).

===== &lt;big&gt;Actualise our potential&lt;/big&gt; =====
Meaningful work is a key element of positive functioning in employees  examined Martela and  Riekki (2018) based on research on self determination theory, basic psychological needs and prosocial impact of beneficence across  cultures  with illustrating data from  Finland , India and United States  in terms of  autonomy, competence, relatedness and beneficence and results showed  that  all four show satisfactions are significantly and independently associated with meaningful work. From literature we can see that we see that meaningfulness as regards life and work are facets of the same psychological construct (Martela  and Riekki, 2018).

===== &lt;big&gt;Healthy development&lt;/big&gt; =====
According to Pieper and Thomson (2016), beneficence is the most important principle of human nature with a designated class of virtues rooted in goodwill, generosity, and love directed at others, with  moral psychology and virtue ethics as foundational motives of benevolence across manifestations of friendship, charity, and compassion, amongst others. Vansteenkiste et al. (2020) investigated the importance of satisfying psychological needs in fostering psychological growth, integrity, and wellness noting that physiological needs such as hunger and thirst must be fulfilled to grow and thrive physically.

The consequences are both positive and negative. Failure or frustration of these basic psychological needs not met at various hierarchy stages, according to Maslow (Martela and Riekki (2018), can lead to mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, or psychiatric illness, potentially leading to death or extreme illness. Also, Ryan and Deci (2000) explain that beneficence frustration is correlated with indicators of ill-being (negative affect, depression, anxiety, physical symptoms). 

However, the connection disappears when controlling for the effects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Needs and frustrations have an impact on happiness. This leads us to suggest a distinction between basic psychological needs and basic wellness enhancers with beneficence, the satisfaction of improved well-being. Martela and Riekki (2018) explain that being able to experience meaningfulness is a fundamental part of having a life worth living, and a lack of meaning is associated with depression, mortality, and even suicide confirming  that employees around the world seek to find meaningfulness in their work, with family as one of the most important domains from which people derive meaningfulness in their lives. 

Negative are, failure or frustration of these basic [[psychological needs]] not met at various hierarchy stages explained  Martela and Riekki (2018) by theorist Maslow, can lead to mental health issues such as anxiety, depression, post-traumatic stress disorder, anger, frustration, or psychiatric illness, potentially leading to death or extreme illness. Also, Ryan and Deci (2000) explain that beneficence frustration is correlated with indicators of ill-being (negative affect, depression, anxiety, physical symptoms). However, connection disappears when controlling for the effects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. Need frustrations have an impact on wellbeing. This leads us to suggest a distinction between basic psychological needs and basic wellness enhancers, beneficence the satisfaction of improved well-being. Martela and Riekki (2018) explain that being able to experience meaningfulness is a fundamental part of having a life worth living and a lack of meaning is associated with depression, mortality, and even suicide confirming that employees around the world seek to find meaningfulness in their work, with family as one of the most important domains from which people derive meaningfulness in their lives.  

== Case study ==
Challenges case managers face in honoring autonomy and beneficence (client legal right versus client cognitive ability)

{{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|6}}}|title=Case Scenario:1 [[File:Magnifying-glass.svg|left|35px]]}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;

A case manager has become aware that her client’s driving skills have deteriorated to the point at which he constitutes a hazard to the community and himself. As a health professional (case manager), at what point in the case management process is it best to intervene, especially when the intervention might result in a restriction of the client’s desires, preferences, or liberties?

&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

All would probably agree that a case manager who becomes aware that her client’s driving skills have deteriorated to the point at which he constitutes a hazard has a professional obligation to report this to some authority, such as the client’s physician and supervisor. Driving an automobile, raising children according to one’s values, living by oneself and engaging in intimate relationships are indicative examples of a person’s self-determination autonomous rights. When these rights are revoked, a person may react with feelings of anger or even vengeance toward those  trying to help. Taking steps that gear towards annulment of someone’s driving privileges can be an extremely unpleasant undertaking and can result in the professional's losing of that individual as a client. However, managers need to be actively aware of the impact of the client’s cognitive condition on autonomy, and be able to take appropriate steps to protect both the  client and their own welfare of removing harm and doing good showcasing beneficence.

When you are caring for clients who are unable to exert autonomy (like clients who lack judgemental capacity or have been so adjudicated by the courts and are incompetent), must ensure that you are coordinating the clients’ care with whomever is legally authorised to do so. Usually, a next of kin, a designated health care proxy, or a court-appointed guardian  identified in state law as the one authorised to make medical and healthcare decisions on the client’s behalf.

The duty of beneficence is that the health provider does good in what's best for the patient's own good. Beneficence is defined as kindness and charity to ensure that the client in her care is assured of all the benefits of her professional knowledge to help the person overcome their dysfunction to the extent that clients are reasonably autonomous. Once the clients’ cognitive faculties fails and can no longer exercise autonomy because they cannot adequately understand or  reason the consequences of their decisions, healthcare professionals or their surrogates become responsible for what happens to them. As a result, beneficence in health care encourages health professionals to take responsibility for their decisions in what is best for the patient's own good, demonstrating kindness and charity to benefit others.

{{tip|Case Scenario: 2

On beneficence

* An external nurse field case manager for Mike M, an extremely difficult patient whose treatment requires active use of all my ethical principles. Mike is now 48. When he was 27, he was struck on his neck, head, and arm by a chain or cable at work, sustaining an acquired brain injury. He was comatose for 5 months after the injury and was declared permanently and totally disabled. Mike has been diagnosed with depression (for which he takes Paxil) and has slurred speech, balance difficulties, and impulsive behaviour. He lives in his own single-story home in a small town in Washington and has a care provider a few hours a day. He had been in an assisted living facility before he moved away from Seattle to return to his childhood location.

Five ethical principles govern case management (Autonomy—the patient’s freedom to choose his or her own treatment course, Beneficence—the case manager’s responsibility to promote good and be the patient’s advocate, Nonmaleficence—first, do no harm, Justice refers to fair and objective treatment, while veracity refers to telling the truth.

Michelle Nielsen addresses four interconnected issues regarding ethics in case management: professional integrity, dual relationships, weighing of beneficence, autonomy, and future harm. The reason that noncompliance is an exercise of the patient’s right to self-determination. Moreover, they rationalise that, if they continue to pursue the patient’s good despite noncompliance, they will be patronising the patient.
                                     (Nielsen, 2002)}}

Nielsen’s case analysis showcases a subtle understanding of the relationship between the principles of beneficence and respect for autonomy.

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'''Take home message  on the criteria of  beneficence''' 


* Beneficence as examined by Kinsinger (2009) is  as an act of kindness, mercy, charity and kindness with a strong connotation of doing good to others including moral obligation. According to VanDeVeer (1990)  as well as  Pieper and  Thomson (2016) autonomy is &quot;a dominant principle&quot; in medical ethics and elaborates  that  all professionals  in medical ethics have the primary moral obligation  of doing right with  beneficence  being one of the fundamental ethics driven by the self determination theory values. Sometimes people may not always have the ability to exercise their autonomy (VanDeVeer, 1990).
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Tables ==

Table 1.

Key aspects to note arising from beneficence in Case Study 1
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Beneficence
! colspan=&quot;2&quot; |Duty of beneficence
|-
| colspan=&quot;2&quot; |
*One's actions should promote good

* Not inflicting harm

* Action done to benefit others
* Kindness and charity

* Intrinsically driven

* Balancing benefit of treatment against risks

* Create a safe and supportive environment

* Removing harm
|Beneficence and the professional's moral imperative  argued Kinsinger (2009) takes active steps to promote and benefit the welfare, good of the client's support system when appropriate without malice, prejudice nor urge for external rewards.
|}


Table 2.

Checklist on beneficence(good,charity,volunteering) intrinsically driven
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!Other beneficence checklist
|-
|
* Talking to the community about sexually transmitted diseases
* Providing vaccination kits during the COVID 19 pandemic
* Helping out in a fire outburst
* Encouraging people to quit smoking
* Rescuing a drowning victim
* Giving food to the needy
|}
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;

== Quiz ==

Test on the following terms and concepts:

* Beneficence (kindness and charity)
* Code of ethics for health care professionals showcasing beneficence and intrinsic motivation&lt;br /&gt;

{{Robelbox|theme=6|title=Quiz|iconwidth=48px|icon=Nuvola_apps_korganizer.svg}}&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;

{What does beneficence mean?}

+ To do good
- To be honest
- To promote personal freedom
- To keep one's promises

{Which principle of research ethics discusses actions intended for the good of others?}

+ Beneficence
-  Nonmaleficence
- Justice
- Autonomy

&lt;/quiz&gt;
&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox-close}}

==Conclusion==

Pieper and Thomson (2016) and VanDeVeer (1990) amongst many explain that the term beneficence describes personal qualities of mercy, kindness, generosity, and charity and is suggestive of altruism, love, humanity and promoting the good of others. So, the notion is broad and even more broadly used in ethical theory to effectively include all norms, dispositions and actions with the goal of benefiting or promoting the good of other persons. Van den Broeck et al. (2016) also adds that the self determination theory (SDT) requires that each psychological need does uniquely predict psychological growth, internalisation and well being for optimal potential of a personal.   

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]]  (Book chapter, 2020)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Beneficence as a psychological need|Beneficence as a psychological need]] (Book chapter, 2022)
*[[wikipedia:Beneficence_(ethics)|Beneficence (ethics)]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wiktionary:needs|Dictionary definition of needs]] (Wiktionary)
*[[Intrinsic motivation]] (Wikiversity)
*[[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Need|Needs]]  (Wikipedia) 
*[[Self-determination theory|Self determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

==References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Kinsinger, F. S. (2009). Beneficence and the professional’s moral imperative. Journal of Chiropractic Humanities, 16(1), 44–46. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3342811/ https://doi.org/10.1016/j.echu.2010.02.006]

Martela, F., &amp; Riekki, T. J. J. (2018). Autonomy, competence, relatedness, and beneficence: A multicultural comparison of the four pathways to meaningful work. ''Frontiers in Psychology'', ''9'', 1157–1157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01157.

Martela, F., &amp; Ryan, R. (2015). The benefits of benevolence: Basic psychological needs, beneficence, and the enhancement of well-being. ''Journal Of Personality'', ''84''(6), 750-764. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12215.

Martela, F., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2020). Correction to: distinguishing between basic psychological needs and basic wellness enhancers: the case of beneficence as a candidate psychological need. ''Motivation and Emotion'', ''44''(1), 134–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-020-09823-9.

Nielsen, M. (2002). How ethical principles affect case management: A real-life example. The Case Manager, 13(3), 68–71. https://doi.org/10.1067/mcm.2002.124504

Pieper, I., &amp; Thomson, C. J. H. (2016). Beneficence as a principle in human research. Monash Bioethics Review, 34(2), 117–135. [https://link-springer-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/article/10.1007/s40592-016-0061-3#Sec2 https://doi.org/10.1007/s40592-016-0061-3]

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: Classic definitions and new rirections. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ceps.1999.1020

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2018). ''Self-determination theory : basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness'' . The Guildford Press. https://ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.canberra.edu.au/lib/canberra/reader.action?docID=4773318

Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D. L., Chang, C.-H., &amp; Rosen, C. C. (2016). A review of self-determination theory’s basic psychological needs at work. ''Journal of Management'', ''42''(5), 1195–1229. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206316632058.

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. Motivation and Emotion, 44(1), 1–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1. 

VanDeVeer, D. (1990). For the Patient’s Good: The Restoration of Beneficence in Health Car. Edmund D. Pellegrino , David C. Thomasma. Ethics, 100(2), 434–436. https://doi.org/10.1086/293201

}}

==External links==
* [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principle-beneficence/ An introduction to beneficence]  (plato.stanford.edu)
*[https://szymonmachajewski.wordpress.com/2016/09/17/on-self-determination-theory-and-five-sample-studies/ On self determination theory and five studies] (szymonmachajewski.wordpress.com)
*[https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Maslow's hierarchy of needs] (simplypsychology.org)
*[https://positivepsychology.com/self-determination-theory/ Self-Determination Theory of Motivation: Why intrinsic Motivation Matters]

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== Overview ==
Autonomy, competence, and relatedness are the three components of psychological needs. These needs outline the essential psychological conditions within organisms that provide well-being, growth, and life. However, has the scope of psychological needs been too narrow?

This chapter explores morality, as well as its implications of being a psychological need. This exploration will be achieved by addressing the following questions:

1. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; What is morality?

2. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; What are psychological needs?

3. &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; What are the implications of morality as a psychological need?


[[File:Trolley problem.png|thumb|''Figure 1.'' A visual representation of Philipa Foot's &quot;Trolly Dilemma&quot;.]]

Philipa Foot’s “Trolly dilemma” is a simple yet effective introduction to morality (seen in ''fig. 1''). Imagine that a train is heading towards five railway workers that are soon to be run over. However, before the five workers, is a divergent track in which a single worker is present. You are placed at a switch that can divert the train from the five workers, therefore, killing the single worker. Would you pull the switch? 

== What is morality? ==
Morality has been present since the origins of humankind. Subsequently, like the species it resides in, morality has changed throughout time. “What is morality?” is a question that can be answered by analysing its development. This section will provide brief overviews of morality’s evolutionary origins, ancient moral theory, morality’s shift from philosophy, and moral psychology.

=== Evolutionary origins ===
[[File:Seven Years in South Africa, page 132, hippopotamus hunting.jpg|thumb|''Figure 2.'' Joint intentionality was essential for hunting large food sources.]]

The origin of morality extends well into the past. As a result, [[wikipedia:Evolutionary_psychology|evolutionary psychology]] has played a vital role in understanding the fundamental basis of morality. Although it may sound paradoxical, self-interest, or individual intentionality, is believed to be the source of human morality. Individual intentionality means to only be concerned for one’s own well-being, and can be observed in many animal species, most notably through the activity of food gathering. After many thousands of years, individual intentionality evolved into joint intentionality (seen in ''fig. 2)''. Cooperation became a necessity for early human ancestors as they began hunting larger, and therefore, more challenging sources of food. This cooperation leads to a new moral perspective of disregarding one’s self-interest for the sake of a common goal. Then again, many years later, human morality began to shift with the development of culture. Joint intentionality led to collective intentionality as tribes became distinguishable through their [https://psychology.wikia.org/wiki/Convention_(norm) conventions and norms]. These conventions and norms became internalised by tribe members, and subsequently created a sense of right and wrong.  

=== Ancient moral theory ===
The next notable stage of morality’s development is in [https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/ ancient philosophy]. Ancient philosophy displays humankind’s initial attempt to understand morality. However, the scope of work done during this time was narrow, and equated morality to being about the soul, happiness, and virtue. [[wikipedia:Socrates|Socrates]], [[wikipedia:Plato|Plato]], and [[wikipedia:Aristotle|Aristotle]], were philosophers that provided substantial contributions to the area.  

=== Morality's shift from philosophy to psychology ===
Morality remains, to this day, a prevalent topic within [[wikipedia:Philosophy|Philosophy]]; however, an additional exploration of the concept was created by the field of [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]. [[wikipedia:Frank_Chapman_Sharp|Frank Chapman Sharp]] conceived the idea of empirically studying morality and, as a result, the line between philosophical morality and psychological morality became more distinct. For example, within philosophy, ethics and morality are commonly seen as interchangeable terms. However, psychology quickly stressed the importance of their separation. Psychology defined ethics as one’s sense of right and wrong in accordance with an outside group. This is in contrast to morality, which is one’s sense of right and wrong in accordance with the self.

=== Moral psychology ===
Today’s view of [[wikipedia:Moral_psychology|moral psychology]] emerged due to increasing empirical research surrounding the concept. Research began to empirically explore, and subsequently theorize the many aspects of morality. Such aspects include moral reasoning, moral development, moral behaviour, moral identity, and so on. A commonly known example within this field is [[wikipedia:Lawrence_Kohlberg's_stages_of_moral_development|Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development (1958)]]. Inspired by, and building on, [[wikipedia:Piaget's_theory_of_cognitive_development|Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development (1936)]], Kohlberg outlined cognitive developmental levels in which morality is developed.

== What are psychological needs? ==
[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Autonomy, competence, and relatedness; the three psychological needs outlined by self-determination theory.]]

Psychological needs are a concept drawn from the [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-Determination Theory (SDT)]], which attempts to theorise human motivation. SDT dissects motivation into intrinsic and extrinsic categories; furthermore, the theory outlines motivation’s effect on both social and cognitive development. [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory#Basic_psychological_needs|Autonomy, competence, and relatedness]], are theorised to be the three areas that determine one’s motivation (seen in ''fig. 3''). These three areas are commonly referred to as psychological needs. When one’s psychological needs are satisfied, their motivation will be high in quality; however, motivation can also lessen in quality if one’s psychological needs are not satisfied. 

== Implications of morality as a psychological need ==
As research of morality has progressed, implications of it being a psychological need have appeared. This chapter explores the implications of morality as a psychological need by analysing how morality satisfies the established psychological needs criteria, SDT and morality’s intersections, and morality as an important human motive and trait.

=== Criteria for establishing a psychological need ===
[https://psycnet.apa.org/buy/1995-29052-001 Baumeister and Leary (1995)], created a [https://journals.sagepub.com/na101/home/literatum/publisher/sage/journals/content/sppa/2019/sppa_10_4/1948550618772011/20190405/images/large/10.1177_1948550618772011-table1.jpeg criteria for establishing a psychological need]. In essence, the criteria deconstructs the defining aspects of autonomy, competence, and relatedness into a checklist and; as a result, nine core characteristics were created. By utilising the checklist, researchers can systematically test whether suspected concepts fundamentally match that of a psychological need. A study by [https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2F0022-3514.80.2.325 Sheldon et al. (2001)], provided a simple outline of the logic behind the criteria. The outline consisted of two parts, the first being that peak experiences will equate to the most satisfying needs. This logic can be restated to say that events are satisfying as a result of satisfied psychological needs. The second part is that well-being is promoted through need satisfaction. Therefore, when these two parts are combined, when a tested concept promotes well-being and provides satisfaction from events, it passes the criteria.

[https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/1948550618772011 Prentice et al. (2018)], rigorously tested whether morality satisfied the criteria for establishing a psychological need. The test consisted of four studies; within these studies, participants were questioned about recent negative and positive events. Participant’s{{gr}} need satisfaction and morality’s satisfying/thwarting dynamic, during these events, was assessed. Proceeding this step, the assessed dynamic was compared with a quantified responsiveness to each need. Furthermore, the prolific, affective, and productive criteria, is approached by examining the well-being consequences of moral need satisfaction. 

Although the first two studies measured the same variable, they differed in the category of participants; study 1a. Amazon’s mechanical turk, and study 1b. students. The first measure of the test was recent peak life events, which was determined by four experiences participants considered the most meaningful, pleasurable, satisfying, and unsatisfying. The second measure of the test was psychological needs. Psychological needs were measured by participants rating the satisfaction of autonomy, relatedness, security, self-esteem, and competence in relation to the four events. In addition, five items assessing moral need were included. The final measure, well-being and satisfaction, was conducted by the means of a flourishing scale.

The results across the two studies obtained identical findings. When compared to the five measured psychological needs, morality was never lower, and was commonly more satisfied during the events. The first implication from the results is that the participants used morality to identify peak life events. The second implication was the appropriateness of comparison between morality and the psychological needs. Lastly, implications of morality’s impact on well-being were outlined.

The final two studies reflected the same differentiation of categories of participants. However, the last two studies measured five variables. The first measure was a moral trait scale completed by participants. The second measure reflected the first two studies of the five events chosen by participants; although, for each event, participants had to choose two events of each category based on whether they had acted at their worst, and best. The third measure was psychological needs, and consisted of ten needs which added money, self-acceptance/meaning, pleasure, physical thriving/meaning, and power, to the initial two study’s list of measured needs. The fourth measure was participants' well-being during the event. The final measure was participants' current well-being.

The results of the study displayed morality’s performance as consistently equal to, or greater than the psychological needs. To elaborate, morality was experienced more than any other need when participants were at their best; additionally, morality was seen as being thwarted during unsatisfying events. Morality had also drawn implications for the well-being of participants both during and out of the events.

All four studies gathered results implying morality’s satisfaction of establishing a psychological need criteria. It was demonstrated that morality directs cognitive processing, has affective consequences, is distinctive from other needs, and can support relevant research within the area, for example, [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Beneficence as a psychological need|beneficence as a psychological need]]. This research serves as a foundation in which moral research can be built on.

=== Self-determination theory and morality's intersections ===
Although moral research has implied its presence within SDT, the areas remain distinct. However, evidence outlining intersections between SDT and morality continue to grow. These intersections arise due to SDT’s inability to be dissected into a few basic principles. Rather, the theory is a framework composed of a potentially endless amount of mini-theories. Today, the [https://selfdeterminationtheory.org/theory/ six-mini theories] that are recognised are Organismic Integration Theory, Cognitive-Evaluation Theory, Causality-Orientations Theory, Goal Contents Theory, Relationship Motivation Theory, and Basic Psychological Needs Theory. Although the mini-theories share the same fundamental ideas, they differ in the phenomena they attempt to explain.

==== Basic psychological needs theory and morality ====
The first mini-theory that intersects with morality is the Basic Psychological Needs Theory (BPNT). BPNT is focused on explaining the link between psychological needs and psychological health and well-being. Furthermore, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, can be used to predict one’s psychological health and well-being. This prediction is based on whether the needs are being either satisfied or thwarted.

The intersection of BPNT and morality revolve around the finding that satisfaction of the psychological needs is essential to well-being ([https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0022022105275960 Chirkov et al, 2005]). Although, the satisfaction of psychological needs cannot be attained without achieving moral understanding, capabilities, and virtue ([https://muse.jhu.edu/article/531208 Curren, 2013]; [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2012-24003-004 Ryan et al., 2013]){{gr}}. For example, self-endorsed moral motivation can greatly impact autonomy{{explain}}. In addition, in the context of learning, moral motivation is more self-sustaining compared to mastery motivation ([https://doi.apa.org/doiLanding?doi=10.1037%2Fa0016984 Weinstein &amp; Ryan, 2010]).

==== Organismic integration theory and morality ====
[[File:Spontaneous-Altruism-by-Chimpanzees-and-Young-Children-pbio.0050184.sv002.ogv|thumb|''Figure 4.'' 

Video of 'spontaneous altruism by chimpanzees and young children' (Warneken et al, 2007).]]
The second mini-theory that intersects with morality is the Organismic Integration Theory (OIT). OIT focuses on theorising [[wikipedia:Motivation#Extrinsic|extrinsic motivation]]. Extrinsic motivation consists of multiple instrumental subtypes which fall upon an [[wikipedia:Internalization#Psychology_and_sociology|internalisation]] continuum. The extent of internalisation of an extrinsic motive equals the extent of autonomy experienced by the person. Furthermore, OIT attempts to explore what it is that causes internalisation.

The intersection of OIT and morality occurs within the context of internalisation. It is widely believed that autonomous moral motivation is learned through life; however, there is research to suggest that this is incorrect. Infants have been shown to offer spontaneous help to others without being asked and without being offered a reward ([https://www.science.org/lookup/doi/10.1126/science.1121448 Warneken &amp; Tomasello, 2006]); this finding implies the possibility of morality being innate (seen in ''fig. 4''). In addition, infants at the age of 15 months prefer equal over unequal allocation of resources ([https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=qrk8DwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA420&amp;dq=The+development+of+origins+of+infants%E2%80%99+distributive+fairness+concerns&amp;ots=MOfqR7zHPG&amp;sig=mhXVcEdu0NrTC07EFuvUbXxTurk&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20development%20of%20origins%20of%20infants%E2%80%99%20distributive%20fairness%20concerns&amp;f=false Sommerville &amp; Ziv, 2018]); these studies display that autonomous motivation for moral action is not all-or-nothing ([https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03057240.2020.1794173 Krettenauer &amp; Curren, 2020]). 

=== Morality as an important human motive, and trait ===
Morality as an important human motive has experienced a recent rise in popularity with empirical testing. [https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-15892-6_4 Read et al.’s (2010)] study, forced participants to sort 161 motives into groups. An analysis of results provided broad clusters of motives, these being relatedness, religion, self-enhancement/self-knowledge, avoidance, and morality. This analysis displays the cognitive importance of morality in terms of human motives.

Implications of morality within self-affirmation have also been discovered. Self-affirmation is a process which occurs in order to restore one’s self-perception. When the perceived integrity of the self is threatened, rationalisation, explanation, and/or action occur to achieve restoration. Research by [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0065260108602294 Steele (1988)] proposed that the process of self-affirmation occurred to maintain a morally and adaptive adequate self-conception.

[[File:Jesus washing Peter's feet.jpg|thumb|''Figure 5.'' Physical cleansing is a religious ceremonial practice that extends well into humanity's past. ]]

Morality has additionally been seen to impact [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Religiosity and coping|Religiosity]]. [https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1130726 Zhong &amp; Liljenquist’s ‘Washing Away Your Sins’ (2006)], focused on the practise of physical cleansing in religious ceremonies (seen in ''fig. 5''). The practice infers a psychological association between moral purity and bodily purity. Subsequently, the study explored cleanliness in response to moral impurity. Results showed that moral impurity caused an increased desire in cleansing products, and greater mental accessibility of cleansing-related concepts. In addition, physical cleansing reduces upsetting consequences of immoral behaviour, and alleviates threats to one’s moral self-image. 

Finally, research has also explored morality as a human trait. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jopy.12324 Zeinoun et al. (2017)] reduced personality traits down to 167 items. Following this, 806 participants sorted the traits into categories. Results displayed five top level categories, these being dominance, conscientiousness, emotional stability, agreeableness/righteousness, positive emotionality, and morality. This study implies that morality may extend beyond the area of motivation, and could additionally serve as a trait.

== Conclusion ==
Morality is a concept extending well into humanity’s past; however, a recent empirical shift has drastically improved our knowledge of the concept. As our knowledge continues to grow, implications of morality have become present in relevant fields of research, such as, psychological needs. These implications arise as morality has displayed the capacity to satisfy the establishing a psychological need criteria, intersections between SDT and morality have surfaced, and morality’s significant impact in the fields of human motives, and traits has been discovered. These findings not only help us define the concept of morality, but serve as an important foundation for its implication as a psychological need.

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Beneficence as a psychological need|Beneficence as a psychological need]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Dark triad personality and motivation|Dark triad and personality]] (Book chapter, 2021)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Frustration of basic psychological needs|Frustration of basic psychological needs]] (Book, chapter, 2021)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Morality and emotion|Morality and emotion]] (Book, chapter, 2020)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Religiosity and coping|Religiosity and coping]] (Book chapter, 2022)
*[[wikipedia:Self-determintion_theory|Self-determination theory]] (Wikipedia)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Ancient Ethical Theory. (2021). Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-ancient/

Baumeister, R. F., &amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological bulletin, 117(3), 497. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Chirkov, V. I., Ryan, R. M., &amp; Willness, C. (2005). Cultural context and psychological needs in Canada and Brazil: Testing a self-determination approach to the internalization of cultural practices, identity, and well-being. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 36(4), 423-443. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022105275960

Curren, R. (2013). Aristotelian necessities. The good society, 22(2), 247-263.
https://doi.org/10.5325/goodsociety.22.2.0247

Krettenauer, T., &amp; Curren, R. (2020). Self-determination theory, morality, and education: introduction to special issue.
https://doi.org/10.1080/03057240.2020.1794173

Prentice, M., Jayawickreme, E., Hawkins, A., Hartley, A., Furr, R. M., &amp; Fleeson, W. (2019).
Morality as a basic psychological need. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(4), 
449-460.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618772011

Read, S. J., Talevich, J., Walsh, D. A., Chopra, G., &amp; Iyer, R. (2010, September). A comprehensive taxonomy of human motives: A principled basis for the motives of intelligent agents. In International Conference on Intelligent Virtual Agents (pp. 35-41). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-15892-6_4

Ryan, R. M., Curren, R. R., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2013). What humans need: Flourishing in Aristotelian philosophy and self-determination theory.
https://doi.org/10.1037/14092-004

Sheldon, K. M., Elliot, A. J., Kim, Y., &amp; Kasser, T. (2001). What is satisfying about satisfying events? Testing 10 candidate psychological needs. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80(2), 325–339.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.80.2.325

Sommerville, J. A., &amp; Ziv, T. (2018). The developmental origins of infants’ distributive fairness concerns. Atlas of moral psychology, 420-429.
Retrieved from: https://books.google.com.au/books?hl=en&amp;lr=&amp;id=qrk8DwAAQBAJ&amp;oi=fnd&amp;pg=PA420&amp;dq=The+development+of+origins+of+infants%E2%80%99+distributive+fairness+concerns&amp;ots=MOfqR7zHPG&amp;sig=mhXVcEdu0NrTC07EFuvUbXxTurk&amp;redir_esc=y#v=onepage&amp;q=The%20development%20of%20origins%20of%20infants%E2%80%99%20distributive%20fairness%20concerns&amp;f=false

Steele, C. M. (1988). The psychology of self-affirmation: Sustaining the integrity of the self. In Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 21, pp. 261-302). Academic Press.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60229-4

Tomasello, M (2018). The Origins of Morality. ScientificAmerican. Retrieved from:
https://www.scientificamerican.com/index.cfm/_api/render/file/?method=inline&amp;fileID=B6F43AF2-ECFB-4378-BDBD06B32335474F

Warneken, F., &amp; Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311(5765), 1301–1303.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1121448 

Weinstein, N., &amp; Ryan, R. M. (2010). When helping helps: Autonomous motivation for prosocial behavior and its influence on well-being for the helper and recipient. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 98(2), 222–244.
https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016984

YI, X. M., &amp; ZHAO, J. B. (2006). Subjects in Morality Internalization. Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Sciences), 5. Retrieved from: https://en.cnki.com.cn/Article_en/CJFDTotal-BJSF200605014.htm

Zeinoun, P., Daouk‐Öyry, L., Choueiri, L., &amp; van de Vijver, F. J. (2018). Arab‐levantine personality structure: A psycholexical study of modern standard Arabic in Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and the West Bank. Journal of personality, 86(3), 397-421.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12324

Zhong, C. B., &amp; Liljenquist, K. (2006). Washing away your sins: Threatened morality and physical cleansing. Science, 313(5792), 1451-1452.
10.1126/science.1130726}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcQg1EshfIE Monkeys and morality] (Crash Course Psychology #19, YouTube)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hj9oB4zpHww Science can answer moral questions | Sam Harris] (TED, YouTube)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9AzNEG1GB-k The Problem of Evil] (Crash Course Philosophy #13, YouTube)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yg16u_bzjPE Would you sacrifice one person to save five? - Eleanor Nelsen] (TED-Ed, YouTube)

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== Overview ==
Caring for the imminently dying is complex. One of the sources of this complexity is the varying emotional experiences associated with [[w:Death|death]]. Some may resist the inevitable and experience death anxiety, lingering over denial, anger, bargaining and depression in the [[w:Five stages of grief|five stages of grief]] (Stroebe, Schut &amp; Boerner, 2017). Others may simply find peace and neutral acceptance in their situation. These varying emotional experiences make defining a universal care blueprint for the imminently dying challenging. Therefore, this chapter uses evidence-based research to outline elements of a holistic care plan for the imminently dying. However, it will do so in recognition that care plans are not always transferable. With holistic and effective care categorised by [[w:Differential psychology|individual differences]], caregivers must be adept to tailoring their approaches to end-of-life care. The burden of physical care typically falls on professionals, more specifically a palliative care team. This team is made up of allied health professionals ranging from physicians, nurses and carers to pharmacists and physiotherapists. It is the role of this team to ensure that the two primary physical care needs, pain relief and other symptomatic management are effectively addressed (Bischoff, O'Riordan, Marks, Sudore &amp; Pantilat, 2018). Other health and wellbeing professionals such as psychiatrists play a role in managing the psychological care needs. However, a large portion of this variety of care is often assumed by loved ones and non-medical professionals.

While physical care forms a large portion of holistic care needs for the imminently dying, this chapter is primarily concerned with the psychosocial and emotional aspects of death. It integrates theories and current research towards explaining the role that human [[Emotion|emotions]] play in the delivery and receival of [[w:End-of-life care|end-of-life care]]. Although this chapter outlines certain avenues of caregiving, in does not contribute to major medical components such as [[w:Diagnosis|diagnosis]] and [[w:Prognosis|prognosis]].

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}'''Case study'''
June is a 78-year-old Christian women living in an assisted living community. June was recently diagnosed with advanced stage ovarian cancer. Due to her age, June is not eligible for rigorous chemotherapy and radiation treatment. She has not been given an exact timeframe but is told that she should begin getting her affairs in order. With this prognosis, June’s care community have suggested she move from her independent two-bedroom unit into the 24-hour assisted-living facility.

Although June is not yet in physical discomfort, eventually she will require pain relief and subsequent symptomatic management from her caregivers. However, June’s psychological care needs are multidimensional and will require closer attention. With a sudden diagnosis and ensuing change in living arrangements, June has instantly and unexpectedly lost her independence. June used to enjoy owning her own home, with the responsibility of maintenance keeping her busy and fulfilled day-to-day. The loss of her routine has brought up a variety of emotions including disbelief and anger at her new situation. It will be the role of the facility-based psychologist to help June find peace in her prognosis and her unfortunate yet necessary lifestyle change. Initially, June’s team will look to help her find her feet, including trialling new interests that help keep her spirits high.

June will still be able to attend church on Sundays while she is physical capable. However, a time will come when the bus-ride and the short walk into the cathedral will become too physically demanding. It will be at this stage that June will request personal visits from a member of her community-based clergy. Visits from spiritual leaders can have a dramatic impact on a patient’s death experience (LeBaron, Smith, Quinones, Nibecker, Sanders, Timms, Shields, Balboni &amp; Balboni, 2016). These visits will support June and address any spiritual concerns she may have before her death.

'''What do you think?'''
*What emotions are typically associated with death?
*How should June’s team best help her cope with these emotions?
*What support networks should be in place for June?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}'''Focus questions'''
*What aspects of care are often overlooked in psychological care needs?
*How is anticipatory grief best managed?
*How is end-of-life care tailored according to individual circumstance?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What is end-of-life care? ==
[[wikipedia:End-of-life_care|End-of-life care]] (EoLC) is healthcare provided to individuals coming to the end of their lives. The condition of these individuals can vary greatly. Some may be in the advanced stages of a [[w:Terminal illness|terminal illness]] or suffering from significant cognitive deterioration. Others may be healthy, relatively speaking. Care of the imminently dying is generally divided into four areas of care; physical comfort, mental and emotional needs, spiritual issues and practical tasks (National Institute of Aging, 2017). For the purpose of clarity, these four areas will be fitted within either physical or psychological care needs subsections.  

== Who delivers end-of-life care? ==
[[File:Palliative care team.png|thumb|285x285px|''Figure 1.'' Palliative care team components. Ford, 2021. ]]

{{expand}}

=== Palliative care team ===
Given the multiple dimensions involved in palliative care, no one professional can provide holistic caregiving. Therefore, treatment and support for end-of-life patients must be delivered by a multidisciplinary and diverse team. These teams often involve a range of medical professionals, all of which vary in caregiving capabilities and scope of practice. Non-medical professionals for example, pastoral care workers, may also play a role within the team. The precise construction of a palliative care team is dependent of both a patients needs and wishes. 

==== Medical practitioners ====
* General practitioners
* Oncologists – diagnose and treat cancer.
* Neurologists – diagnose and treat nerve diseases.
* Respiratory physicians – diagnose and treat lung diseases.

==== Nurses ====
[[w:Nursing|Nurses]] play a vital role in the delivery of end-of-life care. Nurses often spend more time with a dying patient than do the family and friends of that patient. Subsequently, it is often a nurse who directly reduce the distress and burden for those facing death (Schroeder &amp; Lorenz, 2019). It is the responsibility of a nurse to work together with other appropriate palliative care team members to optimise a patients quality of life. They do so by delivering both physical and psychological care, harnessing the ability to anticipate, treat, and prevent a patients suffering. Notably, nurses are also most likely to have day-to-day interactions with a patients friends and family. This often places them in a type of mediator role between, at times, minimally responsive patients and their loved ones.  

==== Carers ====
Carers are most often found in cases where a patient is receiving end-of-life care in the home (Devlin &amp; McIlfatrick, 2009). For many, in-home care is preferable due to the increase in patients comfort and familiarity. However, an in-home setting often requires 24-hours monitoring which subsequently requires an increase in the number of ongoing team members required to fulfill a patient’s needs. Carers commonly work side-by-side with nurses and share many of the responsibilities of delivering physical care. However, it is important to clarify that carers are trained in caregiving but are not medical professionals. Therefore, the role of a carer is to assist in the delivery of care without overstepping professional or ethical boundaries.  

==== Physiotherapists ====
The primary role of a [[w:Physical therapy|physiotherapist]] in a palliate care team is to manage distressing and debilitating symptoms. They address the physical and functional dimensions of a patients’ suffering by promoting, preventing and treating physical discomfort (Kumar &amp; Jim, 2010). Correct management of pain levels can improve a patients overall function, thus enhancing a patients quality of life. This is now more important than ever, with the average lifespan and therefore, the probability of life-limiting physical debilitation much higher.  

==== Pharmacists ====
Great progress in medicine over the last 60-years has led to longer and healthier lifespans. As a result, the overwhelming majority of end-of-life patients will experience chronic and life-limiting illness before their death (Hawley, 2017). Therefore, ongoing [[w:Medication|pharmaceutical]] treatment is inevitably required in some form, either hospital or community directed. Regardless of delivery direction, it is the role of a pharmacist to work closely with medical practitioners to design and implement an appropriate pharmaceutical treatment plan.

==== Psychiatrists ====
In recent years, widely accepted guidelines and strategies for managing [[w:Psychiatry|psychiatric care]] in end-of-life patients have been under review. The inquest has followed speculations that such standards fail to implement a patient and family centered approach (Galappathie &amp; Khan, 2016). Although different Countries adhere to different guidelines, the inquest did spark revaluation across borders. New formats now largely highlight five priorities for psychiatric care: recognition of anticipated death, communication sensitivity, patient involvement, recognition of family’s needs and personalised care plans (Galappathie &amp; Khan, 2016). This may not have universally altered previous practice, however, it has likely contributed to the increased recognition of acceptable psychological care for dying individuals. 

==== Pastoral care workers ====
[[w:Pastoral care|Pastoral or spiritual care]] workers are commonly found in palliative care teams. Not dissimilar to the role of a psychologist, they are professionals trained in assisting end-of-life patients manage the emotions associated with dying. However, pastoral care workers take on the responsibility of mediating between patients and spiritual leaders such as ministers, priests, rabbis and imams (Gijsberts, Liefbroer, Otten &amp; Olsman, 2019). Those close to death often find comfort in [[w:Religion|religion]] or [[w:Spirituality|spirituality]], thus making it an important aspect of holistic end-of-life care.  

=== Family and loved ones ===
The family and friends of an end-of-life patient also play an important role in caregiving. Although palliative care teams improve a patients comfort and security, it cannot fully replace the care provided by loved ones. Family and friends may not directly contribute to the delivery of physical or psychological care, although in some cases they do, but they often indirectly improve their loved ones [[w:Quality of life|quality of life]]. The presence and support of loved ones, particularly in a patients final days of life can provide reassurance. This is something that cannot be replicated by a palliative care team. &amp;nbsp;

== Physical care needs ==
The ability to provide high-quality palliative care largely relies on a palliative care teams’ competence to understand a patients physical care needs. Research that has investigated dying patients hierarchy of needs has revealed that unless physical needs are fulfilled, other care needs a rarely even considered by a patient (Davison, 2010). Physical needs relating to pain management tend to rank highest on patients personal hierarchies. This may involve fear of pain, which is likely as a result of poor previous pain management and can often be equal to actual experience (Davison, 2010). Regardless, of whether a patients needs centre actual or anticipated physical needs, it is clear that caregivers must address this as a priority.  

=== Pain relief ===
[[w:Pain|Pain]] is extremely common in advanced diseases. With longer lifespans resulting in heightened probability of acquiring a life-limiting illness prior to death, pain management has become increasingly important within palliative care. Effective [[w:Pain management|pain management]] aims to investigate the underlying sources of pain, as well as reduce discomfort at the end of life. Additionally, holistic pain management must also consider approaches to minimising [[w:Analgesic|analgesia]]-related adverse effects and drug interactions (Koh, Song, Kim, Park, Hee Ko &amp; Woo Han, 2017). This consideration often leads to the input of other symptomatic management.   

=== Other symptomatic management ===
The five most common symptoms for persons in palliative care are constipation, breathing difficulties, [[w:Delirium|delirium]], fatigue, nausea and vomiting (Hagmann, Cramer, Kestenbaum, Durazo, Downey, Russell, Gerluz, Ma &amp; Roeland, 2018). Experiences of palliative symptoms can be either acute or chronic in nature. Nausea and vomiting are the most prevalent adverse effects experienced by end-of-life patients (Hagmann et al, 2018). This suffering is compounded by the administration of analgesic medications, resulting in an increased frequency or duration of symptoms. Similarly, constipation is adversely impacted by the prolonged use of [[w:Opioid|opioid]]-based medications, as well as [[w:Polypharmacy|polypharmacy]] (Hagmann et al, 2018). Therefore, to holistically meet the physical care needs of a palliative care patient, pain management must be achieved with consideration of its impact on other end-of-life symptoms.  

== Psychological care needs ==
Although psychological needs are only typically prioritised by palliative patients when their physical care dimensions are being correctly accommodated, psychological care can be as equally important. Psychological care can be defined in terms of concern with the psychological and emotional well-being of a patient. This can include issues of [[w:Self-esteem|self-esteem]], cognitive insight, reflection of illness and its consequences, communication and social functioning (Hudson, Remedios &amp; Thomas, 2010). The span of such issues and the acknowledgment of individual differences, makes the existence of stringent guidelines for psychological care in end-of-life patients impractical. Some patients may require psychiatric support with coming to terms with their prognosis, as was the case for June (''see case study''). Others may simply find comfort in their cultural or religious groups, in the absence of professional psychological support. With this in consideration, standards of practice relating independently to all key components are typically used (Murray, McDonald &amp; Atkin, 2014). The practical task component of holistic caregiving largely refers to assisting a dying individuals with their personal affairs. This may concern an individuals [[w:Will and testament|will and testament]] or their [[w:Advance healthcare directive|advanced care directives]]. Theoretically, effective caregiving within the dimensions of a patients personalised psychological needs will come together and result in overall better psychological health and well-being. 

[[File:Fourcomponents.png|thumb|318x318px|''Figure 2.'' Four components of emotions - based on Reeves 2018. Ford, 2021. ]]

=== Emotions ===
{{expand}}

==== What are emotions? ====
It is difficult to definitively define emotions. This is primarily because emotions are multidimensional and serve a number of varying objectives. This assortment of purpose has been outlined in a number of different ways by a number of different researchers and theorists. [[w:Johnmarshall Reeve|Johnmarshall Reeve]] describes emotional purpose in a four-component model (Reeve, 2018). The four dimensions cover cognitive, biological and behavioural elements and motivations of emotions. A solely cognitive view would describe emotions as feeling states, designed to guide our particular feelings. Alternatively, a biological explanation would discuss emotions in terms of a biological reaction to stimuli with situational cues. Similarly, behavioural elements focus on the generation of urges and impulse that led to action. Regardless of explanatory preference, what has been made clear over years of emotion research is that the understandings are complementary and delivery a comprehensive definition when understood collectively.  

==== Emotional regulation ====
With the clear functional purpose of emotions established, the obvious next question becomes ‘can we control our emotions?’ [[w:Emotional self-regulation|Emotional regulation]] is the human-specific attempt to personally control and influence the emotions we experience. This can involve the specific emotions we experience, when we choose to experience them and how we choose to display that experience (Reeve, 2018). The ability to not only regulate emotions, but also recognise and accurately express them is supportive in death. Psychologist [[w:James Gross|James Gross]] describes five strategies that an individual can use to regulate their emotions. Situation selection, situation modification, attentional focus and reappraisal are proactive attempts, whereas suppression is reactive in nature (Gross, 2002). Further explanation is giving on each strategy type in ''Table 1.''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|'''Emotional  regulation strategy'''
|'''Description'''  
|-
|Situation selection
|Involves taking action to control an emotional reaction. This includes basic decision-making, often about a situation or predicted experience. For example, ‘I will not go out because I will feel anxious’. This can act as both an avoidance and open strategy to emotion. &amp;nbsp;
|-
|Situation modification
|Involves being proactive to change the trajectory of a situation. There is no avoidance attempt within this strategy. Instead, it requires circumstance coping and relies on an individual’s ability to organise and orchestrate an emotional event. &amp;nbsp;
|-
|Attentional focus
|Involves an individual’s attempt to shift their attention in order to avoid or redirect an emotional experience. This is primarily a self-administered distraction strategy made possible by the capacity to enact selective attention. 
|-
|Reappraisal
|Involves cognitively altering the meaning or personal feelings about a situation in an attempt to modify the subsequent emotional experience. This strategy is often invoked in situations of delayed emotional expression. For example, if someone cuts you off while driving to work, you may feel initially angry, but quickly modify your emotions by reflecting on the possible reasons it may have occurred.
|-
|Suppression
|This is the only regulation strategy used to alter an already existing emotional state. This can involve modifying any and all aspects of an emotional experience (see Figure 2). For example, an individual may take a deep breath in an attempt to control bodily arousal brought on by an emotional reaction. 
|}
''Table 1.'' Five emotional regulation strategies. 

[[File:Emotional regulation.png|left|thumb|281x281px|''Figure 4.'' Emotional regulation model - based on Gross, 1998. Ford, 2021. ]]

Based on these regulation strategies, Gross constructed a theoretical model illustrating the basic trajectory in which an emotional episode occurs. This model addresses the emotional trigger as ‘a significant life event’ and describes the stages throughout the emotional experience in which an individual can choose to enact emotional regulation (see Figure 4).  

==== Emotions associated with death ====
* Loss
*Grief 
*Bereavement
*Sadness
* Anger
* Disbelief
* Guilt
* Loneliness

==== Why emotions are important ====
Most people would agree that feelings of sadness, embarrassment or guilt are not often feelings to be desired. This conclusion begs the question of ‘what purpose do emotions serve?’ A popular theoretical approach to this question describes dual benefits in coping and social functions (Keltner and Gross, 1999). Although there is a common recognition of these two elements, different schools of thought approach and explain these elements in extremely different ways. 

==== An evolutionary perspective ====
[[File:Evolutionmarch.png|thumb|''Figure 3.'' Human evolution march. Ford, 2021.|264x264px]]

{{expand}}

=====Coping function=====
Emotions are primitive and evolved as a survival instinct. In order to survive, animals had to learn to constantly adapt to changes in both their physical and social environments (Keltner et al, 1999). These emotionally produced behaviours may have included sourcing food, avoiding injury and caregiving. Understood today, emotions help an individual prioritise certain actions over others. Effective prioritisation leads to an increased capacity to adapt to those physical and social environmental demands. Automated adaption helps an individual cope with both major and day-to-day challenges, placing emotions at the control centre of our actions.

=====Social function=====
Emotions also serve a social function. Similar to coping functionality, an evolutionary perspective can establish a basic blueprint of how emotions were first used by animals for social benefit. For centuries, emotions have been used to navigate through social situations, including for the purpose of essential social problem-solving and the creation and maintenance of interpersonal relationships. Emotions are thought to influence social behaviour in four interconnected ways. Emotions:
# help individuals communicate feelings to one another
# influence how others reciprocate interaction
# facilitate a general willingness to interact
# establish, maintain and terminate social relationships (Reeve, 2018).

Given how important social connection is to our psychological health and wellbeing, it is no surprise the extent to which healthy emotional expression is emphasised.   

== The impacts of COVID-19 ==
{{expand}}

=== Delivery of these needs in a pandemic ===
Despite the clear disparity between Countries{{gr}} experience with the [[w:COVID-19 pandemic|coronavirus pandemic]], healthcare has been pushed beyond it limits globally. The nature of coronavirus has seen widespread restrictions on the delivery of caregiving. Again, these restrictions are different across countries, but have included surgery delays, visiting restrictions or bands and most importantly, removal of certain caregiving components. This has  included patients dying in isolation and without the support and love from their families{{fact}}. It may be too soon to reach a conclusion on the long-term effects of these provisional changes, with many Countries still in the midst of their worst days. However, short-term effects suggest that healthcare patients are suffering from the overall loss of caregiving components they so often rely on.  

=== Compassion fatigue ===
There are known emotional impacts of medical personnel’s involvement in prolonged or mass patient suffering (Alharbi, Jackson &amp; Usher, 2020). With mass casualties occurring from coronavirus globally, questions have elevated on whether [[w:Compassion fatigue|compassion fatigue]] has begun to play a role in caregiving throughout the pandemic. In addition to an increased exposure to patient suffering and death, there has been an introduction of responsibility relating to resource management and rationing (Alharbi, et al, 2020). In many cases, these medical professional have been working with limited resources, with supplies such as ventilators and PPE, and hospital beds in high demand. These factors have likely influenced both caregiving and receiving globally.  

== Conclusion ==
Overall, the holistic care needs of the imminently dying are both physical and psychological in nature. From a basic hierarchical perspective, physical needs lead, with physical discomfort or pain ensuring that a patient generally disregard their other needs. While physical care forms a large portion of dying patients care needs, this chapter was primarily concerned with the psychosocial and emotional aspects of death. The psychological needs of a patient are largely based on individual differences, personal preferences and experience with death. Emotions play a significant role in determining these elements of care. James Gross’s work was used to illustrate the importance of emotions and emotional regulation strategies in the end stages of life. A more comprehensive understanding of emotions associated with death, including strategies on how best to approach these emotions would benefit both caregiver and care receiver.

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Emotion regulation and ageing|Emotion regulation and aging]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Funerals and grief work|Funerals and grief work]] (Book chapter, 2020)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2019/Death anxiety stages|Death anxiety stages]] (Book chapter, 2019)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Assisted dying motivation|Assisted dying motivation]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Death and emotion|Death and emotion]] (Book chapter, 2014)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Alharbi, J., Jackson, D., &amp; Usher, K. (2020). The potential for COVID-19 to contribute to compassion fatigue in critical care nurses. ''Journal of clinical nursing'', ''29''(15-16), 2762–2764. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/jocn.15314 https://doi.org/10.1111/jocn.15314]

Bischoff, K., O'Riordan, D. L., Marks, A. K., Sudore, R., &amp; Pantilat, S. Z. (2018). Care Planning for Inpatients Referred for Palliative Care Consultation. ''JAMA internal medicine'', ''178''(1), 48–54. [https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamainternalmedicine/fullarticle/2663853 https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2017.6313]

Davison, S. N. (2010). End-of-Life Care Preferences and Needs: Perceptions of Patients with Chronic Kidney Disease. ''Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology, 5''(2), 195-204. [https://cjasn.asnjournals.org/content/5/2/195 https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.05960809]

Devlin, M., &amp; McIlfatrick, S. (2009). The role of the home-care worker in palliative and end-of-life care in the community setting: a literature review. ''International journal of palliative nursing, 15''(11), 526–532. [https://www.magonlinelibrary.com/doi/abs/10.12968/ijpn.2009.15.11.45491 https://doi.org/10.12968/ijpn.2009.15.11.45491]

Galappathie, N., &amp; Khan, S. T. (2016). End-of-life care in psychiatry: 'one chance to get it right'. ''BJPsych bulletin'', ''40''(1), 38–40. [https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bjpsych-bulletin/article/endoflife-care-in-psychiatry-one-chance-to-get-it-right/308C2E72427E51CF43EA5AD7734F0476 https://doi.org/10.1192/pb.bp.114.049684]

Gijsberts, M., Liefbroer, A. I., Otten, R., &amp; Olsman, E. (2019). Spiritual Care in Palliative Care: A Systematic Review of the Recent European Literature. ''Medical sciences (Basel, Switzerland), 7''(2), 25. [https://www.mdpi.com/2076-3271/7/2/25 https://doi.org/10.3390/medsci7020025]

Gross, J. (2002). Emotion regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. ''Psychophysiology, 39''(3), 281-291. [https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1017/S0048577201393198 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0048577201393198]

Gross, J. J. (2014). Emotion regulation: Conceptual and empirical foundations. In J. J. Gross (Eds), ''Handbook of emotion regulation'' (pp. 3–20). The Guilford Press. https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2013-44085-001

Hagmann, C., Cramer, A., Kestenbaum, A., Durazo, C., Downey, A., Russell, M., Geluz, J., Ma, J. D., &amp; Roeland, E. J. (2018). Evidence-based Palliative Care Approaches to Non-pain Physical Symptom Management in Cancer Patients. ''Seminars in Oncology Nursing'', ''34''(3), 227–240. [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S074920811830038X?via%3Dihub https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soncn.2018.06.004]

Hawley, P. (2017). Barriers to Access to Palliative Care. ''Palliative Care: Research and Treatment, 10.'' [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/1178224216688887 https://doi.org/10.1177/1178224216688887]

Hudson, P. L., Remedios, C., 7 Thomas, K. (2010). A systematic review of psychosocial interventions for family carers of palliative care patients. ''BMC palliat Care, 9''(17), 1-6. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20687960/ https://doi.org/10.1186/1472-684X-]

Keltner, D., &amp; Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. ''Cognition and Emotion, 13''(5), 467–480. [https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/026999399379140 https://doi.org/10.1080/026999399379140]

Koh, J. C., Song, Y., Kim, S. Y., Park, S., Ko, S. H., &amp; Han, D. W. (2017). Postoperative pain and patient-controlled epidural analgesia-related adverse effects in young and elderly patients: a retrospective analysis of 2,435 patients. ''Journal of pain research'', ''10'', 897–904. [https://www.dovepress.com/postoperative-pain-and-patient-controlled-epidural-analgesia-related-a-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-JPR https://doi.org/10.2147/JPR.S133235]

Kumar, S. P., &amp; Jim, A. (2010). Physical therapy in palliative care: from symptom control to quality of life: a critical review. ''Indian journal of palliative care'', ''16''(3), 138–146. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21218003/ https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1075.73670]

LeBaron, V. T., Smith, P. T., Quiñones, R., Nibecker, C., Sanders, J. J., Timms, R., Shields, A. E., Balboni, T. A., &amp; Balboni, M. J. (2016). How Community Clergy Provide Spiritual Care: Toward a Conceptual Framework for Clergy End-of-Life Education. ''Journal of pain and symptom management'', ''51''(4), 673–681. [https://www.jpsmjournal.com/article/S0885-3924(15)00965-3/fulltext https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpainsymman.2015.11.016]

Murray, C., McDonald, C., &amp; Atkin, H. (2015). The communication experiences of patients with palliative care needs: A systematic review and meta-synthesis of qualitative findings. ''Palliative and Supportive Care, 13''(2), 369-383. [https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24784479/ https://doi:10.1017/S1478951514000455]

National Institute on Aging. (2017, May 17). ''Providing Care and Comfort at the End of Life''. U.S Department of Health Services. https://www.nia.nih.gov/health/providing-comfort-end-life

Reeve, J. (2018). Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions. In J. Reeve (Eds), ''Understanding Motivation and Emotion 7&lt;sup&gt;th&lt;/sup&gt;'' (pp. 285-312). Wiley.

Schroeder, K. &amp; Lorenz, K. (2018). Nursing and the Future of Palliative Care. ''Asia-Pacific Journal of Oncology Nursing, 5''(1), 4-8. [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5763437/ https://doi.org/10.4103/apjon.apjon_43_17]

Stroebe, M., Schut, H., &amp; Boener, K. (2017). Cautioning Health Care Professionals: Bereaved Persons Are Misguided Through the Stages of Grief. ''OMEGA - Journal of Death and Dying, 74''(4), 455-473. [https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0030222817691870 https://doi.org/10.1177/0030222817691870]
}}

== External links ==
* [https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2013/198/4/meeting-end-life-care-needs-people-chronic-disease-palliative-care-not-enough Medical Journals of Australia: Meeting end-of-life care needs for people with chronic disease: palliative care is not enough.] 
* [https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2013/198/9/palliative-care-everyones-business-it-yours-doctor Medical Journal of Australia: Palliative care is everyone's business - Is it yours, doctor?]
* [https://www.mja.com.au/journal/2015/203/10/routine-integration-palliative-care-what-will-it-take Medical Journal of Australia: Routine integration of palliative care: what will it take?]

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__TOC__
== Overview ==
[[File:Frustration of needs.png|thumb|150px|''Figure 1''. Aarrrgghh{{explain}}]]

Most people have experienced the euphoria of achievement, and mastering important milestones, such as riding a bicycle or graduating from college. People's happiest memories often involve feeling deeply connected to other people, such as during family holidays or falling in love. Additionally, many people opt for tree- or sea-changes in response to yearning for a lifestyle free of obligations and responsibilities, and to live close to one's own values. The reason these life experiences feel good is because they satisfy our basic psychological needs and provide intrinsic reward and enjoyment. However, life experiences change when these needs are unmet, and especially when they are frustrated. 

This chapter:
# identifies the {{what}} underpinning theory
# looks at what basic psychological needs are
# defines frustration; and
# examines causes and situations where this {{what}} occurs.

== Theoretical constructs ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological needs theory]] (BPNT) is one of the six sub-theories of [[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|self-determination theory]] (SDT). SDT is a theory of personality and motivation concerning people's inborn inclination to, and need for, growth and development. It is concerned with the motivation behind the choices people make for their own volition, without being influenced by others (Koole et al, 2019). A well-known sub-theory of SDT is [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Figure 2), and is depicted as a pyramid with levels. In ascending order, the pyramid begins with basic physiological needs, basic psychological needs (BPNs), and finally more advanced needs. The model implies that, beginning at the base, one can only progress to the next level when the previous need has been met. Furthermore, the satisfaction of all needs will lead to the stage of [[self-actualisation]].    

Satisfying BPNs is a requirement to become a fully-functioning human being (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). BPNs assist the development of intrinsic and internalised motivation for engagement in important life skills, and pro-social behaviours which contribute to wellbeing (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). [[Intrinsic motivation|Intrinsically motivated]] activities are deeply satisfying and self-sustaining as they produce their own reward, as opposed to goals which are directed by extrinsic motivation such as praise, money, or to avoid negative outcomes (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017; Reeve &amp; Lee, 2018). Frustration of BPNs can result in external regulation, motivation that derives from trying to meet these external expectations (Reeve &amp; Lee, 2018); or introjected regulation, to escape feeling guilty or worthless (Warburton et al., 2020).

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+Self determination theory - Types of extrinsic motivation
!Type
!Motivation behind the behaviour
|-
|External regulation
|Anticipation of reward or punishment
|-
|Introjected regulation
|Obligation, to avoid guilt or boost self-esteem 
|-
|Identified regulation
|Valuing the behaviour as important 
|-
|Integrated regulation
|Aligning with the individual's own values and self-identity
|}
''Table 1''. Four types of intrinsic motivation (Reeve, 2018)

[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.webp.png|thumb|''Figure 2''. Maslow's hierarchy of needs (Wikimedia Commons, 2020)]]

Ongoing external or introjected regulation can lead to a wide range of negative outcomes, such as burn-out and low mood in athletes (Bartholomew et al., 2011), and poor functioning in work (Trepanier et al., 2016), study (Jang et al., 2016), romantic relationships (Kindt et al., 2016) and physical exercise (Teixeira et al., 2018). Frustration of BPNs can also lead to compensatory-type behaviours, including inflexible patterns of behaviour, such as study or exercise routines, in seeking a sense of safety and predictability (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2000), oppositional defiance, aggression and delinquency, in attempts to resist feeling controlled, problematic usage of computer gaming and dating apps, in seeking connection with others and intimacy, and dysfunctional eating and body-image fixation (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020){{ic|long sentence}}. Hence, frustration of BPNs can hinder the development of a coherent self-identity, and result in emotional dysregulation, disengagement, and multiple forms of maladjustment to life (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).

== What is frustration of basic psychological needs? ==
Frustration of BPNs is different from neglect, which is merely the absence of something. Frustration implies a stronger process that actively prevents needs being met (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Human beings have a natural tendency to gravitate towards growth-eliciting experiences under supportive circumstances, so when they are prevented from doing so, this can impact their development and life satisfaction, health and well-being (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). The following scenario distinguishes between psychological need frustration as opposed to neglect.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
A university assignment is designed to present optimal development opportunities for students. Simply not engaging in the task would be neglectful of a student's competence. However, if a student had numerous questions about an assignment and in seeking advice and guidance was provided with information that was incorrect, in a language they didn't understand, the lecturer was consistently unavailable, or they couldn't access the resources they needed, this may result in frustration of their need for competence, autonomy and even relatedness.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== What are the basic psychological needs? ==
BPNs have been defined as universal &quot;psychological nutrients&quot; that are essential to create and sustain a person's optimal functioning, personal growth and wellbeing (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). These basic needs direct people to become self-organised, well-adjusted, and to flourish (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). BPNT identifies three BPNs: [[wikipedia:Autonomy|autonomy]], [[wikipedia:Competence|competence]] and relatedness. Autonomy relates to having a sense of control and choice over one's decisions; competence involves developing and mastering skills and knowledge to be able to function well in life; and relatedness refers to the need for at least some relationships to be based on closeness, warmth and caring. Cases for the inclusion of other psychological needs have been argued; however, these three have been shown to be universal across personalities, developmental history, cultures, genders and ages (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020). These needs may vary in intensity or importance to some extent according to the individual's personality and personal priorities, the situational context, and the probability of satisfying these needs (McClelland, 1985).   

[[File:Basic needs.png|thumb|''Figure 3''. Basic psychological needs]]

Having one's psychological needs met promotes adaptive functioning, vitality, personal growth, health and wellbeing (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017). Currently, there is little research exploring the frustration of these BPNs. The reality is that frustration is very common, and that most social contexts are a mixture of elements that both support and thwart growth and wellbeing (Reeve &amp; Lee, 2018). Bartholomew et al. (2011) refers to these two processes in the dual process model, as the &quot;bright side&quot; and &quot;dark side&quot; of relationships (see Figure 4), indicating the benefits of BPNs being met and the costs involved when they are frustrated. Additionally, whether one attributes a need as being satisfied or frustrated can fluctuate from day-to-day or during the course of a day (Sheldon, Ryan, &amp; Reis, 1996).

== What are the causes of frustration? ==
The social environment is key in either supporting or thwarting one or more of these BPNs (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2017) as demonstrated in the following case study.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Case Study: [https://inmyblooditruns.com/ In My Blood It Runs] (Australian Broadcasting Corporation documentary, 2019).

10-year old Dujuan, grew up in Alice Springs where he lived with his mother, maternal grandmother and younger siblings. Dujuan was struggling with the school curriculum that was delivered in English - his second language - and he worried that he would be removed from his family for falling behind. Additionally, he found failing to obtain satisfactory grades humiliating and demotivating. Faced with poor report cards and increasing disengagement in the classroom, Dujuan began to truant and to explore his outback surroundings with his brother and friends instead, thereby giving him a greater sense of freedom, purpose and connection with others. 

In response to growing boredom and frustration, Dujuan joined the other youths at night becoming involved in petty crime and was on the pathway to juvenile detention, where Indigenous children as young as 10 are incarcerated in detention centres in the Northern Territory. Strain theory can provide an explanation as to why young people join gangs and how a lifestyle of petty crime can satisfy unmet basic psychological needs. We see this in Dujuan’s story as he began to develop skills in stealing cars, thus increasing his sense of control and competence, while at the same time being esteemed by his peers for these developing skills. 

In desperation, Dujuan’s mother and grandmother sent Dujuan to live with his father in a remote community in the Gulf of Carpentaria. This appears to be the turning point for Dujuan: It is here we see him engaged in the local school that taught Aboriginal language and culture, completing his homework, and spending time with his father fishing and hunting, learning new skills and developing his connection with family and country.  

Dujuan flew to Geneva at the time of the release of this documentary to appear at the [https://www.ohchr.org/en/hrbodies/hrc/pages/home.aspx Human Rights Council] to advocate for the raising of the legal age of juvenile detention from 10 to 14, in line with the average age of incarceration in the global population. {{RoundBoxBottom}}

Fostering support of another's BPNs requires awareness and specific skills (Reeve, 2018); as a result, many social situations and environments fall short of ideal. Adverse childhood experiences can thwart BPNs (Afifi et al., 2017). These include child abuse and neglect (physical, emotional and sexual), exposure to domestic and family violence, and other parental events and behaviours such as divorce or separation, substance abuse, mental illness, suicide, and jail terms (Afifi et al., 2017).

[[File:Dual-Process Model Image.pdf|thumb|''Figure 4''. Dual-process model in supportive and thwartive relationships (Reeve, 2018.)]]

[[File:Corporal punishment (1).pdf|thumb|244x244px|''Figure 5''. Immediate and long-term consequences of corporal punishment (spanking) (Reeve, 2018)]]

== What are the consequences of frustration? ==
Thwarting BPNs can result in a wide range of maladaptive developmental and situational outcomes, including self-centredness, passive resignation, defensiveness, aggression, and misery (Ryan &amp; Deci, 2020). Situations often involve more than one BPN, and these intersect with physiological needs as well as each other (Vanskeenkiste et al., 2020). The sections below will provide specific examples of frustration for each BPN.   

=== Autonomy-frustration ===
History demonstrates the effects of colonialism from the late 18th century, which suppressed and denied the basic human rights and autonomy of Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Dispossessed of their land, and denied the right to practice cultural traditions or to speak their native languages, many Indigenous people have developed high rates of chronic disease, distress and mental health disorders, such as depression, alcohol and other drug dependencies, and are overrepresented in the criminal and justice system (Hamptom &amp; Toombs, 2013).

[[wikipedia:Slavery|Slavery]] provides another extreme example, which has been cited as one of the most psychologically traumatic events from which some victims never fully recover (Longman-Mills et al., 2019). Slavery and kidnapping impact mood, behaviour, and cognition in ways consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder (Longman-Mills et al., 2019). These include &quot;fear, anxiety, denial, sadness, dissociation and guilt with surviving, as well as extreme helplessness and hopelessness&quot; (Longman-Mills et al, 2019) Typical behaviours include &quot;social withdrawal, hypervigilance, hyperarousal, avoidance of reminders of the event, and irritability&quot;; while cognitive reactions include deficits in memory and concentration, flashbacks and confusion (Longman-Mills et al, 2019).

Additionally, controlling and punitive school, sport or work pressures can undermine enjoyment or satisfaction in one's achievements, and leave participants feeling emotionally and physically drained (Ryan et al., 2009). Warburton et al., (2020) illustrate the pressure to compete in sport from parents, coaches, sporting associations and spectators, which can lead to [[amotivation]], low functioning, and adverse outcomes (Reeve &amp; Lee, 2018).

=== Competence-frustration ===
A classic example of competence-frustration occurs during toddlers' developmental years, the 'terrible-twos'. As many parents will testify, children often have overwhelming feelings of frustration in not being able to try out and fulfil desired activities, resulting in emotional outbursts or tantrums. The consistent frustration of the development of skills can lead to feelings of failure, inadequacy, uselessness and helplessness (Vanskeenkiste et al., 2020), and result in amotivation (Reeve, 2018) and learned helplessness (Seligman, 1972).

In examining the impact of intrinsic motivation on physical exercise levels, Ryan et al. (2009) found that when faced with non-optimal and overwhelming challenges, incompetence and disengagement are experienced. This finding can be exemplified as a person embarking on a healthy exercise and eating regime, that, at first, feels overwhelming. Subsequently, it is all too easy for this person to give up, and instead, reach for that Tim Tams packet and switch on Netflix. 

Sports injuries can be competence-frustrating experiences which can lead to the emotional responses of frustration, depression, anger and anxiety (Johnston &amp; Carroll, 1998). Frustration can increase if rehabilitation is viewed negatively, and these negative emotions can lead to exercise withdrawal. Li et al. (2019) found that frustration of BPNs in university athletes was associated with higher stress levels which negatively impacted attention, neuromuscular control and immune responses which then contributed to sports injury. Injured athletes respond in two ways, they may become disillusioned, leading to apathy and amotivation, or they may divert their vital energy into other meaningful and intrinsically rewarding pursuits (Li et al., 2019). Social support for the satisfaction of basic psychological needs was crucial for fostering internalisation of behaviours which lead to maintaining these behaviours over time (Ryan et al., 2009).   

Competence-frustration can be a regular daily occurrence in response to critical feedback on task performance at work or at home. This can lead to people becoming discouraged and disengaged (Ryan et al, 2009). Criticism of one's skills or competence is one of the leading contributors to relationship breakdown and divorce (Gottman &amp; Silver, 2015).

=== Relatedness-frustration ===
Effects of relatedness-frustration include feeling excluded, socially isolated, lonely, and craving security (Vansteenkiste et al., 2020).  Extreme relatedness-frustration can be seen in the 'Stolen Generations', where the government-sanctioned removal of Indigenous children from their families during the mid-1800s to the 1970s. This practice contributed to [[wikipedia:Transgenerational_trauma|intergenerational trauma]], the psycho-socio-economic effects of which are still evident today, such as a pervasive feeling of shame and worthlessness, anxiety, loss of identity and belonging, mental and physical ill-health, and poverty (Hamptom &amp; Toombs, 2013).

Relatedness-frustration is also outlined in the increased rates of loneliness and social isolation in developed countries, especially in the older generation (Campagne, 2019; Fakoya et al, 2020). 50% of people over the age of 60 are at risk of social isolation and loneliness, and 33% will experience social isolation as they age. The health risks of loneliness and social isolation have been equated to those of smoking, obesity and lack of exercise, and attributed to a wide range of negative health outcomes, including compromised immunity to infection, cognitive decline, depression and dementia (Fakoya, 2020).       

A final example of relatedness-frustration is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Punishment as a motivator|corporal punishment]], or 'spanking' of children, which can damage attachment to primary care givers and result in life-long problematic interpersonal relationships (Gershoff et al., 2018). Spanking can result in impaired emotional regulation and social skills through a lower internalisation of socially-acceptable attitudes (Afifi et al., 2017), and can be replaced with an aggressive and violent style of managing conflict, learned through observation, modelling and the justification of violence (Gershoff et al., 2018). Spanking does not teach children the value of the desired behaviour, effective communication and problem-solving skills, or the impact of their behaviour on others (Hoffman, 1983). Spanking is a form of child abuse (Afifi et al., 2017) which can disrupt children's ability to form close and trusting relationships and to behave in appropriately social ways (Gershoff et al, 2018). This poor self-control and aggression can continue throughout the lifespan manifesting in delinquency, abuse of alcohol and street drugs, depression, suicide attempts, domestic and family violence and criminal behaviour (Afifi et al., 2017; Simons et al., 1998), as depicted in Figure 5, in addition to an increased risk of cancer, cardiac disease and asthma (Hyland et al., 2013).

== Quiz ==
''Note: There are no right or wrong answers, the questions are merely designed to prompt reflection.''

When have your basic psychological needs been frustrated?
* At school or university
* With parents
* In romantic relationships
* Other

How has this affected your motivation?
* Anger has motivated me to try harder to achieve my goals
* I gave up trying
* I tried to please others at my own expense
* Other

Knowing what you know now, would you handle a similar situation differently?
* Yes I would try advocate for myself more strongly
* No, I usually just give in
* I could possibly develop better negotiating skills
* Other

==Conclusion==
The satisfaction of BPNs is essential for optimal functioning, personal growth, and wellbeing. Few people have full control over their lives and circumstances or how other people treat them. Therefore, frustration frequently occurs when BPNs are actively blocked in interpersonal relationships and social situations, most of which provide a mixture of need-satisfaction and need-frustration. Since it requires awareness, care and skills to support the psychological needs of others, children are especially vulnerable when parents and other significant people in their lives disregard and even abuse their needs in pursuit of satisfying their own. Frustration of BPNs can result in severe consequences throughout the lifespan, such as an inability to form secure, close and rewarding relationships, a continued cycle of domestic and family violence, aggression, negative physical and mental health outcomes, and criminal and other antisocial activities. Frustration can also prevent the achievement of life goals in employment, education, sport and social contexts. Many of these social situations promote external regulation which can result in low achievement, overwhelm, amotivation and learned helplessness. Additionally, frustration of BPNs can result in discouragement, high stress levels, lowered immunity, and disengagement. Social support has been found to be key in preventing and coping with frustration, in assisting an internalisation of positive attitudes and behaviours which leads to an intrinsically rewarding life. 

==See also ==
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Basic psychological need theory|Basic psychological need theory (Book chapter, 2020)]]
*[[wikipedia:Transgenerational_trauma|Intergenerational trauma]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Interpersonal_relationship|Interpersonal relationships]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Learned_helplessness helplessness|Learned helplessness]] (Wikipedia)
*[[wikipedia:Parenting|Parenting]] (Wikipedia)
*[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2014/Punishment as a motivator|Punishment as a motivator]] (Book chapter, 2014) 
*[[wikipedia:Self-determination_theory|Self-determination theory (Wikipedia)]]

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Afifi, T. O., Ford, D., Gershoff, E. T., Merrick, M., Grogan-Kaylor, A., Ports, K. A., MacMillan, H. L., Holden, G. W., Taylor, C. A., Lee, S. J., &amp; Bennett, R. P. (2017). Spanking and adult mental health impairment: The case for the designation of spanking as an adverse childhood experience. ''Child Abuse &amp; Neglect, 71'', 24-31. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0145213417300145

Australian Broadcasting Association. (2019). ''In my blood it runs'' [Film]. Australia.

Bartholomew, K., Ntoumanis, N., Ryan, R., Bosch, J., &amp; Thøgersen-Ntoumani, C. (2011). Self-Determination Theory and Diminished Functioning. ''Personality And Social Psychology Bulletin, 37''(11), 1459-1473. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167211413125&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Campagne, D. (2019). Stress and perceived social isolation (loneliness). ''Archives Of Gerontology And Geriatrics, 82'', 192-199. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.archger.2019.02.007

Buzzai, C., Sorrenti, L., Costa, S., Toffle, M., &amp; Filippello, P. (2021). The relationship between school-basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration, academic engagement and academic achievement. ''School Psychology International'', 014303432110171. https://doi.org/10.1177/01430343211017170

Fakoya, O. A., McCorry, N. K., &amp; Donnelly, M. (2020). Loneliness and social isolation interventions for older adults: a scoping review of reviews. ''BMC public health, 20''(1), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-8251-6

Gershoff, E. T. (2002). Corporal punishment by parents and associated child behaviors and experiences: A meta-analytic and theoretical review. ''Psychological Bulletin, 128''(4), 539–579. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.128.4.539

Gershoff, E., Sattler, K., &amp; Ansari, A. (2018). Strengthening causal estimates for links between spanking and children’s externalizing behavior problems. ''Psychological Science, 29''(1), 110-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617729816

Gottman, J., &amp; Silver, N. (2015). ''The seven principles for making marriage work''. Harmony.

Hampton, R., &amp; Toombs, M. (2013). ''Indigenous Australians and health''. Oxford University Press Australia &amp; New Zealand.

Hoffman, M. L. (1983). Affective and cognitive processes in moral internalization. ''Social cognition and social development'' (pp. 236–274). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Hyland, M. E., Alkhalaf, A. M., &amp; Whalley, B. (2013). Beating and insulting children as a risk for adult cancer, cardiac disease and asthma. ''Journal of behavioral medicine, 36''(6), 632–640. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-012-9457-6

Jang, H., Kim, E. J., &amp; Reeve, J. (2016). Why students become more engaged or more disengaged during the semester: self-determination theory dual-process model. ''Learning and Instruction 43'', 27-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2016.01.002

Johnston, L. H., &amp; Carroll, D. (1998). The context of emotional responses to athletic injury: a qualitative analysis. ''Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 7''(3), 206-220. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.7.3.206

Kindt, S., Vansteenskiste, M., Loeys, T., &amp; Goubert, L., (2016). Helping motivation and well-being of chronic pain couples: A daily diary study. ''Pain. 157'', 1551-1562. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000550

Koole, S. L., Schlinkert, C., Maldei, T., Baumann, N. (2019). Becoming who you are: An integrative review of self-determination theory and personality systems interactions theory. ''Journal of Personality. 87''(1): 15–36. 
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6378399/

Li, C., Ivarsson, A., Lam, L. T., &amp; Sun, J. (2019). Basic psychological needs satisfaction and frustration, stress, and sports injury among university athletes: a four-wave prospective survey. ''Frontiers in psychology, 10'', 665. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00665

Longman-Mills, S., Mitchell, C., &amp; Abel, W. (2019). The psychological trauma of slavery: The Jamaican case study. ''Social and Economic Studies, 68''(3), 79-101,263-264. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/psychological-trauma-slavery-jamaican-case-study/docview/2471029332/se-2?accountid=28889

McClelland, D. C. (1985). How motives, skills, and values determine what people do. ''American Psychologist, 40''(7), 812–825. 
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.40.7.812

Reeve, J. (2018). ''Understanding motivation and emotion'' (7th ed.). Wiley Custom.

Reeve, J., &amp; Lee, W. (2018). A neuroscientific perspective on basic psychological needs. ''Journal Of Personality, 87''(1), 102-114. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopy.12390

Ryan, R. M., &amp; Deci, E. L. (2017). ''Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness''. Guildford Press. https://doi.org/10.7202/1041847ar

Ryan, R. M. &amp; Deci, E. L. (2020). Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development and well-being. ''American Psychologist, 55'', 68-78.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.55.1.68

Ryan, R. M., Williams, G. C., Deci, H. P, &amp; Deci, E. L. (2009) Self-determination theory and physical activity: The dynamics of motivation in development and wellness. ''Hellenic Journal of Psychology, 6'', 107-124. http://selfdeterminationtheory.org/SDT/documents/2009_RyanWilliamsPatrickDeci_HJOP.pdf

Salvagioni, D. A. J., Melanda, F. N., Mesas, A. E., González, A. D., Gabani, F. L., &amp; Andrade, S. M. D. (2017). Physical, psychological and occupational consequences of job burnout: A systematic review of prospective studies. ''PloS one, 12''(10), e0185781. https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0185781

Seligman, M. E. P. (1972). Learned helplessness. ''Annual Review of Medicine. 23''(1): 407–412. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.me.23.020172.002203

Sheldon, K., Ryan, R., &amp; Reis, H. (1996). What makes for a good day? Competence and autonomy in the day and in the person. ''Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22''(12), 1270-1279. https://doi.org/10.1177/01461672962212007

Teixeira, D., S., Silva, M. N., &amp; Palmeira, A. L. (2018.) How does frustration make you feel? A motivational analysis in exercise context. ''Motivation and Emotion, 42'', 419-428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-018-9690-6

Trepanier, S. G., Fernet, C., &amp; Austin, S. (2016.) Longitudinal relationships between workplace bullying, basic psychological needs, and employee functioning: A simultaneous investigation of psychological need satisfaction and need frustration. ''European Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 25'', 690-706. https://doi.org/10.1080/1359432x.2015.1132200

Vansteenkiste, M., Ryan, R., &amp; Soenens, B. (2020). Basic psychological need theory: Advancements, critical themes, and future directions. ''Motivation And Emotion, 44''(1), 1-31. [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09818-1]

Warburton, V., Wang, J., Bartholomew, K., Tuff, R., &amp; Bishop, K. (2020). Need satisfaction and need frustration as distinct and potentially co-occurring constructs: Need profiles examined in physical education and sport. ''Motivation And Emotion, 44''(1), 54-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-019-09798-2}}

== External Links ==
*[https://www.un.org/en/global-issues/human-rights Basic human rights] (Unitednations.org)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aqX5IFKYFWk Dealing with anger, resistance and pessimism] (Eckhart Tolle, YouTube, Tedx Talk, 2012)
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SWqi9whHeKM It's time to talk about psychological and verbal Abuse] (Lizzy Glazer, YouTube, Tedx Talk)
*[https://www.parenttraining.com.au/our-courses/course-outline/ Parent effectiveness training] (Training course)

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__TOC__
==Overview==
Have you ever been inspired to wake up at 6am to exercise after a health scare? Have you changed your own behaviour or actions during the COVID-19 pandemic, such as suddenly avoiding others and stocking up on food and other groceries? These are some examples of satisfying survival needs that we believe to be necessary to support and preserve our own health and wellbeing.

Satisfying survival needs is crucial to sustaining human life. Survival needs typically mean satisfying the basic physiological needs of water, food, shelter and acquiring enough sleep. However, survival needs for human beings is more complex than satisfying basic physiological needs. Human survival to support wellbeing can also include the need to satisfy social, emotional and psychological wellbeing. To satisfy the range of survival needs, human behaviour is motivated to change.

Motivational drive for our survival is considered to be a function of internal states as well as external environmental conditions and influences (Simpson &amp; Balsam, 2016).

What drives our behaviour is our goal of satisfying a survival need{{clarify}}. Understanding what motivates these goal-driven behaviours can help both researchers and practitioners alike to recognise contributing factors, regulate behaviour and support wellbeing.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are our survival needs?
* Can survival needs motivate change in our behaviour?
* Are we consciously aware of our motivations and behaviours to satisfy survival needs?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
;Case study - Yeonmi Park{{fact}}
Yeonmi Park often reflected upon the lights in the distance of China from her home on the border in North Korea. She often thought that where the lights were, there would be a bowl of rice to satisfy her hunger. Her family fell victim to famine and her father was sent to a labour camp for selling smuggled goods. As she, her sister and her mother starved, at the age of 13 she decided to escape to the lights that she saw in the night in China.

However, Yeonmi did not know what the term or the concept of escape was. She did not understand what the concept of freedom was. To her at the time, those words did not exist and had no meaning. Her basic survival needs were not being met in North Korea, and she became motivated to find food, survive and avoid hunger. Despite not knowing what it meant to escape, her needs drove her into action. The motivation to avoid starvation saw Yeonmi and her family swim across a frozen river into China. 

In China, Yeonmi and her family’s wellbeing were still under threat. They fell into the hands of human traffickers and Yeonmi and her mother were sold into sex slavery. Sadly, Yeonmi was sold and separated from her mother and sister. As a victim of human trafficking, Yeonmi had her first full meal. For the first time in her life, she felt full. It was the very first time in her life that she did not have to constantly think about food. And yet, Yeonmi developed suicidal ideations. She was separated from her family. She had no place to call home. The man who trafficked her informed Yeonmi that he knew the location of her mother, and that it was possible that they could reunite. This information alone reignited the motivation for Yeonmi to survive once again and strive toward a new goal of reuniting with her family.

Yeonmi eventually did reunite with her mother, where they managed to escape into Mongolia and then to South Korea as refugees. To Yeonmi, and her family, the risk of being caught, the risk of falling into human trafficking and sex slavery and traveling across frozen rivers and deserts did not deter them from striving to meet their survival needs. Satisfying the basic need for food, safety and security, and belonging was motivation enough to put into action risk taking behaviours. Yeonmi Park now lives in America as a Human Rights Activist and as a free woman. 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are survival needs? ==
{{expand}}

=== Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs ===
When we first think of survival needs, we think of the key physiological factors. These such factors are:

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Food

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Water

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Sleep

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Shelter

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Sex

These factors are considered the dominant drives to actioning behaviour. However, studies have shown that there are more complex factors that contribute to our survival as human beings and satisfying our physiological needs are not enough to sustain a healthy life. There are more complex needs that drive our behaviour.

[[wikipedia:Abraham_Maslow|Abraham Maslow’s]] Humanistic approach introduced the theory that the survival needs of human beings included more than the foundational physiological needs. According to Maslow, human beings are constantly striving for growth and self- realisation. In his theory, Maslow believed that humans are internally motivated by the need to become ‘self-actualised’. As a result, Maslow produced the Hierarchy of Needs. This hierarchy began with five distinct categories that were believed to drive human behaviour (See Figure 2): 


[[File:Maslow's_Hierarchy_of_Needs2.svg|Figure 1: The Hierarchy of Needs |frame]]'''Maslow’s 5 categories are:'''

'''· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;''' &amp;nbsp;Physiological Needs

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Safety Needs

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Belonging Needs

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Esteem Needs &amp;nbsp;

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Self-Actualisation


According to the hierarchy, humans are driven to progress from the foundations of satisfying our physiological needs towards [[wikipedia:Self-actualization|self-actualisation]]. As human beings, we are driven to do more and to be more and become a part of a community and society (Maslow, 1943). What does it mean to be self-actualized? According to Maslow (1987) this meant to be at peace with oneself in life.

We move from just being happy with food, shelter and water to needing emotional and social gratification. We seek this gratification through means of safety, establishing a sense of love and belonging, knowing our own individual identity and social identity through esteem needs, and finally acquiring self-actualisation (Maslow, 1987). Deficiency in one, or more, of the categories in the hierarchy ignites the drive to action behaviour to satisfy that need (Winston, 2016). According to Maslow’s theory, human beings become overwhelmed with the drive to satisfy a need when it is deficient. As a result, Maslow proposed that when the deficiency is severe enough, we become obsessed with acquiring and satisfying that distinct need (Maslow, 1987; Winston, 2016). &amp;nbsp;However, higher order needs such as belonging, esteem and self-actualisation cannot be fulfilled until the foundational needs are first satisfied (Winston, 2016). Until the physiological and safety needs are met, we cannot progress to reaching our emotional and psychological needs.

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs faces one distinct limitation: there is no method to measure when an individual has satisfied one need before moving on to the next (Seligman, 2002; Winston, 2016). Despite this, the hierarchy of needs has been referenced as a foundation to understanding behaviour motivation in relation to human survival needs. Some later theories have reduced the number of needs, and others have used Maslow’s hierarchy to suggest additional needs. Regardless, each category of the hierarchy of needs has often been identified as key features of motivation and actioning behaviour.

==Physiological needs ==
{{expand}}

=== Dopamine and motivating survival behaviour ===
Survival needs can be described as goals that we both need and want to achieve. Behaviours are motivated in pursuit of a goal, and regulation of motivated behaviours are achieved by actions of hormones and neurotransmitters. Dopamine is a hormone and neurotransmitter that is part of the brain’s reward centre what makes an individual feel good or even satisfied (Newquist and Gardner, 2015). Achieving or satisfying a goal releases dopamine. Survival needs are goals that, reflecting upon Maslow’s theory, we are consistently seeking to satisfy. Once a survival need is satisfied, we receive a dose of dopamine which in turn, produces a sense of satisfaction and wellbeing (Oei, et, al. 2012; Newquist and Gardner, 2015).

Neuron activity in several brain regions such as the orbitofrontal cortex (frontal cortex within frontal lobe), anterior cingulate, and basolateral amygdala has been shown to correlate with reward prediction of satisfying a goal (see Figure 2){{fact}}. This {{what}} is part of the dopamine pathway and the brain’s reward centre. When dopamine is released after satisfying a survival need, it reinforces the behaviour that had allowed us to satisfy that need. In turn, this increases our motivation in future. This is typically known well in satisfying physiological needs such as sex or after eating.

[[File:Dopamine Pathway.png|thumb|320x320px|Figure 2. Dopamine Pathway/Reward Center]]

The release of dopamine is not restricted to physiological needs. Dopamine is also released after socialising, feeling loved, achieving safety and other emotional and psychological gratifications (Simpson and Balsam, 2016; Newquist and Gardner, 2015).

According to a study by Simpson and Balsam (2016), human beings perceive the costs and benefits of actioning behaviours of satisfying survival needs. 

'''The costs associated with behavioural action may include:'''

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Physical effort

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Mental effort

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Discomfort and danger (pain or potential death)

'''The benefits associated with behavioural action may include:'''

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Fulfilling physiological and psychological needs

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Escaping from harm

· &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp; &amp;nbsp;Avoidance of costs

For any given survival motives, there are often multiple types of costs and benefits as many types of control systems are at play through hormonal regulation and neural changes (Simpson and Balsam, 2016). There may also be competition for multiple goals, or survival needs, that need to be achieved. This may generate an imbalance in the strength of motivation for each goal or need and can cause dysfunctional behaviour (Oei et, al. 2012; Simpson and Balsam 2016). Dysfunctional behaviour can include aggression and extreme risk taking ignoring the threat to one’s own wellbeing{{gr}}. Such dysfunctional behaviour can be caused by enhanced activation of dopamine in the brain regions regulating the ‘wanting’ response (Oei, et, al. 2012) that may not even be consciously perceived.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
;Case Study - Yeonmi Park

Refering back to the case study, Yeonmi was constantly thinking about food. She did not know nor understand the concept of the behaviours she was driven to action. For simply a bowl of rice to satisfy her hunger, she did not consider the costs such as the threat of death or pain escaping North Korea, or swimming across a frozen river. Yeonmi had such a severe deficit in satisfying her basic physiological need for food that it motivated extreme risk-taking behaviour to achieve her goal – a full bowl of rice to satisfy her hunger. Theorists and studies suggest that our survival is to seek pleasure and avoid pain (Newquist and Gardner, 2015; Winston, 2016). However, our unconscious drives to satisfy our needs through biological functioning through the dopamine pathway can be motivation enough to action behaviour without conscious thought of avoiding pain.

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Safety needs==
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs allows us to explore key survival needs that can allow both researchers and practitioners alike to identify motives behind behaviour. Safety needs become the next priority after satisfying physiological needs. There are multiple elements that contribute to meeting safety needs. The most fundamental elements to safety needs include personal security of health and well-being and financial security. According to Kenrick et al., (2010), humans have motivational systems for identifying and managing threats. These systems involve rapid learnings of associations with stimuli that would have threatened our ancestors. Behaviours driven by satisfying our safety needs allows us to avoid threatening or risky situations. For example, when confronted by unfavourable strangers that are a threat to our wellbeing, a hostile situation, and even predatory or poisonous animals, we are instinctively driven to respond with behaviours that are associated with our flight or fight response. It is argued by researchers that our safety needs are evolutionary (Kenrick et al., 2010). Safety can motivate both avoidance behaviour, or confrontational behaviour, depending on the perceived costs and benefits of actioning that behaviour (similar costs vs benefits situation in physiological needs).

However, safety is not a distinct survival need separated from our physiological needs. For instance, we cannot have adequate food or shelter without financial stability (Kenrick et al., 2010; Winston, 2016). When barriers of safety needs are present, no other needs are fulfilled, motivation to satisfy safety needs becomes the primary, obsessive focus (Winston, 2016). When there is a deficiency in our safety needs, it can block our physiological needs (Zheng et al., 2016). It is argued that financial needs and stability are important to satisfy survival needs, particularly to satisfy physiological needs. Concern for meeting safety needs is a major contributor to other types of dysfunctional behaviours associated with mental disorders such as anxiety, phobias, depression, and PTSD (Zheng et al., 2016).

==Belonging ==
{{expand}}

=== Social needs ===
[[File:Peoples jumping in La Guardia beach.jpg|left|thumb|Figure 3. Belonging to a social group or family is a critical survival need]]

On an evolutionary level, social bonding has allowed humankind to survive. Forming social groups has allowed us to share resources and support and protect each other in groups. It is hypothesized that human beings have a persistent drive to create and maintain long lasting, positive and interpersonal relationships (Baumeister and Leary, 1995). According to research by Baumeister and Leary (1995), satisfying this drive of belonging to a social group involves two factors: the need for frequent pleasant interactions with other people, and second, that these interactions take place with affective concern for each other’s welfare. The need to belong and the need to form and maintain quality interpersonal relationships is believed to be intrinsically prepared (Baumeister &amp; Leary, 1995; Stallen et al., 2012) and universal among human beings.

=== Significance of culture and community ===
Indigenous Australians value culture and community. Culture and belonging to a community are key features that are significant and give meaning to their lives (Lovett and Brinckley, 2021). A sense of belonging means social connectedness and establishes what is called cultural social capital. This social cultural capital builds a sense of identity, agency, empowerment, passes on generational teachings and of course, satisfies a sense of belonging (Gibson et al., 2021; Lovett and Brinckley, 2021). Without establishing and maintaining the sense of belonging within a social cultural group, the deficit of not meeting social and belonging needs can motivate negative extreme behaviours. Such negative behaviours have been recorded to be severe, including a rise in recorded self-harm and suicide rates of Indigenous peoples. Even an extreme deficit of psychological needs, such as the need for belonging, causes an extreme motivation to action behaviour. When those needs cannot be met, motivated behaviour becomes dysfunctional, leading to mental illness and self-harming behaviours. According to Gibson et al., (2021) satisfying the need for belonging reduced Indigenous youth suicide rates by 44% when the individual had opportunities to participate in social and community events. A lack of attachment has been proven to result in ill effects on health, adjustment and well-being (Baumeister and Leary, 1995). The need to satisfy our sense of belonging is thought to be an intrinsic (unconscious) motivation to affiliate with others. People have intrinsic social motives as a result of our socially-grounded evolutionary past (Stevens &amp; Fiske, 1995).   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}}
;Reflection of case study - Yeonmi Park
In China, Yeonmi finally fulfilled her need to satisfy her hunger. For the first time in her life, she was full and did not need to constantly think about food. Although she had satisfied this physiological need she had been striving to achieve for so long, her other needs were not being met. Yeonmi felt isolated. She was separated from her family. She did not have an established level of trust, safety or reciprocal pleasant interactions. She was a slave with no one concerned for her welfare. As a result, Yeonmi fantasised about self-harm until she discovered the possibility of uniting with her mother. Yeonmi had two different drives from having this deficit in her sense of belonging. She was at first conflicted and began motivating herself to action negative behaviours toward her own wellbeing. When she discovered her mother was still alive and was able to be reunited with her, Yeonmi’s behaviour switched. She now had determination and motivation to survive and find her family. Her sense of belonging was re-established, and she took action to satisfy this.
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Self-fulfillment &amp; self-actualisation ==
Through establishing a sense of belonging, we establish both our own individual identity through comparisons, and establish our social identity as well (Eek-Karlsson, 2021). Research has argued that human beings are motivated to protect and enhance their sense of self (Vignoles et al., 2006). The feelings of continuity, distinctiveness and efficacy create meaning within our identities. To have self-esteem and self-actualisation is to understand oneself, to have confidence and know ones own limits. Basically, to have self-actualisation is to be self aware.  However, this cannot be reached until the sense of belonging is established as social and individual identity is fostered and formed within this distinct category. Self-esteem and self-actualisation in Maslow's hierarchy seem to overlap (Eek-Karlsson, 2021;Winston, 2016).  Although the desire to acquire self-actualisation is highlighted in Maslow’s hierarchy, it has been recognised as a motivational factor to human behaviour.

=== Quiz ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Survival needs do not motivate changes in our behaviour:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False

{Survival needs are driven by both conscious and unconscious motives:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Conclusion==
Theorists and studies suggest that our survival is to seek pleasure and avoid pain (Newquist and Gardner, 2015; Winston, 2016). However, our drives to satisfy deficits in our survival needs can motivate risk-taking behaviour for those needs to be met. The benefits and costs of actioning behaviour can be both consciously and unconsciously recognised. Motivation for behaviour is influenced by our inner drive to succeed and survive. We consciously or unconsciously set goals for ourselves to achieve (Winston, 2016). &amp;nbsp;The biological and psychological process for motivation are a result of evolution, from individual molecules, hormones and neurotransmitters, such as the reward of dopamine, to social and environmental contributions (Simpson &amp; Balsam, 2016).

From Maslow’s hierarchy of needs to researched evidence, our behaviour can be motivated to change in order to satisfy deficits in our survival needs. It is also important to note, that when such deficits cannot be avoided, we can also be motivated to action behaviour that can pose as a risk our health and wellbeing. Understanding what motivates these goal-driven behaviours can help both researchers and practitioners alike to recognise deficits in survival needs, regulate behaviour and support wellbeing,   

==See also==
{{ic|Use alphabetical order}}
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|Needs (Book chapter, 2013)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Dopamine and motivational drive|Dopamine and motivational drive (Book chapter, 2021)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Dopamine and motivational drive|Healthy risk-taking (Book chapter, 2020)]]
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Unconscious motivation|Unconscious motivation (Book chapter, 2020)]] 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Goal sharing and goal pursuit|Goal sharing and goal pursuit (Book chapter, 2019)]] 
* [[wikipedia:Maslow's_hierarchy_of_needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Park_Yeon-mi|Park Yeon-mi]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Survival needs and motivation|Survival needs and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2022)

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Baumeister, R. F., &amp; Leary, M. R. (1995). The Need to Belong: Desire for Interpersonal Attachments as a Fundamental Human Motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.117.3.497

Eek-Karlsson, L. (2021). The Importance of Belonging: A Study About Positioning Processes in Youths’ Online Communication. SAGE Open, 11(1), 1–. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020988860

Gibson M, Stuart J, Leske S, et al. (2021). Suicide rates for young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people: the influence of community level cultural connectedness. Med J Aust 2021; 214: 514–518.

Kenrick, D. T., Griskevicius, V., Neuberg, S. L., &amp; Schaller, M. (2010). Renovating the Pyramid of Needs: Contemporary Extensions Built Upon Ancient Foundations. Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science, 5(3), 292–314. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369469

Lovett, R. W., &amp; Brinckley, M. (2021). Community level cultural connectedness and suicide by young Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. Medical Journal of Australia, 214(11), 511–512. https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.51092

Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 370–396.10.1037/h0054346

Maslow, A. H. (1987). Motivation and personality (3rd ed.). New York, NY: Harper &amp; Row.

Newquist, G., &amp; Gardner, R. A. (2015). Reconsidering Food Reward, Brain Stimulation, and Dopamine: Incentives Act Forward. The American Journal of Psychology, 128(4), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.5406/amerjpsyc.128.4.0431

Oei, N., Rombouts, S., Soeter, R. et al. (2012). Dopamine Modulates Reward System Activity During Subconscious Processing of Sexual Stimuli. Neuropsychopharmacol 37, 1729–1737. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2012.19

Seligman, M. E. P. (2002). Authentic happiness: Using the new positive psychology to realize your potential for lasting fulfilment. New York, NY: Free Press.

Simpson, E. H., &amp; Balsam, P. D. (2016). The Behavioral Neuroscience of Motivation: An Overview of Concepts, Measures, and Translational Applications. Current topics in behavioral neurosciences, 27, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2015_402

Stallen, M., De Dreu, C. K., Shalvi, S., Smidts, A., &amp; Sanfey, A. G. (2012). The herding hormone: Oxytocin stimulates in-group conformity. Psychological Science, 23(11), 1288-1292.

Stevens, L. E., &amp; Fiske, S. T. (1995). Motivation and Cognition in Social Life: A Social Survival Perspective. Social Cognition, 13(3), 189–214. https://doi.org/10.1521/soco.1995.13.3.189

Vignoles, V. L., Regalia, C., Manzi, C., Golledge, J., &amp; Scabini, E. (2006). Beyond Self-Esteem: Influence of Multiple Motives on Identity Construction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 90(2), 308–333. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.90.2.308

Winston, C. N. (2016). An Existential-Humanistic-Positive Theory of Human Motivation. The Humanistic Psychologist, 44(2), 142–163. https://doi.org/10.1037/hum0000028

Zheng, Z., Gu, S., Lei, Y., Lu, S., Wang, W., Li, Y., &amp; Wang, F. (2016). Safety Needs Mediate Stressful Events Induced Mental Disorders. Neural Plasticity. 8058093–8058096. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/8058093
}}

==External links==
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9hdSLiHaJz8 The power of motivation]
*[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8yqa-SdJtT4 Tyranny, slavery and Columbia U | Yeonmi Park | The Jordan B. Peterson Podcast - S4: E26]
*[https://www.ted.com/talks/yeonmi_park_what_i_learned_about_freedom_after_escaping_north_korea?language=en Yeonmi Park: What I learned about freedom after escaping North Korea | TED Talk]

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__TOC__

==Overview==
* Introductory sentence about motivation and emotion (Unique sentence aiming to engage the reader).
*Brief overview of physical needs - including examples and importance 
*Brief overview of psychological needs - including examples and importance  
*Illustrating the problemː Is there a relationship between physical and psychological human needs? Do they influence one another? Is there sufficient psychological science to conducted on the topic? Is there any limitations to understanding the relationship between physical and psychological needs.
*Case study question to be examinedː Are there any physical and psychological differences between men and women?

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus Questions:'''
* What are physical needs?
* What are psychological needs? 
* What is the relationship between physical and psychological needs?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What are physical needs?==
- Introductory sentence to physical needs.

- Main source (Johnstone, 2010).

=== Definition of physical needs ===
{{expand}}

==== Examples ====
{{expand}}

=== Importance of physical needs ===
{{expand}}

==What are psychological needs?==
- Introductory sentence to psychological needs.

- Main source (Martela &amp; Ryan, 2015).

=== Definition of psychological needs ===
{{expand}}

==== Examples ====
{{expand}}

=== Importance of psychological needs ===
{{expand}}

== What is the relationship between physical and psychological needs? ==
- Introduction sentence to the relationship between physical and psychological needs.  

=== Define relationship ===
{{expand}}

=== Relationship between physical and psychological needs ===
{{expand}}

=== Limitations in research ===
{{expand}}

== Theoretical basis of human needs ==
{{expand}}

=== Maslow's hierarchy of needs ===
[[File:Maslow's hierarchy of needs.png|thumb|''Figure 1''. Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]

=== Murray's system of needs ===
{{expand}}

=== Self-Determination Theory ===
(Van den Broeck, Ferris, Chang &amp; Rosen, 2016)

=== McClelland’s Acquired- Needs Theory ===
{{expand}}

=== Alderfer’s ERG theory ===
{{expand}}

==Case Study==
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Are there physical and psychological differences between men and women?
* 
* 
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Working notes ==

* Questions to ask - how to edit the quiz boxes to suit your question?

== Tables ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some example 3 x 3 tables which could be adapted:

Table 1.

''Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
{| align=center border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
! '''Children''' 
! '''Gather''' 
! '''Round'''
|- 
| Mary
| had
| a
|- 
| little
| lamb
| it's
|- 
| fleece
| was
| white
|}

Table 2.

''Another Example of a Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{|  class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! '''Nursery''' 
! '''Rhyme''' 
! '''Time'''
|- 
| Incy
| Wincy
| spider
|- 
| climbed
| up
| the
|- 
| water
| spout
| down
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

Table 3.

''Example of a Sortable Table with an APA Style Caption''
&lt;div align=&quot;center&quot;&gt;
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot;
|-
! Fruit
! Price/kg
! Popularity
|-
| Tomatoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $6.00
| 1st
|-
| Bananas
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $5.00
| 2nd
|-
| Watermelon
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $2.99
| 3rd
|-
| Oranges
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $3.85
| 4th
|-
| Apples
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $4.95
| 5th
|-
| Grapes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $9.50
| 6th
|-
| Mangoes
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 7th 
|-
| Avocados
| style=&quot;text-align:right;&quot; | $12.00
| 8th
|}
&lt;/div&gt;

==Quizzes==
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read only the Overview and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Needs|Human Needs]] (Book chapter, 2013)

[[wikipedia:Murray's_system_of_needs|Murray's System of Needs]] (Wikipedia)

== References ==
{{Hanging indent|1=

Johnstone, M. (2010). Nursing and justice as a basic human need. ''Nursing Philosophy'', ''12''(1), 34-44. [[Doi: 10.1111/j.1466-769x.2010.00459.x|doi: 10.1111/j.1466-769x.2010.00459.x]]

Martela, F., &amp; Ryan, R. (2015). The Benefits of Benevolence: Basic Psychological Needs, Beneficence, and the Enhancement of Well-Being. ''Journal Of Personality'', ''84''(6), 750-764. [[Doi: 10.1111/jopy.12215|doi: 10.1111/jopy.12215]]

Van den Broeck, A., Ferris, D., Chang, C., &amp; Rosen, C. (2016). A Review of Self-Determination Theory’s Basic Psychological Needs at Work. ''Journal Of Management'', ''42''(5), 1195-1229. [[Doi: 10.1177/0149206316632058|doi: 10.1177/0149206316632058]]

}}

== External links ==
[https://www.simplypsychology.org/maslow.html Maslow's hierarchy of needs] (McLeod, 2020)

[https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/20140620073613-319302584-physical-psychological-needs-of-humans#:~:text=In%20order%20to%20sustain%20ourselves,physical%20movement%2C%20and%20so%20on.&amp;text=Psychological%20needs%20arise%20from%20our,become%20happier%20and%20more%20fulfilled. Physical and Psychological Needs of Humans] (Tahira, 2014)

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== Overview ==
[[File:SelfCare.jpg|thumb|''Figure 1:'' Self-care Word Bubble, Self-care word association]]

On average, Australians spend approximately 1,693 hours of a year at work, equating to 1/5 of all time in a year (Buckley, 2014). Due to this, employee self-care is imperative to overall wellbeing, as well as a healthy, well balanced workplace. It is therefore in the Employer and Employees best interests to ensure self-care is promoted and encouraged to all staff, for the maintenance of self-efficacy within the workplace.

Motivation can be managed in many different ways and has circular relationship with self-care, particularly within the workplace. Lack of self-care can directly effect motivation to perform within the workplace, and lack of motivation and satisfaction of needs can greatly diminish our self-care. According to previous research, the relationship between these practises and employee and organisational results is dependent on the quality of internal communication and the alignment of workplace practises with the organisational context.A healthy workplace is directly impacted by the health and well-being of its employees. (Grawitch, et al. 2006).

But how can employers encourage their staff to practice self-care, when its{{gr}} not a part of the job description? and if it's not encouraged or practiced, what can be the side-effects? Small actions such as breaks, morning teas, social events and proper work-life balance are some simple ways self-care can be practiced within the workplace. This chapter explores what self-care is, how employers can support and motivate their staff to practice it (both within the workplace and in a working from home/pandemic context), negative psychological impacts of lack if self-care (burnout), as well as how individuals can do &quot;self-checks&quot; on whether or not they are adequately using self-care at work, particularly for those who may be self-employed.

 {{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
 '''Focus questions:'''

* What is self-care?
* What is the relationship between a healthy workplace and self-care?
* How does lack of self-care affect mental wellbeing outside of work?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==Self-care==
{{expand}}

=== What is self-care? ===
The World Health Organisation ([WHO], n.d.) has defined self-care as ''“the ability of individuals, families and communities to promote health, prevent disease, maintain health, and to cope with illness and disability with or without the support of a healthcare provider” ''
Self-care similarly defined as comparable to being aware of and attending to one's basic physiological and emotional needs on a daily basis, including the moulding of one's daily routine, relationships, and environment as needed to support self-care. Self-care with a mindful component is referred to as mindful self-care. (Cook-cottone, 2016) 
Self-care is the mind-body health of an individual, and helps us manage our daily anxieties and stressors. It is the action of caring for yourself, so that you can keep up with the daily pace of life. Particularly in positions that can be emotionally draining, or require long arduous hours (high-stress health professions, miners, night shift work.) 
Though the name might seem self-explanatory self-care is so often neglected within the workplace, and lack of self-care can very quickly lead to issues such as compassion fatigue, depression, and burnout. One article so cleverly referred to this as &quot;The Tension Between a Culture of Productivity and the Need for Self-Care&quot; (Guest, et al., 2011)

Self-care is a fairly individual experience, with everyone having their own person concoction of what well established self-care might look like. But in the context of the workplace, this can take the form of adequate breaks, recognition, mental support, adequate ergonomics and work health and safety. Different professions require these in different ways, but employers adequately catering to these needs is what promotes a healthy workplace. 

=== What is motivation? ===
Motivation is a multi-faceted aspect of our human-drive that can at times be difficult to understand. Behavioural scientists defined motivated behaviours as being derived from our physiological, and psychological needs (Wright &amp; Wiediger, 2007). Motivation is something that gives strength and energy to behaviours.

An alternative understanding to our motivations is it's association with our needs. The greek philosopher Alcmaeon of Croton (ﬂ. 500 BC) proposed the idea of the &quot;balance of opposites&quot; in regards to our health and disease, stating that “Health is the equality of rights of the functions, wet-dry, cold-hot, bitter-sweet and the rest; but single rule of either pair is deleterious.” (Freeman, 1948). Walter Cannon also believed that despite any autonomy we may believe we have, at our core we are motivated by our most basic needs. We are in an ongoing effort to maintain 'optimal levels' of our bodily functions, and therefore motivated to do so (e.g. when experiencing hunger we are motivated to eat, when tired we lack motivation for other takes so that we may sleep.) We are motivated to seek stimulation for our needs (Wright &amp; Wiediger, 2007.)

This idea is expanded on in Maslow, and Alderfer's work. 

====Maslow's hierarchy of needs ====
[[File:Maslows hierarchy.png|thumb|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]

Maslow's Hierarchy of needs refers to a 5-tier model of human needs, often depicted as a pyramid. To expand on Cannon's idea of needing to meet our physiological needs, he added that we also have deficiency needs (and in turn, self-care needs) in safety, love and belonging, and esteem (Maslow, 1943). Often, if these needs are not being met, there will be a deficit in motivation for various other tasks. 
The final stage, self-actualisation was described by Maslow as:
'' 'the person’s desire for self-fulfillment, namely, to the tendency for him to become actualised in what he is potentially. The specific form that these needs will take will of course vary greatly from person to person. In one individual it may take the form of the desire to be an ideal mother, in another it may be expressed athletically, and in still another it may be expressed in painting pictures or in inventions' '' (Maslow, 1943, p. 382–383)

In reference to self-care and motivation, all needs in some form can be met, and supported by employers within the workplace. In an article written by Indeed (Indeed, 2021) it stated that the love and belonging need can act as a motivator in the context of social activities and relationship-building. For example, a work place throwing team-skill building social events for staff, or Christmas parties. 
The relationship between Maslow's hierarchy of needs and self-care within the workplace will be revisited later in the chapter.

====Alderfer's ERG theory====

Alderfer's existence, relatedness and growth theory is yet another expansion of our basic needs, and one of the most relevant theories in terms of motivation within the workplace.

Existence (material and physiological), Relatedness (social and external esteem), and Growth (internal esteem and self actualisation) are the three categories that Alderfer's model divides Maslow's five human needs into. (Ball, n.d.) It's one of four content approaches that looks at the underlying elements that lead to a person taking specific actions.(Ivancevich, Konopaske, &amp; Matteson, 2008).

Alderfer noticed a phenomenon he called the frustration-regression process, in which people regress to lower wants when higher needs are blocked, or unattainable. When it comes to motivating staff, this is crucial.

When an employee's sense of autonomy or need for mastery is harmed, such as by the structure of the workplace, the employee may place a greater emphasis on the job's sense of stability or relatedness. In Maslow's theory, he originally stated that one level of needs must be accomplished before moving on to another. However Alderfer believed that people will base their needs and motivators in priority of what they believe to be most important in their life views. 

This can be related to self-care by the way in which we value and prioritise our own needs, with our personal goals in mind. A good example of this would be the concept of the 'starving artist', the idea that in the pursuit of ones creative (yet risky) career goals, motivation for growth and relatedness needs may be further prioritised and satisfied before existence needs (e.g. foregoing a liveable income in pursuit of a passion).

For employers, Alderfer's theory suggests that its best to help their employees balance their motivations cross-level, noting that this special blend will change along time (Alderfer, 1969) and example of this would be ensuring adequate availability of appropriate skill and career progression, 

== How motivation theories can be utilised in the workplace to encourage self-care ==

Table 1

''Meeting self-care needs in the workplace through Maslow's hierarchy of needs''
{| align=centre border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=2
|- 
| '''Physiological Needs'''
| In this hierarchy, the physiological demands allude to the most basic human needs. Employees must have access to essential services and opportunities while at work in order to feel that their physiological needs are being satisfied. This is done by providing access to restrooms, a source of drinking water, meal and snack breaks, and a pleasant working atmosphere. When it comes to the workplace, one of your physiological demands is a stable income to support yourself and pay for necessities like housing, food, and utilities.
|- 
|'''Safety'''
| Safety is an important necessity that can influence your work satisfaction as a whole. It's reasonable to be concerned about your own and your loved ones' safety. One of your objectives, for example, might be to offer a safe living area for your family, so you work hard to meet that requirement. It's equally crucial to feel respected and prioritised at work when it comes to your physical safety.
There should be the assurance that assets and personal possessions are safe and secure. Providing ergonomic office furniture that correctly supports staff and decreases the chance of injury, as well as safeguarding the facility to prevent potentially dangerous people from entering, can all contribute to a safe workplace.
Another part of job safety is the sensation of being emotionally safe and supported. If staff are experiencing emotional distress due to workload, culture, or harassment it is the employers obligation to ensure it is dealt with appropriately.
|- 
|'''Love and Belonging'''
| If a staff member lacks a feeling of belonging within the workplace, they are less likely to be engaged at work or inspired to succeed.

It's not always simple for people to create and maintain relationships at work. Employee engagement is higher at companies that hold social activities and provide more possibilities for relationship-building outside of the office than at companies that do not prioritise these parts of a work-life balance. It is easier to feel inspired to work hard and achieve success when you feel like you belong and fit in at work and with your team.
|-
|'''Esteem'''
|The belief that you are contributing to a greater cause and that your efforts are appreciated is known as self-esteem. It's crucial for employers to ensure their staff feel like they are growing, progressing, and getting results at work, and that recognition is given. Employees are more likely to succeed when they feel motivated to do so, and that success will be met with gratification and respect from peers. 
The self-esteem of an employee has a direct impact on their total involvement, as well as the quality of work. Even when an employee is struggling, providing regular praise and appreciation for the work they do can boost their self-esteem. Employee respect is diminished if feedback is only given once a year. This can be as simple as a thank you email, a bonus, or recognition for efforts in front of peers.

|-
|'''Self-Actualisation'''
|Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs concludes with actualisation, which translates to maximising one's potential at work. A person wants to believe that they are doing the best they can in their current job, which motivates them to continue on their career path and thrive. Employees that are self-actualised feel empowered and trusted, which promotes growth and engagement.

Giving employees opportunities to achieve is one of the keys to ensuring that this requirement is addressed. Supervisors should concentrate on their employees' skills and abilities, assisting them in finding methods to improve their careers without pressuring them into positions that are not a suitable fit for them.
|}

=== Skinner's incentive theory ===
According to Skinner's incentive theory (Skinner, 1953), many behaviours are not based on our 'needs' but rather environment stimuli that strive us to action. Incentive theory is likely the most common form of motivation within a workplace, to use a tangible reward system, like
a bonus or commission, or psychologically such as a promotion or recognition. This form of positive reinforcement has been a proven source of motivation for majority of workplaces. (Vi &amp; Thuy, 2020).

In summary, research shows that external variables can influence human behaviour and may also influence internal motivation. The individual's inner nature, the contextual setting at the time, the time, the manner of communication, and the many sorts of stimuli all influence how it changes.&amp;nbsp;

This can be utilised in the workplace to encourage self-care by actively reinforcing good behaviour, leaving employees feeling valued, and therefore addressing tier three and four of their hierarchy needs. If you work within a positive and rewarding environment, incentive to be a reflection of this will increase, as the need to feel as a valuable member of the team will increase.

== Self-care in practice ==
{{expand}}

=== Workplace Health &amp; Safety ===
The Australian [https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2018C00293/Html/Text ''Work Health and Safety Act''] (2011) is &quot;a balanced and nationally consistent framework to secure the health and safety of workers and workplaces&quot;, and essentially acts as a workplaces' legal obligation to provide staff with self-care opportunities, stating that all workplaces must legally provide: a safe work environment, adequate facilities, information, training, and supervision, as well as monitor the health of workers and the conditions of the workplace. In addition, to this, certain workplaces will have [https://www.fairwork.gov.au/employment-conditions/awards awards] associated with their positions, which outline minimum wages and conditions (work-hours etc) required for a person to be working within that position. 

Research shows that as working hours increase output per hour decreases, unhealthy levels of fatigue appear to underline this effect. It is beneficial for the business to implement reasonable work hours to encourage self care (Collewet &amp; Sauermann, 2017). In addition to providing a physically safe workplace from external dangers, it is also required to be safe for use. It is the employer's responsibility to provide a safe working environment for all employees as well as the tools and equipment they require to execute their jobs. This is true for all employees, whether or not they have a disability. 
Between 2018-2019 [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/book/work-related-injury-and-disease-key-whs-statistics-australia-2020 114,435 serious injury workplace claims were made] producing an average of 6 weeks of work lost per claim (Safe Work Australia, 2020). 8% of these claims were made due to psychological stress, a common negative consequence of lack of self-care within the workplace. of the total amount for the year 17% were health care and social assistance workers, one of the most common occupations to neglect self-care within the workplace (Gibb, et al. 2010).

=== How can individuals practice self-care? - The mindful self-care scale ===

Self-care is about maintaining our needs, as well as our mental and physical wellbeing. In order to know how well you are doing, its important to know how poorly you are looking after yourself. 

The [https://www.mmcgmeservices.org/uploads/4/2/2/3/42234941/mindful_self-care_scale_short_form_1_2016-4720.pdf Mindful Self-Care Scale-SHORT] is an assessment tool that measures the self-reported levels of self-care behavior. The MSCS scores individuals on a 33-item scale, though the linked has a total of 42, having included additional clinical and general questions (Cook-Cottone, 2016).

This scale was created to assist individuals to identify their strengths and weaknesses in mindful self-care behaviour as well as assess areas that need improvement. The MSCS addresses 6 main areas of self-care: physical care, supportive relationships, mindful awareness, self-compassion and purpose, mindful relaxation, and supportive structure{{expand}}. 

The MSCS is scored based on recalled information over a 7-day period. It is scored using a liker-scale system, from 1-5, with 1 being never, and 5 being regularly. it is also reverse-scored, with 1 being regularly, and 5 being never for negative behaviours. The total is then divided by the number of items within each section (e.g. for physical care, there are 8 items) providing a score within 1-5, allowing the participant to see how they average on their overall self-care.

This is a great way for individuals to get a starting point of where they may need to improve, when feeling the consequences of poor self-care but unsure of why, or how to fix this. 

''Please note: The MSCS is not a clinical instrument and cannot diagnose presence of mental health disorders.''

=== How can employers promote &amp; encourage self-care? ===
The environment and culture in which a person works can have a heavy impact on their mental and physical well-being. When {{missing}} majority of time is spent meeting work requirements without break or time to re-cooperate, consequences can be disastrous. In order for employers to motivate staff to practice self-care, they must first create a culture that shows value in self-care, as well as adequate time and resources to practice self-care. Its{{gr}} important for employers to remind employees that not only are they encouraged to practice self-care, but they are expected to.
Therefore, it is in everyones{{gr}} best interests to ensure the workplace is a positive environment for all. Some ideas for this are as below:

'''Recognition and appreciation of staff - ''' motivation has taught us that belonging and esteem are major parts of our needs. Not receiving appropriate praise or recognition for a task can cause negative feelings for staff, which will in turn create a negative work space. This could be as simple as providing thanks when a task is complete, creating an &quot;employee of the week/month&quot; system, or appropriate recognition in front of peers (i.e. in a meeting)

'''Open communication -''' Communication is one of, if not the most vital point of a positive work environment. When providing a space for open dialogue, not only does this make staff feel more welcome and comfortable, but it allows a workplace to work collaboratively with all its members. Open communication can be utilised to promote self-care by allowing employees to debrief any concerns they may have rather than harbouring negative feelings towards their work peers or environment. 

'''Adequate breaks -''' One of the legal requirements for employers is the availability of reasonable breaks and work hours. Australia has set [https://www.fairwork.gov.au/employment-conditions/hours-of-work-breaks-and-rosters agreements] for reasonable hours of work, and work breaks. This will depend on your award, employment type, and job requirements. This allows for employees to disconnect from their work for a moment, in order to fulfil any needs as well as practice basic self-care (eating adequate meals, taking a moment to relax, doing activities to de-stress or socialise), it will also allow any office-based staff to reduce the amount of time spent sitting, research found that the death risk is 15% higher for individuals who spend 8-11 hours sitting within a day (Hsu, 2011). It is important for employers to encourage staff to have small breaks from desk work, this is usually done by promoting 2 tea breaks (10-15 minutes) and 1 lunch break (30-60 minutes) through the day to break up long periods of sitting.

''' Professional support/mental-health support -''' Particularly for positions that may be mentally exhausting or deal with traumatic scenarios (First responders, Clinicians, Surgeons etc) the availability of adequate mental support is imperative to self-care. Many organisations such as [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/about-us/about-our-work/workplace-mental-health/pes-program beyond blue] offer special programs specifically for police and emergency services personnel, due to the nature of the role. Not only can work be quite physically and mentally demanding, it can also be emotionally demanding, no matter the role. 

Employers can encourage this by offering: counselling benefits or apps, mental health days, rostered days off (RDO) or mental health seminars. This aspect of self-care will have a lasting effect on overall productivity, leaving staff feeling more valued.

''' Create a clear distinction between work and personal hours - ''' Some people have a difficult time not being readily available to coworkers and bosses when they are off work. Whether this be a holiday, sick day, or just a non-rostered day, it can be hard to switch off the work brain and enjoy time for yourself. Creating a clear distinction between being available for work, and focusing on personal time is important to reduce work-related stress.

''' Promoting healthy lifestyles - ''' A healthy lifestyle is one of the most important parts of self-care. This doesn't necessarily mean a salad for lunch and carrot sticks for snacks, but adequate meals and healthy sleep patterns. Though employers don't have much say in how long their employees sleep (and it may be a few steps too far for them to ask for this information!) it's important to be aware of their employee's attitudes and actions throughout the work week, and provide check ins when possible. 

 {{RoundBoxTop|theme=4}} 
'''Case Study - The overworked Julie'''

Julie works for Clark &amp; co., a boutique financial advisory firm. Coming up to the end of the financial year, Julie has more tasks than she normally would, and is struggling to maintain her workload. Julie's boss, Audrey notices that Julie is skipping lunch breaks at her desk, drinking more cups of coffee than normal, and appears to be tired, slow to respond and sluggish. Audrey decides to pull Julie aside privately, and discuss these concerns with her. Julie voices her feelings of stress regarding the current workload, causing her to skip meals to catch up as well as causing insomnia issues due to the stress.
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;

{To assist her employee, Audrey should::
|type=&quot;(true)&quot;}
+ Encourage meal breaks and reduce Julie's workload
- Tell Julie to get her life together
- Allow Julie to reassess her priorities and deal with it how she sees fit
- Tell other coworkers that Julie is struggling
- Fire Julie
&lt;/quiz&gt;

{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Self-care during the COVID-19 pandemic ===
The COVID-19 pandemic has provided an entirely new outlook on how employers should value staff's self-care, particularly in a working from home environment. In a study done by the Harvard Business Review, an astounding 84% of respondents reported at least one workplace factor that negatively impacted their mental health (Greenwood &amp; Anas, 2021). It was also found that during the pandemic in 2020, there were 1,095 work cover claims relating to COVID-19, with 19% of these claims being mental health related (safe work Australia, 2021).

But it hasn't all been negatives, with 44% of the Harvard Business Review respondents stating that they believe their company have created a priority for mental health advocacy (Greenwood &amp; Anas, 2021.) Turner-Cohen (2021) reported that corporate leaders are even offering &quot;COVID-19 support packages&quot; with anything from pastries to wine, and even offers of additional &quot;Pandemic&quot; leave for covid-19 related needs (isolation, testing, quarantine etc).

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}Key Points

* From 16 March 2020 - 24 January 2021, close to 11.5 million MBS-subsidised mental-health related services were provided.
* In the 4 weeks prior to 24 January 2021, Lifeline received an increase of 21.4% in calls in comparison to pre pandemic rates (27th January 2019), with over 85,000 calls within a month.
* In the same time period, Beyond Blue received an increase of 29.6% in call in comparison to pre pandemic rates, with over 22,000 calls within a month.

&lt;small&gt;Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, 2021.&lt;/small&gt;
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

== Negative side-effects of lack of self-care ==
If an employee does not generally practice self-care, it can show in the way in which they present themselves, or within their attitude. A person who is struggling with self-care may regularly experience some, or all of the following (Hasson, 2020):

* Feeling tired, or sluggish.
* Feeling overwhelmed, or easily agitated
* Muscle tension
* Reoccurring chronic illness
* Poor quality of sleep
* Irregular meals/Unhealthy meals
* Feeling trapped by obligations
* Feeling of emptiness, disconnection or loneliness
* Negative and/or self-sabotaging thoughts
* Low self-esteem and confidence

These feelings will not only lead to poorer quality of work, but lack of self-care can lead to quite serious mental health distress such as burnout and depression. It is important for employers to be aware of the symptoms and signs of these features, and how to appropriately manage them. 

===What is burnout?===
Burnout is a work-related stress syndrome that occurs as a result of long-term job stress. Freudenberger, a psychoanalyst, coined the phrase in the early 1970s, and it was later characterised as having three qualitative dimensions: emotional weariness, cynicism, and depersonalisation, reduced professional efficacy, and personal accomplishment. Burnout may strike anyone in any job. Pines &amp; Maslach (1978) defined burnout as 
'' &quot;A syndrome of physical and emotional exhaustion, involving the development of a negative self-concept, (e.g. poor feelings of personal achievement), negative job attitude (e.g. discouraged and depressed about work) and a loss of concern and feeling for people&quot; ''

It is a severe form of stress reaction which can be difficult to reverse. Particularly for health and social service workers, there is a certain demand for intensity and intimacy within their work, that can be incredibly emotionally and physically draining. 

Burnout is a problem that affects people all over the world. In Europe, for example, there is a 10% gap between European Union countries and non-European Union countries (17 percent ). Burnout rates in European Union countries range from 4.3 percent in Finland to 20.6 percent in Slovenia, whereas rates in non-EU countries range from 13 percent in Albania to 25 percent in Turkey (De Hert, 2020). Burnout appeared to be positively connected to workload at the country level, according to this study.

Burnout is a product of the inability to perform adequate self-care. given the above studies connection between workload and burnout, it is acceptable to assume that an overwork individual who is unable to find the time or create the mindset needed for self-care due to lack of ability to prioritise these needs, can create a direct correlation between self-care and burnout.

== Conclusion ==
{{expand}}

== See Also ==
* [[wikipedia:Self-care|Self-care]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:ERG theory|Alderfer's ERG theory]] (Wikipedia)
* [[wikipedia:Occupational burnout|Burnout]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2021/Work_and_passion|Work and passion]] (Book chapter, 2021)
* [https://workforceinstitute.org/employee-self-care-10-ways-organizations-can-be-supportive/ Employee Self-Care: 10 Ways Organizations Can Be Supportive]

==References==
{{ic|Use alphabetical order.}}

{{Hanging indent|1=

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Grawitch, M. J., Gottschalk, M., &amp; Munz, D. C. (2006). ''The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements.'' Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and Research, 58(3), 129–147. https://doi.org/10.1037/1065-9293.58.3.129

World Health Organisation (n.d.). ''What do we mean by self-care?'' https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/self-care-interventions/definitions/en/

Guest, R.S., Baser, R., Li, Y. et al. (2011) ''Cancer Surgeons’ Distress and Well-being, I: The Tension Between a Culture of Productivity and the Need for Self-Care.'' Ann Surg Oncol 18, 1229–1235. https://doi.org/10.1245/s10434-011-1622-6

Brown,&amp;nbsp;L.&amp;nbsp;V.&amp;nbsp;(2007).&amp;nbsp;''Psychology of Motivation.''&amp;nbsp;United States:&amp;nbsp;Nova Science Publishers.

Freeman K. (1948). ''Ancilla to the Pre-socratic Philosophers: A complete Translation of the Fragments Diels Fragmente der Vorsokratiker.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review,
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Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., Matteson, J., (2014). ''Organizational Behavior and Management.'' McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Alderfer, C. P., (1969). ''An empirical test of a new theory of human needs, Organizational Behavior and Human Performance.''Volume 4, Issue 2,1969,Pages 142-175, ISSN 0030-5073, https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(69)90004-X. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/003050736990004X) 

Skinner, F. (1953). ''Science and Human Behavior'' (5th ed.). Macmillan. 

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Collewet, Marion; Sauermann, Jan (2017) : ''Working Hours and Productivity'', IZA Discussion Papers, No. 10722, Institute of Labor Economics (IZA), Bonn

Cook-Cottone, C. P. &amp; Guyker, W. (2016, manuscript in preparation). ''The Mindful Self-Care Scale: Mindful self-care as a tool to promote physical, emotional, and cognitive well-being''

Hsu, C. (2012, March 27). ''Sitting More Than 11 Hours a Day Raises Premature Death Risk By 40%.'' Medical Daily. 

Greenwood, K., Anas, j., (2021). ''It’s a New Era for Mental Health at Work'' https://hbr.org/2021/10/its-a-new-era-for-mental-health-at-work

Turner-Cohen, A. (2021, August 10). ''How bosses are helping staff survive lockdown.'' News.com.au. Retrieved October 22, 2021, from https://www.news.com.au/finance/work/at-work/how-bosses-are-helping-staff-survive-lockdown/news-story/aa585be6b52130c02cec049e647f5333.

Hasson,&amp;nbsp;G.&amp;nbsp;(2020).&amp;nbsp;''The Self-Care Handbook: Connect with Yourself and Boost Your Wellbeing.''&amp;nbsp;United Kingdom:&amp;nbsp;Wiley. 

Pines, Ayala &amp; Maslach, Christina. (1978). ''Characteristics of Staff Burn-Out in Mental Health Settings.'' Hospital &amp; community psychiatry. 29. 233-7. 10.1176/ps.29.4.233. 

De Hert S. (2020). ''Burnout in Healthcare Workers: Prevalence, Impact and Preventative Strategies.'' Local and regional anesthesia, 13, 171–183. https://doi.org/10.2147/LRA.S240564

Rupert, P. A., &amp; Dorociak, K. E. (2019). Self-care, stress, and well-being among practicing psychologists. ''Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 50(5)'', 343-350. https://doi.org/10.1037/pro0000251

Barnett, J. E., Baker, E. K., Elman, N. S., &amp; Schoener, G. R. (2007). In pursuit of wellness: The self-care imperative. ''Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 38(6)'', 603-612. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7028.38.6.603
}}


== External Links ==
{{ic|Use alphabetical order. Be more selective.}}
* [https://everymind.org.au/need-help/self-care Self-care] (EveryMind)
* [https://www.beyondblue.org.au/personal-best/topics/self-care Self-care] (Beyond Blue)
* [https://www.hcamag.com/au/news/general/hours-worked-per-year-where-does-australia-rank/140349 Hours worked per year – where does Australia rank?]
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2006-11915-001 The path to a healthy workplace: A critical review linking healthy workplace practices, employee well-being, and organizational improvements.]
* [https://www.who.int/reproductivehealth/self-care-interventions/definitions/en/ What do we mean by self-care?]
* [https://link.springer.com/article/10.1245/s10434-011-1622-6 Cancer Surgeons’ Distress and Well-being, I: The Tension Between a Culture of Productivity and the Need for Self-Care]
* [https://www.google.com.au/books/edition/Psychology_of_Motivation/hzPCuKfpXLMC?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=what+is+motivation+in+psychology&amp;printsec=frontcover Psychology of Motivation]
* [https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/maslows-hierarchy-of-needs Applying Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs in the Workplace]
* [https://studylib.net/doc/8112742/a-summary-of-motivation-theories-by-benjamin-ball A summary of motivation theories]
* [https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/61483596/book_10_edition20191211-121005-1yj6hma-with-cover-page-v2.pdf?Expires=1635150534&amp;Signature=YqjB7Ltl0RCp43DjJBLpzkq4PL7vndw-eZACZ-YAL5mbyO4b4QEEct8GOkZt8aPGGF46cpu41lhBTd4gzsMFK~sbuetNi7zoGjbjPvI-AJnjB4hS7jOWP Organizational Behaviour &amp; Management ]
* [https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/003050736990004X An empirical test of a new theory of human needs]
* [https://www.safeworkaustralia.gov.au/book/work-related-injury-and-disease-key-whs-statistics-australia-2020 Work-related injury and disease - Key WHS statistics Australia 2020]
* [https://psycnet.apa.org/record/2019-36332-001?errorCode=invalidAccess Self-care, stress, and well-being among practicing psychologists.]
* [https://sasheducationcampus.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/10/in-pursuit-of-wellness.pdf In Pursuit of Wellness: The Self-Care Imperative]

[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/COVID-19]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Work]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:37:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>[[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="20689" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410680</id>
      <parentid>2410679</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:39:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20689" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2947419</id>
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      <comment>/* Emotion */</comment>
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      <text bytes="20682" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3211603|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410687</id>
      <parentid>2410681</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:15:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3211603</username>
        <id>2947419</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Assigned topic to myself [U3211603]</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20687" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>47017hsfp8wjamtyvucim6ypf0t271j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410710</id>
      <parentid>2410687</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:37:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20773" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:00:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion */ [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="20878" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410741</id>
      <parentid>2410740</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:16:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Emotion */ [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing?</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21025" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>1ukd7romjmxzam6no8a9utg52w1mji5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410742</id>
      <parentid>2410741</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:16:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Emotion */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21024" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>jgemdb343cbzxtbyqu9s3768oh4uvko</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410743</id>
      <parentid>2410742</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:22:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21023" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|U822459]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410746</id>
      <parentid>2410745</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:26:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21020" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>dvd35qn1f1u8fu7sxzsjkzjm66yumtb</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410747</id>
      <parentid>2410746</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:27:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21029" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - u3141987
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - u3213748 / Brewerjr
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410751</id>
      <parentid>2410749</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:29:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="21063" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>4ixp46ua66e9s0o4rlhk8yfzj86nv69</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410752</id>
      <parentid>2410751</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:34:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21061" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [U3217727]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:U3217727|U3217727]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:MyUserName|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - KingMob221
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:U3217727|U3217727]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:MyUserName|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>geixbu0eucv4mve350hsnsratd8kixk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410755</id>
      <parentid>2410754</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T07:37:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Fix user names</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21095" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[UserFV:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:U3217727|U3217727]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3211603|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>10mm5r06i20vydfvt4j2i3qhevocsoc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410756</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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      <text bytes="21104" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation==
# [[/Academic help-seeking/]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - [[UserFV:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - How much choose is too much? How much choice is enough? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:U3213871|U3213871]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation/]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:U3217727|U3217727]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humour and work/]] - What is the role of humour in the workplace? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:Efost|Efost]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[User:U3211603|U3211603]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindfulness and driving/]] - How can mindfulness affect driving? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography A</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
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      <text bytes="15324" xml:space="preserve">{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography}}
'''[[User:Jtwsaddress42/People_A|&lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;]]'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=2}}
* {{cite book | last= Abbott | first= Edwin A. | year= 1884 | title= Flatland:  A Romance of Many Dimensions | publication= Dover Publications | publication-date= 1952 | isbn= 978-1-434-45099-9 | url= https://store.doverpublications.com/048627263x.html }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Abed, Riadh T. | year= 2000 | title= Psychiatry and Darwinism: Time to Reconsider? | journal= The British Journal of Psychiatry | volume= 177 | number= 1 | pages= 1-3 | publication-date= July 2000 | pmid= 10945079 | doi= 10.1192/bjp.177.1.1 | url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychiatry-and-darwinism/7BD5D340A5733904C41868BCBEEBB74C }}
* {{cite book | last= Abir-Am | first= P.G. | year= 1994 | chapter= The Philosphical Background of Joseph Needham&amp;acute;s Work in Chemical Embryology | title= A Conceptual History of Modern Embryology | pages= 159-180 | volume= 7 | editor= Scott F. Gilbert | publisher= John Hopkins University Press | isbn= 978-1-4615-6823-0 | pmid= 1804212 | doi= 10.1007/978-1-4615-6823-0_8 | url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-6823-0_8 }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Aboitiz, Francisco}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Adams Jr. | first1= Reginald | last2= Gordon | first2= Heather L. | last3= Baird | first3= Abigail A. | last4= Ambady | first4= Nalini | last5= Kleck | first5= Robert E. | year= 2003 | title= Effects of Gaze on Amygdala Sensitivity to Anger and Fear Faces | journal= Science | volume= 300 | number= 5625 | pages= 1536 | publication-date= June 6, 2003 | pmid= 12791983 | doi= 10.1126/science.1082244 | url= https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1082244?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&amp;rfr_id=ori%3Arid%3Acrossref.org&amp;rfr_dat=cr_pub++0pubmed&amp; }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Agre, Peter}}
* {{cite journal | last= Akam | first= Michael | year= 1995 | title= Hox genes and the evolution of diverse body plans | journal= Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B - Biological Sciences | volume= 349 | number= 1329 | pages= 313-319 | publication-date= September 29, 1995 | doi= 10.1098/rstb.1995.0119 | pmid= 8577843 | url= https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.1995.0119 }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Akiyama, Tetsuo}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Akkari | first1= Nesrine | last2= Enghoff | first2= Henrik | last3= Minelli | first3= Alessandro | year= 2014 | title= Segmentation of the millipede trunk as suggested by a homeotic mutant with six extra pairs of gonopods | journal= Frontiers in Zoology | volume= 11 | number= 6 | pages= | publication-date= 2014 | doi= 10.1186/1742-9994-11-6 | url= https://frontiersinzoology.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1742-9994-11-6 }}
* {{cite book | last1= Alberts | first1= Bruce | last2= Bray | first2= Dennis | last3= Lewis | first3= Julian | last4= Raff | first4= Martin | last5= Roberts | first5= Keith | last6= Watson | first6= James D. | year= 1989 | title= Molecular Biology of The Cell | edition= 2&lt;sup&gt;nd&lt;/sup&gt; | publisher= Garland Publishing | isbn= 0-824-03695-6 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/FFfW4cH8PdcC?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjE0bfpou_1AhXdIkQIHUh8CZEQ8fIDegQIAxBU }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Alcock, James}}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Aldersey-Williams, Hugh}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Alexander | first1= Rebecca W. | last2= Schimmel | first2= Paul | year= 2001 | title= Domain-Domain Communication in Aminoacyl-tRNA Synthetases | journal= Progress in Nucleic Acid Research and Molecular Biology | volume= 69 | pages= 317-349 | pmid= 11550797 | doi= 10.1016/s0079-6603(01)69050-0 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0079660301690500?via%3Dihub }}
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* {{cite journal | last1= Raban | first1= Morton | last2= Mislow | first2= Kurt | year= 1966 | title= The Determination Of Optical Purity By Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy II - Compounds Which Owe Their Dissymmetry To Deuterium Substitution | journal= Tetrahedron Letters | volume= 7 | number= 33 | pages= 3961-3966 | doi= 10.1016/S0040-4039(00)70010-4 | url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0040403900700104 }}
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{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rocker, Rudolf}}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rogers, George W.}}
* {{cite journal | last1= Roman | first1= Beth L. | last2= Weinstein | first2= Brant M. | year= 2000 | title= Building the Vertebrate Vasculature: Research is Going Swimmingly | journal= BioEssays | volume= 22 | number= 10 | pages= 882-893 | publication-date= October 2000 | pmid= 10984714 | doi= 10.1002/1521-1878(200010)22:10&lt;882::AID-BIES3&gt;3.0.CO;2-J | url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/1521-1878(200010)22:10%3C882::AID-BIES3%3E3.0.CO;2-J }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Romer,_Alfred_Sherwood}}
* {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016a | title= 1: Epithelial homeostasis: Cell division | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TlQ9zdELTfw&amp;list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&amp;index=51 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:25:04)
* {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016b | title= 2: Epithelial Apoptosis: Death by epithelial cell extrusion | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RcwlJYxAPJk&amp;list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&amp;index=52 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:23:56)
* {{cite AV media | last= Rosenblatt | first= Jody | year= 2016c | title= 3: Pathologies resulting from aberrant epithelial extrusion | series= iBiology - Cell Biology Lectures | publisher= Huntsman Cancer Institute (HCI)/University of Utah | publication-date= August 31, 2019 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LtVG-kZ05eg&amp;list=PLB91F93681E0E0DB1&amp;index=53 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:25:40)
* {{cite journal| last1= Ros-Rocher | first1= Núria | last2= Pérez-Posada | first2= Alberto | last3= Leger | first3= Michelle M. | last4= Ruiz-Trillo | first4= Iñaki | year= 2021 | publication-date= February 24, 2021 | title= The origin of animals: an ancestral reconstruction of the unicellular-to-multicellular transition | journal= Open Biology | volume= 11 | issue= 2 | pages= 200359 | doi= 10.1098/rsob.200359 | pmid= 33622103 | pmc= 8061703 }}
* {{cite web | url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg12617205-400-review-darwin-on-the-brain/ | title= Review: Darwin on the brain | last= Rose | first= Steven | year= 1990 | publication-date= June 9, 1990 |website= www.newscientist.com | publisher= New Scientist }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Rosemann | first1= Eric | last2= Korian | first2= Peter | year= 2001 | title= Exploring Serotonin in the GI Tract | journal= SIGGRAPH01 Conference: The 28th International Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques | publisher= Association for Computing Machinery | publication-date= August 12, 2001 | isbn= 978-1-4503-7429-3 | doi= 10.1145/945191.945208 | url= https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/945191.945208 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:02:49)
* {{cite journal | last= Rosenfield | first= Israel | title= Neural Darwinism: A New Approach to Memory and Perception | journal = The New York Review of Books | year= 1986 | publication-date= October 9, 1986 | url= https://www.nybooks.com/articles/1986/10/09/neural-darwinism-a-new-approach-to-memory-and-perc/ }}
* {{cite book | last= Roth | first= Gerhard | year= 2001 | chapter= The Evolution of Consciousness | title= Brain Evolution and Cognition | pages= 556-582 | editor= Gerhard Roth, Mario F. Wullimann, William F. Wullimann | publisher= Wiley-Spektrum | isbn=  978-0-471-33170-4 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Brain_Evolution_and_Cognition/brZqAAAAMAAJ?hl=en }}
* {{cite book | last1= Roy | first1= Roopali | last2= Adams | first2= Michael W.W. | year= 2002 | chapter= Tungsten-Dependent Aldehyde Oxidoreductase:  A New Family of Enzymes Containing The Pterin Cofactor | title= Metal Ions In Biological Systems - Volume 39 Molybdenum And Tungsten:  Their Roles in Biological Processes | editor= Astrid Sigel &amp; Helmut Sigel | number= 19 | pages= 673-697 | publisher= CRC Press | publication-date= March 6, 2002 | isbn= 978-0-203-90933-1 | pmid=  11913140 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/Metals_Ions_in_Biological_System/WoDMBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=0 }}
* {{cite journal | last1= Rubinstein | first1= Robert A. | last2= Laughlin Jr. | first2= Charles D. | last3= Boggs | first3= James P. | last4= Brady | first4= Ivan A. | last5= Burton-Bradley | first5= Burton G. | last6= Pataki-Schweizer | first6= K.J. | last7= Byrne | first7= Rodney | last8= Chaney | first8= Richard Paul | last9= Count | first9= Earl W. | last10= Ferreira | first10= J.V. | last11= Gallus | first11= Alexander | last12= Geilhufe | first12= Nancy L. | last13= Göhring | first13= Heinz | last14= Hepburn | first14= Marcus J. | last15= Korey | first15= Kenneth A. | last16= Martindale | first16= Colin | last17= Paredes | first17= J. Anthony | last18= Straight | first18= H. Stephen | last19= Wallace | first19= James M. | last20= Wundram | first20= Ina Jane | year= 1977 | title= Bridging Levels of Systemic Organization | journal= Current Anthropology | volume= 18 | number= 3 | pages= 459-481 | publication-date= September 1977 | doi= 10.1086/201927 | url= https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/201927 }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rucker, Rudolf v.B.}}
* {{cite journal | last= Ruse | first= Michael | year= 1980 | title= Charles Darwin And Group Selection | journal= Annals Of Science | volume= 37 | number= 6 | pages= 615-630 | pmid= 11615926 | doi= 10.1080/00033798000200421 | url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00033798000200421 }}
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rutherford, Steven T.}}
* {{cite journal | last= Rutishauser | first= Urs | year= 2014 | publication-date= June 24, 2014 | title= Gerald Edelman (1929–2014) | journal= Nature | volume= 510 | number= 7506 | pages= 474 | doi= 10.1038/510474a | pmid= 24965643 | url= https://www.nature.com/articles/510474a?WT.ec_id=NATURE-20140626&amp;spMailingID=46310529&amp;spUserID=MjA1NTEwMjEzMgS2&amp;spJobID=463279889&amp;spReportId=NDYzMjc5ODg5S0 }}
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Berthoz, Alain</title>
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=== [[w:Alain Berthoz|Berthoz, Alain (1939 - )]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Integrative physiologist focused on multisensory control of gaze, balance, locomotion and spatial memory.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Darwin, Charles</title>
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      <text bytes="3886" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite web | last= Darwin | first= Charles | date= 1837 | title= Transmutation Diagram | publisher= Cambridge University Library | quote= Notebook B | website= University of Cambridge - Digital Library | access-date= October 18, 2021 | url= https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-DAR-00121/21 }}
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1838 | title= The Voyage of the Beagle | publisher= Penguin Publishing Group | publication-date= April 1996 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Ox1xOgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU17DP45P1AhW0Mn0KHekeB5MQre8FegUIKxDDAg }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kV0ZTAQ_ir4&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=13 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loGi_X0R4Mc&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=13 Part 2] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlqFdafIDd0&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=15 Part 3] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1859 | title= On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life | publisher= D. Appleton and Company | location= New York | publication-date= 1869 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/On_the_Origin_of_Species_by_Means_of_Nat/ez9KAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=1869+On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection,+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&amp;printsec=frontcover }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KX0EwgxiAg4&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=32 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBPVA3i8mKU&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=30 Part 2] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uURn7dnC66I&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=48 Part 3] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IM6fPaEHZgE&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=18 Part 4] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1871 | title= The Descent of Man | publisher= Prometheus Books | publication-date= 1998 | isbn= 978-1-573-92176-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Z0B9QgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjlkr_F-vH1AhWLIkQIHVl_C6QQ8fIDegUIAxCeAg }}([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=So3GkSrFtnU&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=153 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gqLfFPblZ0&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=164 Part 2] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1872 | title= The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals - with a preface by Konrad Lorentz | publisher= The University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago &amp; London | publication-date= 1965 | isbn= 0-226-13656-6 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_an/p_ZJCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=The+Expression+of+the+Emotions+in+Man+and+Animals&amp;printsec=frontcover }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AopL_EE9SIQ&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=90 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_auuHHXm3ZI&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=101 Part 2] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1887 | title= The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882.&quot; With the Original Omissions Restored. Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his Granddaughter Nora Barlow | publisher= W.W. Norton &amp; Company | publication-date= 1969 | isbn= 0-393-00487-2 }}
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1993 | title= The Portable Darwin | editor= Duncan M. Porter &amp; Peter Graham | publisher= Penguin Publishing Group | publication-date= November 1993 | isbn= 978-0-140-15109-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Portable_Darwin/nIJPEAAAQBAJ?hl=en }}</text>
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      <text bytes="3887" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite web | last= Darwin | first= Charles | date= 1837 | title= Transmutation Diagram | publisher= Cambridge University Library | quote= Notebook B | website= University of Cambridge - Digital Library | access-date= October 18, 2021 | url= https://cudl.lib.cam.ac.uk/view/MS-DAR-00121/21 }}
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1838 | title= The Voyage of the Beagle | publisher= Penguin Publishing Group | publication-date= April 1996 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Ox1xOgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwiU17DP45P1AhW0Mn0KHekeB5MQre8FegUIKxDDAg }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kV0ZTAQ_ir4&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=13 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=loGi_X0R4Mc&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=13 Part 2] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wlqFdafIDd0&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=15 Part 3] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1859 | title= On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life | publisher= D. Appleton and Company | location= New York | publication-date= 1869 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/On_the_Origin_of_Species_by_Means_of_Nat/ez9KAAAAYAAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=1869+On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection,+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&amp;printsec=frontcover }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KX0EwgxiAg4&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=32 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iBPVA3i8mKU&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=30 Part 2] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uURn7dnC66I&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=48 Part 3] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IM6fPaEHZgE&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7Cnqo14_BiY09yett68y9Es&amp;index=18 Part 4] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1871 | title= The Descent of Man | publisher= Prometheus Books | publication-date= 1998 | isbn= 978-1-573-92176-3 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/_/Z0B9QgAACAAJ?hl=en&amp;sa=X&amp;ved=2ahUKEwjlkr_F-vH1AhWLIkQIHVl_C6QQ8fIDegUIAxCeAg }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=So3GkSrFtnU&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=153 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6gqLfFPblZ0&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=164 Part 2] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1872 | title= The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals - with a preface by Konrad Lorentz | publisher= The University of Chicago Press | location= Chicago &amp; London | publication-date= 1965 | isbn= 0-226-13656-6 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Expression_of_the_Emotions_in_Man_an/p_ZJCgAAQBAJ?hl=en&amp;gbpv=1&amp;dq=The+Expression+of+the+Emotions+in+Man+and+Animals&amp;printsec=frontcover }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AopL_EE9SIQ&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=90 Audiobook - Part 1] - [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_auuHHXm3ZI&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=101 Part 2] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1887 | title= The Autobiography of Charles Darwin 1809–1882.&quot; With the Original Omissions Restored. Edited and with Appendix and Notes by his Granddaughter Nora Barlow | publisher= W.W. Norton &amp; Company | publication-date= 1969 | isbn= 0-393-00487-2 }}
* {{cite book | last= Darwin | first= Charles | year= 1993 | title= The Portable Darwin | editor= Duncan M. Porter &amp; Peter Graham | publisher= Penguin Publishing Group | publication-date= November 1993 | isbn= 978-0-140-15109-1 | url= https://www.google.com/books/edition/The_Portable_Darwin/nIJPEAAAQBAJ?hl=en }}</text>
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      <text bytes="605" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Faraday | first= Michael | year= 1834 | chapter= On Electrochemical Decomposition (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, 1834) | title= Cosmology, Atomic Theory, Evolution: Classic Readings in the Literature of Science | editor= Willaim C. Dampier and Margaret Dampier | publisher= Dover Publications | publication-date= 2003 | isbn= 978-0-486-16563-9 | url= https://store.doverpublications.com/0486165639.html }} ([https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yYgMFi8M1Wk&amp;list=PLZ-bKJtH3G7BYYscYohAFZAq65RwCf-K-&amp;index=157 Audiobook] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]])</text>
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=== [[w:Lars_Onsager|Onsager, Lars (1903 – 1976)]] ===
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[[File:Thermodynamics.png|thumb|Pioneers of Thermodynamics]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1968/onsager/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 1968] - “for the discovery of the reciprocal relations bearing his name, which are fundamental for the thermodynamics of irreversible processes.”
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==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Survival needs and motivation|Survival needs and motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021)


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      <text bytes="156225" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence
that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information.
Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and
eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.
No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way!

                                        Universal Language of Absolutes
                         (A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value)


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

This book hopes to reach a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. These books direct the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.
 Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.
 There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter

&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence.
 If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.
 There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.
There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on my part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are not located on a spot, but in expansion.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==

The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.

Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.

All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma)… If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

=== Naturaly. ===


How do we completely know?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/e. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships. Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty.
Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.

Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.

Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!
[[File:Wikimedia|thumb|center|]Arcimedes]

To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being, despite solipsistic theories to the contrary, does not exist in penetrating one other mind, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The notion of completion may be beyond what you call your ‘conscious grasp’, and therein I suspect lays the difficulty in recognition.

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.

Throw a ball from one side of the room to the other. The ‘whole’ or complete traverse of the ball is the instant it leaves your hand until it arrives at the other side of the room. You have already given credence to the concept of ‘mutual agreement’ as a reality. When there is a correct definition made in terms of ‘necessary factors’, then it has implicit within it the concepts of ‘completeness’ or ‘wholeness’ within the measure in which it is used.

Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.

“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, End, we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!!

These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.

Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form.

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relativism: ===
Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy!

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy!

The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy!

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy!

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy!

How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies?

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

(Archimedes bath image here please)

Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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      <text bytes="156264" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence
that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information.
Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and
eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.
No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way!

                                        Universal Language of Absolutes
                         (A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value)


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.
 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in expansion.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==

The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.

Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.

All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma)… If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

=== Naturaly. ===


How do we completely know?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/e. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships. Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty.
Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.

Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.

Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!
[[File:Wikimedia|thumb|center|]Arcimedes]

To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being, despite solipsistic theories to the contrary, does not exist in penetrating one other mind, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The notion of completion may be beyond what you call your ‘conscious grasp’, and therein I suspect lays the difficulty in recognition.

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.

Throw a ball from one side of the room to the other. The ‘whole’ or complete traverse of the ball is the instant it leaves your hand until it arrives at the other side of the room. You have already given credence to the concept of ‘mutual agreement’ as a reality. When there is a correct definition made in terms of ‘necessary factors’, then it has implicit within it the concepts of ‘completeness’ or ‘wholeness’ within the measure in which it is used.

Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.

“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, End, we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!!

These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.

Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form.

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relativism: ===
Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy!

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy!

The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy!

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy!

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy!

How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies?

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

(Archimedes bath image here please)

Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020)


Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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      <text bytes="1837" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite journal | last= Axelrod | first= Julius | year= 1971 | title= Noradrenaline: Fate and Control of Its Biosynthesis (Nobel Lecture) | series= Nobel Lectures delivered December 12, 1970 | journal= Science | volume= 173 | number= 3997 | pages= 598-606 | publication-date= August 13, 1971 | pmid= 4397955 | doi= 10.1126/science.173.3997.598 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/axelrod-lecture.pdf }}
* {{cite journal | last= Axelrod | first= Julius | year= 1981 | title= Catecholamine neurotransmitters, psychoactive drugs, and biological clocks | series= The 1981 Harvey Cushing oration | journal= Journal of Neurosurgery | volume= 55 | number= 5 | pages= 669-677 | publication-date= November 1981 | pmid= 6118401 | doi= 10.3171/jns.1981.55.5.0669 | url= https://thejns.org/view/journals/j-neurosurg/55/5/article-p669.xml }}
* {{cite AV media | last= Axelrod | first= Julius | year= 1994 | title= History Of Neuroscience - Julius Axelrod | publisher= Society For Neuroscience | medium= Recorded November 21, 1994 | publication-date= July 5, 2012 | url= https://www.sfn.org/about/history-of-neuroscience/autobiographical-videos/axelrod,-julius }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:56:04)
* {{cite journal | last1= Axelrod | first1= Julius | last2= Brady | first2= Roscoe O. | last3= Witkop | first3= Bernhard | last4= Evarts | first4= Edward V. | year= 1957 | title= The Distribution and Metabolism of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide | series= The Pharmacology of Psychotomimetic and Psychotherapeutic Drugs | journal= Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences | volume= 66 | number 3 | pages= 435-444 | publication-date= March 14, 1957 | pmid= 13425233 | doi= 1111/j.1749-6632.1957.tb40739.x | url= https://nyaspubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1957.tb40739.x?sid=nlm%3Apubmed }}</text>
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      <text bytes="953" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Cheney | first= Liz | year= 2021 | title= Liberty, Duty, and the U.S. Constitution | publisher= American Rhetoric Online Speech Bank | medium= .mp3 | publication-date= May 11, 2021 | url= https://www.americanrhetoric.com/mp3clipsXE/politicalspeeches/lizcheneyfloorspeechontruthlibertyARXE.mp3 }} [https://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/lizcheneyfloorspeechfreedomconstitution.htm Delivered to the US House of Representatives] (video/transcript) [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:06:08)
* {{cite AV media | last= Cheney | first= Liz | year= 2022 | title= Future Of The Republican Party | series= A Time For Choosing - Speaker Series | publisher= C-SPAN | medium= Ronald Reagan Presidential Library &amp; Museum, Simi Valley, California | publication-date= June 29, 2022 | url= https://www.c-span.org/video/?521290-1/rep-liz-cheney-reagan-library }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:38:59)</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Orbital platforms</title>
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      <comment>/* Imaging radars */</comment>
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      <text bytes="181329" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
Image:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==Apollo-Soyuz==
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 1973 artist's conception of the docking of the two spacecraft is shown. Credit: R. Bruneau, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Saturn IB launch.jpg|thumb|left|A Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Soyuz Spacecraft in Orbit - GPN-2002-000155.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This scene was photographed with a handheld 70mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An artist's concept illustrates an Apollo-type spacecraft (on left) about to dock with a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft. A recent agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics provides for the docking in space of the Soyuz and Apollo-type spacecraft in Earth orbit in 1975. The joint venture is called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

The three American astronauts, Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Deke Slayton, and two Soviet cosmonauts, Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov, performed both joint and separate scientific experiments, including an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.

The photo on the left depicts the liftoff of the Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-210), for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, from the Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first international docking of the U.S.'s Apollo spacecraft and the U.S.S.R.'s Soyuz spacecraft in space. The objective of the ASTP mission was to provide the basis for a standardized international system for docking of manned spacecraft. The Soyuz spacecraft, with Cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov aboard, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh, Soviet Socialist Republic, at 8:20 a.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Apollo spacecraft, with Astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton aboard, was launched from Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 3:50 p.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Primary objectives of the ASTP were achieved. They performed spacecraft rendezvous, docking and undocking, conducted intervehicular crew transfer, and demonstrated the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. control centers and spacecraft crews. The mission marked the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle. The Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for development and sustaining engineering of the Saturn IB launch vehicle during the mission.

This scene (second image down on the right) was photographed with a handheld 70 mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. It shows the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft contrasted against a black-sky background with the Earth's horizon below. The American Docking Mechanism (DM) is visible at the top of the picture.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==Radars==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radars}}
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:TEIDE.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the Teide volcano. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A) was for remote sensing of Earth's resources. Experiments were conducted by Shuttle missions: STS-2.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay of STS-13.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

This radar image shows the Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, part of Spain, are located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Teide has erupted only once in the 20th Century, in 1909, but is considered a potentially threatening volcano due to its proximity to the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, shown in this image as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. The summit crater of Teide, clearly visible in the left center of the image, contains lava flows of various ages and roughnesses that appear in shades of green and brown. Different vegetation zones, both natural and agricultural, are detected by the radar as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks. Scientists are using images such as this to understand the evolution of the structure of Teide, especially the formation of the summit caldera and the potential for collapse of the flanks. The volcano is one of 15 identified by scientists as potentially hazardous to local populations, as part of the international cooperation agreement.

The image was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) onboard the space shuttle ''Endeavour'' on October 11, 1994, Space Transportation System-65. SIR-C/X-SAR, a joint mission of the German, Italian and the United States space agencies, is part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. The image is centered at 28.3 degrees North latitude and 16.6 degrees West longitude. North is toward the upper right. The area shown measures 90 kilometers by 54.5 kilometers (55.8 miles by 33.8 miles). The colors in the image are assigned to different frequencies and polarizations of the radar as follows: red is L-band horizontally transmitted, horizontally received; green is L-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received; blue is C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments for environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.

Names: Space Transportation System-6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1982-110A.

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==
[[Image:S42-50-022 - STS-042 - STS-42 Earth observations - DPLA - 89f59f2368ab90105ca9847ed651ae57.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kunlun Mountains are in Tibet at lat: 36°N lon: 91°E. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-49==
[[Image:STS-46 Launch (19919136345).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''' STS-46 mission was launched on July 31, 1992, from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-86-073 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - accaf9e431417caa6b584443309329cb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earth observation is from the shuttle orbiter ''Atlantis'' during STS-46 of Dominican Republic, lat. 20°, lon. -71°. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-93-064 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - 41e6ccb6ebaff54dbc92eb925055ae3c.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Vietnam, Dong Hoi coastal area is at lat: 17.5° lon: 105.8°, tilt: 15°, dir: N, azi: 83, alt: 124, elev: 34. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

Names: Space Transportation System-49.

Secondary payloads included the Evaluation of Oxygen Integration with Materials/Thermal Management Processes (EOIM-III/TEMP 2A), Consortium for Materials Development in Space Complex Autonomous Payload (CONCAP II and CONCAP III), IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), Limited Duration Space Environment Candidate Materials Exposure (LDCE), Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Function (PHCF), and the Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).
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==STS-50==
[[Image:STS-047 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-47 Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105, lifts off from KSC. Credit: NASA.{{tlx||free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-47 payloadbay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'''s payload bay and the Spacelab-J science module are shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosten-Lake (Bosten-See), Xinjiang, China, 87.00E, 42.00N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bosten Lake area in East Turkestan (Xinjiang) is shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-061A.

&quot;STS 47 was the 50th Shuttle mission and flew as its primary payload Spacelab-J (SL-J), utilized pressurized Spacelab module. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, SL-J included 24 material science and 19 life sciences experiments, of which 34 were sponsored by NASDA, seven by NASA, and two collaborative efforts. The mission was extended one day to further science objectives. The materials science investigations covered such fields as biotechnology, electronic materials, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, glasses and ceramics, metals and alloys, and acceleration measurements. The life sciences investigations covered human health, cell separation and biology, development biology, animal and human physiology and behavior, space radiation, and biological rhythms. Test subjects included the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 47
|publisher=NASA GSFC
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-061A
|accessdate=26 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Also flown in the payload bay were 12 Get Away Special (GAS) canisters (10 holding experiments, two for ballast) attached to a GAS Bridge Assembly. Middeck experiments included Israeli Space Agency Investigation about Hornets (USAIAH); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II); Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS); and Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47/&gt;

Camera location for the second image on the right was 42° 00′ 00″ N, 87° 00′ 00″ E, taken on 13 September 1992, 04:07:31.
{{clear}}

==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba1992&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-52==
[[Image:STS-053 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch of ''Discovery'' is for a United States Department of Defense (DoD) mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-53 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission in support of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1992-086A.

&quot;The secondary unclassified experiments include: (1) Shuttle Glow (GLO), to investigate Shuttle/space environment interactions; (2) Cryogenic Heat Pipe Experiment (CRYOHP), a joint DoD and NASA Hitchhiker experiment to test advanced technology to regect excess heat generated by infrared sensors; (3) Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System (ODERACS), an experiment which will release 6 calibrated spheres into orbit in order to provide a source for fine-tuning ground-based radar facilities around the world; (4) Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor Test (BLAST), an Army space project to demonstrate the use of spaceborne laser receivers to detect laser energy from ground test locations; (5) Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense System (CLOUDS), a meteorological experiment to quantify the variation in apparent cloud cover as a function of orbital view angle; (6) Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM), an experiment designed to collect cosmic ray energy loss spectra, neutron fluxes, and induced radioactivity; (7) Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment (FARE), an experimen t to investigate the dynamics of fluid transfer in space; (8) Hand-held, earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System (HERCULES), a Naval Research Lab (NRL) experiment to enable a Shuttle astrionaut to point a camera at an Earth feature, record the image and determine the latitude and longitude of the feature; (10) Microencapsulation In Space (MIS), designed to incresae the knowledge of microencapsulated drug technology; (11) Radiation Monitoring Equipment -III (RME-III), an instrument to measure the exposure to ionizing radiation on the Shuttle; (12) Space Tissue Loss (STL), to study the effects of space on fragile life systems; and (13) Visual Function Tester - Model II (VFT-2), a series of vision performance experiments in space.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS53&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 53
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-086A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Names: Space Transportation System-52.
{{clear}}

==STS-53==

STS-54 was a NASA Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. This was the third flight for ''Endeavour'', and was launched on 13 January 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-53.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-003A.
{{clear}}

==STS-54==
[[Image:STS056-91-054 - Payload bay view with ATLAS pallet (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab ATLAS-2 laboratory are shown in the payload bay of ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-56 Launch - GPN-2000-000748.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-56. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS056-90-034 - SPARTAN-201 free-flying (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|SPARTAN-201 free-flying near STS-56. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew retouched by [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-54.

STS-56 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-023A.

The primary payload of the flight was the Spacelab Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the Sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special (GAS) canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the solar spectrometry instrument SOLSPEC,&lt;ref name=&quot;SOLSPEC&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=11 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-56|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-56.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=11 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ATLAS-2 is one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. All seven ATLAS-2 instruments first flew on Spacelab ATLAS-1 during STS-45, and flew a third time in late 1994 on STS-66.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;

On 11 April 1993, the crew used the remote manipulator arm (Canadarm) to deploy the Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201 (SPARTAN-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. Collected data was stored on tape for playback after return to Earth. SPARTAN-201 was retrieved on 13 April 1993.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-55==
[[Image:STS-55 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serves as the Spacelab D-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-55 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-55.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-027A.

Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab D-2 and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia's payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission STS-61-A in October 1985.

The crew worked in two shifts around-the-clock to complete investigations into the areas of fluid physics, materials sciences, life sciences, biological sciences, technology, Earth observations, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Many of the experiments advanced the research of the D-1 mission by conducting similar tests, using upgraded processing hardware, or implementing methods that took full advantage of the technical advancements since 1985.
{{clear}}

==STS-56==
[[Image:STS057-89-042.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Endeavour'''s payload bay, with the Space habitat (SpaceHab) module (foreground), European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) (background), and astronauts David Low and Peter Wisoff performing an Extravehicular activity (EVA) (centre). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s57 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EURECA berth STS-57.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) is stowed by ''Endeavour'''s remote manipulator system (Canadarm). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-57 was a NASA Space Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-56.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-037A.

EURECA had been deployed from the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' in August 1992 (STS-46) and contained several experiments to study the long-term effects of exposure to microgravity.
{{clear}}

==STS-57==
[[Image:1993 s51 IMAX view of Discovery from Spas.JPG|thumb|right|250px|IMAX photography of ''Discovery'' in orbit, was viewed from the free-flying SPAS-ORFEUS astronomy platform. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s51 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch was seen from the RSS. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:51 SPAS 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The ORFEUS/SPAS platform is captured by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission. The flight featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of ''Discovery'' in space.

Names: Space Transportation System-57.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-058A.
{{clear}}

==STS-58==
[[Image:STS058-92-064.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab module LM2 is in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-58 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-58 pad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' is on Pad 39B ready for launch. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-58 was a NASA mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-58.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-065A.
{{clear}}

==STS-59==
[[Image:STS061-98-050 - Astronauts Musgrave and Hoffman during servicing of HST (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musgrave is being raised to the top of ''Hubble'' by Canadarm, as it sits in ''Endeavour'''s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-59 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 sts61 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows the first ''Hubble'' servicing mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-61 was the first NASA Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-59.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-075A.
{{clear}}

==STS-60==
[[Image:Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 (STS060-74-054).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Astrotech Corporation SPACEHAB-2 in ''Discovery'''s payload bay, as Canadarm grapples the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1). Credit: NASA STS-60 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-60 was the first mission of the U.S./Russian Shuttle-Mir Program. The mission used NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission carried the Wake Shield Facility experiment and a SPACEHAB module, developed by SPACEHAB Inc., into orbit.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-006A.

Names: Space Transportation System-60.
{{clear}}

==STS-61==
[[Image:1994_s62_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows ''Columbia'' on STS-62. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Owen, STS-62.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Typhoon Owen. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-015A

Names: Space Transportation System-61.
{{clear}}

==STS-62==
[[Image:EndeavourPayloadBaySTS59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is in orbit with SIR-C in its payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-020A.

Names: Space Transportation System-62.
{{clear}}

==STS-63==
[[Image:STS-65 spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the International Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-63 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-039A.

Names: Space Transportation System-63.
{{clear}}

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="181116" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
Image:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==Apollo-Soyuz==
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 1973 artist's conception of the docking of the two spacecraft is shown. Credit: R. Bruneau, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Saturn IB launch.jpg|thumb|left|A Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Soyuz Spacecraft in Orbit - GPN-2002-000155.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This scene was photographed with a handheld 70mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An artist's concept illustrates an Apollo-type spacecraft (on left) about to dock with a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft. A recent agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics provides for the docking in space of the Soyuz and Apollo-type spacecraft in Earth orbit in 1975. The joint venture is called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

The three American astronauts, Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Deke Slayton, and two Soviet cosmonauts, Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov, performed both joint and separate scientific experiments, including an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.

The photo on the left depicts the liftoff of the Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-210), for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, from the Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first international docking of the U.S.'s Apollo spacecraft and the U.S.S.R.'s Soyuz spacecraft in space. The objective of the ASTP mission was to provide the basis for a standardized international system for docking of manned spacecraft. The Soyuz spacecraft, with Cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov aboard, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh, Soviet Socialist Republic, at 8:20 a.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Apollo spacecraft, with Astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton aboard, was launched from Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 3:50 p.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Primary objectives of the ASTP were achieved. They performed spacecraft rendezvous, docking and undocking, conducted intervehicular crew transfer, and demonstrated the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. control centers and spacecraft crews. The mission marked the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle. The Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for development and sustaining engineering of the Saturn IB launch vehicle during the mission.

This scene (second image down on the right) was photographed with a handheld 70 mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. It shows the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft contrasted against a black-sky background with the Earth's horizon below. The American Docking Mechanism (DM) is visible at the top of the picture.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==Radars==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radars}}
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:TEIDE.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the Teide volcano. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A) was for remote sensing of Earth's resources. Experiments were conducted by Shuttle missions: STS-2.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay of STS-13.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

This radar image shows the Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, part of Spain, are located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Teide has erupted only once in the 20th Century, in 1909, but is considered a potentially threatening volcano due to its proximity to the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, shown in this image as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. The summit crater of Teide, clearly visible in the left center of the image, contains lava flows of various ages and roughnesses that appear in shades of green and brown. Different vegetation zones, both natural and agricultural, are detected by the radar as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks. Scientists are using images such as this to understand the evolution of the structure of Teide, especially the formation of the summit caldera and the potential for collapse of the flanks. The volcano is one of 15 identified by scientists as potentially hazardous to local populations, as part of the international cooperation agreement.

The image was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) onboard the space shuttle ''Endeavour'' on October 11, 1994, Space Transportation System-65. SIR-C/X-SAR, a joint mission of the German, Italian and the United States space agencies, is part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. The image is centered at 28.3 degrees North latitude and 16.6 degrees West longitude. North is toward the upper right. The area shown measures 90 kilometers by 54.5 kilometers (55.8 miles by 33.8 miles). The colors in the image are assigned to different frequencies and polarizations of the radar as follows: red is L-band horizontally transmitted, horizontally received; green is L-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received; blue is C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments for environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.

Names: Space Transportation System-6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1982-110A.

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
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==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
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==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
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==STS-45==
[[Image:S42-50-022 - STS-042 - STS-42 Earth observations - DPLA - 89f59f2368ab90105ca9847ed651ae57.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kunlun Mountains are in Tibet at lat: 36°N lon: 91°E. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-49==
[[Image:STS-46 Launch (19919136345).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''' STS-46 mission was launched on July 31, 1992, from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-86-073 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - accaf9e431417caa6b584443309329cb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earth observation is from the shuttle orbiter ''Atlantis'' during STS-46 of Dominican Republic, lat. 20°, lon. -71°. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-93-064 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - 41e6ccb6ebaff54dbc92eb925055ae3c.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Vietnam, Dong Hoi coastal area is at lat: 17.5° lon: 105.8°, tilt: 15°, dir: N, azi: 83, alt: 124, elev: 34. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

Names: Space Transportation System-49.

Secondary payloads included the Evaluation of Oxygen Integration with Materials/Thermal Management Processes (EOIM-III/TEMP 2A), Consortium for Materials Development in Space Complex Autonomous Payload (CONCAP II and CONCAP III), IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), Limited Duration Space Environment Candidate Materials Exposure (LDCE), Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Function (PHCF), and the Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).
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==STS-50==
[[Image:STS-047 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-47 Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105, lifts off from KSC. Credit: NASA.{{tlx||free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-47 payloadbay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'''s payload bay and the Spacelab-J science module are shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosten-Lake (Bosten-See), Xinjiang, China, 87.00E, 42.00N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bosten Lake area in East Turkestan (Xinjiang) is shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-061A.

&quot;STS 47 was the 50th Shuttle mission and flew as its primary payload Spacelab-J (SL-J), utilized pressurized Spacelab module. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, SL-J included 24 material science and 19 life sciences experiments, of which 34 were sponsored by NASDA, seven by NASA, and two collaborative efforts. The mission was extended one day to further science objectives. The materials science investigations covered such fields as biotechnology, electronic materials, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, glasses and ceramics, metals and alloys, and acceleration measurements. The life sciences investigations covered human health, cell separation and biology, development biology, animal and human physiology and behavior, space radiation, and biological rhythms. Test subjects included the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 47
|publisher=NASA GSFC
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-061A
|accessdate=26 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Also flown in the payload bay were 12 Get Away Special (GAS) canisters (10 holding experiments, two for ballast) attached to a GAS Bridge Assembly. Middeck experiments included Israeli Space Agency Investigation about Hornets (USAIAH); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II); Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS); and Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47/&gt;

Camera location for the second image on the right was 42° 00′ 00″ N, 87° 00′ 00″ E, taken on 13 September 1992, 04:07:31.
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==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba1992&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-52==
[[Image:STS-053 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch of ''Discovery'' is for a United States Department of Defense (DoD) mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-53 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission in support of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1992-086A.

&quot;The secondary unclassified experiments include: (1) Shuttle Glow (GLO), to investigate Shuttle/space environment interactions; (2) Cryogenic Heat Pipe Experiment (CRYOHP), a joint DoD and NASA Hitchhiker experiment to test advanced technology to regect excess heat generated by infrared sensors; (4) Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor Test (BLAST), an Army space project to demonstrate the use of spaceborne laser receivers to detect laser energy from ground test locations; (5) Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense System (CLOUDS), a meteorological experiment to quantify the variation in apparent cloud cover as a function of orbital view angle; (6) Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM), an experiment designed to collect cosmic ray energy loss spectra, neutron fluxes, and induced radioactivity; (7) Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment (FARE), an experimen t to investigate the dynamics of fluid transfer in space; (8) Hand-held, earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System (HERCULES), a Naval Research Lab (NRL) experiment to enable a Shuttle astrionaut to point a camera at an Earth feature, record the image and determine the latitude and longitude of the feature; (10) Microencapsulation In Space (MIS), designed to incresae the knowledge of microencapsulated drug technology; (11) Radiation Monitoring Equipment -III (RME-III), an instrument to measure the exposure to ionizing radiation on the Shuttle; (12) Space Tissue Loss (STL), to study the effects of space on fragile life systems; and (13) Visual Function Tester - Model II (VFT-2), a series of vision performance experiments in space.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS53&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 53
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-086A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Names: Space Transportation System-52.
{{clear}}

==STS-53==

STS-54 was a NASA Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. This was the third flight for ''Endeavour'', and was launched on 13 January 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-53.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-003A.
{{clear}}

==STS-54==
[[Image:STS056-91-054 - Payload bay view with ATLAS pallet (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab ATLAS-2 laboratory are shown in the payload bay of ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-56 Launch - GPN-2000-000748.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-56. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS056-90-034 - SPARTAN-201 free-flying (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|SPARTAN-201 free-flying near STS-56. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew retouched by [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-54.

STS-56 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-023A.

The primary payload of the flight was the Spacelab Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the Sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special (GAS) canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the solar spectrometry instrument SOLSPEC,&lt;ref name=&quot;SOLSPEC&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=11 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-56|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-56.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=11 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ATLAS-2 is one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. All seven ATLAS-2 instruments first flew on Spacelab ATLAS-1 during STS-45, and flew a third time in late 1994 on STS-66.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;

On 11 April 1993, the crew used the remote manipulator arm (Canadarm) to deploy the Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201 (SPARTAN-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. Collected data was stored on tape for playback after return to Earth. SPARTAN-201 was retrieved on 13 April 1993.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;
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==STS-55==
[[Image:STS-55 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serves as the Spacelab D-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-55 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-55.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-027A.

Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab D-2 and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia's payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission STS-61-A in October 1985.

The crew worked in two shifts around-the-clock to complete investigations into the areas of fluid physics, materials sciences, life sciences, biological sciences, technology, Earth observations, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Many of the experiments advanced the research of the D-1 mission by conducting similar tests, using upgraded processing hardware, or implementing methods that took full advantage of the technical advancements since 1985.
{{clear}}

==STS-56==
[[Image:STS057-89-042.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Endeavour'''s payload bay, with the Space habitat (SpaceHab) module (foreground), European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) (background), and astronauts David Low and Peter Wisoff performing an Extravehicular activity (EVA) (centre). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s57 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EURECA berth STS-57.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) is stowed by ''Endeavour'''s remote manipulator system (Canadarm). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-57 was a NASA Space Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-56.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-037A.

EURECA had been deployed from the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' in August 1992 (STS-46) and contained several experiments to study the long-term effects of exposure to microgravity.
{{clear}}

==STS-57==
[[Image:1993 s51 IMAX view of Discovery from Spas.JPG|thumb|right|250px|IMAX photography of ''Discovery'' in orbit, was viewed from the free-flying SPAS-ORFEUS astronomy platform. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s51 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch was seen from the RSS. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:51 SPAS 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The ORFEUS/SPAS platform is captured by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission. The flight featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of ''Discovery'' in space.

Names: Space Transportation System-57.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-058A.
{{clear}}

==STS-58==
[[Image:STS058-92-064.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab module LM2 is in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-58 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-58 pad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' is on Pad 39B ready for launch. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-58 was a NASA mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-58.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-065A.
{{clear}}

==STS-59==
[[Image:STS061-98-050 - Astronauts Musgrave and Hoffman during servicing of HST (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musgrave is being raised to the top of ''Hubble'' by Canadarm, as it sits in ''Endeavour'''s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-59 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 sts61 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows the first ''Hubble'' servicing mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-61 was the first NASA Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-59.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-075A.
{{clear}}

==STS-60==
[[Image:Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 (STS060-74-054).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Astrotech Corporation SPACEHAB-2 in ''Discovery'''s payload bay, as Canadarm grapples the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1). Credit: NASA STS-60 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-60 was the first mission of the U.S./Russian Shuttle-Mir Program. The mission used NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission carried the Wake Shield Facility experiment and a SPACEHAB module, developed by SPACEHAB Inc., into orbit.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-006A.

Names: Space Transportation System-60.
{{clear}}

==STS-61==
[[Image:1994_s62_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows ''Columbia'' on STS-62. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Owen, STS-62.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Typhoon Owen. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-015A

Names: Space Transportation System-61.
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==STS-62==
[[Image:EndeavourPayloadBaySTS59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is in orbit with SIR-C in its payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-020A.

Names: Space Transportation System-62.
{{clear}}

==STS-63==
[[Image:STS-65 spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the International Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-63 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-039A.

Names: Space Transportation System-63.
{{clear}}

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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Image:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
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'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==Apollo-Soyuz==
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 1973 artist's conception of the docking of the two spacecraft is shown. Credit: R. Bruneau, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Saturn IB launch.jpg|thumb|left|A Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Soyuz Spacecraft in Orbit - GPN-2002-000155.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This scene was photographed with a handheld 70mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An artist's concept illustrates an Apollo-type spacecraft (on left) about to dock with a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft. A recent agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics provides for the docking in space of the Soyuz and Apollo-type spacecraft in Earth orbit in 1975. The joint venture is called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

The three American astronauts, Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Deke Slayton, and two Soviet cosmonauts, Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov, performed both joint and separate scientific experiments, including an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.

The photo on the left depicts the liftoff of the Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-210), for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, from the Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first international docking of the U.S.'s Apollo spacecraft and the U.S.S.R.'s Soyuz spacecraft in space. The objective of the ASTP mission was to provide the basis for a standardized international system for docking of manned spacecraft. The Soyuz spacecraft, with Cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov aboard, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh, Soviet Socialist Republic, at 8:20 a.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Apollo spacecraft, with Astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton aboard, was launched from Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 3:50 p.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Primary objectives of the ASTP were achieved. They performed spacecraft rendezvous, docking and undocking, conducted intervehicular crew transfer, and demonstrated the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. control centers and spacecraft crews. The mission marked the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle. The Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for development and sustaining engineering of the Saturn IB launch vehicle during the mission.

This scene (second image down on the right) was photographed with a handheld 70 mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. It shows the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft contrasted against a black-sky background with the Earth's horizon below. The American Docking Mechanism (DM) is visible at the top of the picture.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
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==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
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==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
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==Radars==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radars}}
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:TEIDE.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the Teide volcano. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A) was for remote sensing of Earth's resources. Experiments were conducted by Shuttle missions: STS-2.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay of STS-13.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

This radar image shows the Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, part of Spain, are located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Teide has erupted only once in the 20th Century, in 1909, but is considered a potentially threatening volcano due to its proximity to the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, shown in this image as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. The summit crater of Teide, clearly visible in the left center of the image, contains lava flows of various ages and roughnesses that appear in shades of green and brown. Different vegetation zones, both natural and agricultural, are detected by the radar as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks. Scientists are using images such as this to understand the evolution of the structure of Teide, especially the formation of the summit caldera and the potential for collapse of the flanks. The volcano is one of 15 identified by scientists as potentially hazardous to local populations, as part of the international cooperation agreement.

The image was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) onboard the space shuttle ''Endeavour'' on October 11, 1994, Space Transportation System-65. SIR-C/X-SAR, a joint mission of the German, Italian and the United States space agencies, is part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. The image is centered at 28.3 degrees North latitude and 16.6 degrees West longitude. North is toward the upper right. The area shown measures 90 kilometers by 54.5 kilometers (55.8 miles by 33.8 miles). The colors in the image are assigned to different frequencies and polarizations of the radar as follows: red is L-band horizontally transmitted, horizontally received; green is L-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received; blue is C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received.
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==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
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==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments for environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.

Names: Space Transportation System-6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1982-110A.

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
{{clear}}

==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
{{clear}}

==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
{{clear}}

==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
{{clear}}

==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
{{clear}}

==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==
[[Image:S42-50-022 - STS-042 - STS-42 Earth observations - DPLA - 89f59f2368ab90105ca9847ed651ae57.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kunlun Mountains are in Tibet at lat: 36°N lon: 91°E. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-49==
[[Image:STS-46 Launch (19919136345).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''' STS-46 mission was launched on July 31, 1992, from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-86-073 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - accaf9e431417caa6b584443309329cb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earth observation is from the shuttle orbiter ''Atlantis'' during STS-46 of Dominican Republic, lat. 20°, lon. -71°. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-93-064 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - 41e6ccb6ebaff54dbc92eb925055ae3c.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Vietnam, Dong Hoi coastal area is at lat: 17.5° lon: 105.8°, tilt: 15°, dir: N, azi: 83, alt: 124, elev: 34. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

Names: Space Transportation System-49.

Secondary payloads included the Evaluation of Oxygen Integration with Materials/Thermal Management Processes (EOIM-III/TEMP 2A), Consortium for Materials Development in Space Complex Autonomous Payload (CONCAP II and CONCAP III), IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), Limited Duration Space Environment Candidate Materials Exposure (LDCE), Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Function (PHCF), and the Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).
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==STS-50==
[[Image:STS-047 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-47 Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105, lifts off from KSC. Credit: NASA.{{tlx||free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-47 payloadbay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'''s payload bay and the Spacelab-J science module are shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosten-Lake (Bosten-See), Xinjiang, China, 87.00E, 42.00N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bosten Lake area in East Turkestan (Xinjiang) is shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-061A.

&quot;STS 47 was the 50th Shuttle mission and flew as its primary payload Spacelab-J (SL-J), utilized pressurized Spacelab module. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, SL-J included 24 material science and 19 life sciences experiments, of which 34 were sponsored by NASDA, seven by NASA, and two collaborative efforts. The mission was extended one day to further science objectives. The materials science investigations covered such fields as biotechnology, electronic materials, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, glasses and ceramics, metals and alloys, and acceleration measurements. The life sciences investigations covered human health, cell separation and biology, development biology, animal and human physiology and behavior, space radiation, and biological rhythms. Test subjects included the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 47
|publisher=NASA GSFC
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-061A
|accessdate=26 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Also flown in the payload bay were 12 Get Away Special (GAS) canisters (10 holding experiments, two for ballast) attached to a GAS Bridge Assembly. Middeck experiments included Israeli Space Agency Investigation about Hornets (USAIAH); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II); Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS); and Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47/&gt;

Camera location for the second image on the right was 42° 00′ 00″ N, 87° 00′ 00″ E, taken on 13 September 1992, 04:07:31.
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==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba1992&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-52==
[[Image:STS-053 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch of ''Discovery'' is for a United States Department of Defense (DoD) mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-53 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission in support of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1992-086A.

&quot;The secondary unclassified experiments include: (1) Shuttle Glow (GLO), to investigate Shuttle/space environment interactions; (2) Cryogenic Heat Pipe Experiment (CRYOHP), a joint DoD and NASA Hitchhiker experiment to test advanced technology to regect excess heat generated by infrared sensors; [...] (4) Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor Test (BLAST), an Army space project to demonstrate the use of spaceborne laser receivers to detect laser energy from ground test locations; (5) Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense System (CLOUDS), a meteorological experiment to quantify the variation in apparent cloud cover as a function of orbital view angle; (6) Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM), an experiment designed to collect cosmic ray energy loss spectra, neutron fluxes, and induced radioactivity; (7) Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment (FARE), an experimen t to investigate the dynamics of fluid transfer in space; (8) Hand-held, earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System (HERCULES), a Naval Research Lab (NRL) experiment to enable a Shuttle astrionaut to point a camera at an Earth feature, record the image and determine the latitude and longitude of the feature; (10) Microencapsulation In Space (MIS), designed to incresae the knowledge of microencapsulated drug technology; (11) Radiation Monitoring Equipment -III (RME-III), an instrument to measure the exposure to ionizing radiation on the Shuttle; (12) Space Tissue Loss (STL), to study the effects of space on fragile life systems; and (13) Visual Function Tester - Model II (VFT-2), a series of vision performance experiments in space.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS53&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 53
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-086A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Names: Space Transportation System-52.
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==STS-53==

STS-54 was a NASA Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. This was the third flight for ''Endeavour'', and was launched on 13 January 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-53.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-003A.
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==STS-54==
[[Image:STS056-91-054 - Payload bay view with ATLAS pallet (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab ATLAS-2 laboratory are shown in the payload bay of ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-56 Launch - GPN-2000-000748.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-56. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS056-90-034 - SPARTAN-201 free-flying (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|SPARTAN-201 free-flying near STS-56. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew retouched by [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-54.

STS-56 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-023A.

The primary payload of the flight was the Spacelab Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the Sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special (GAS) canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the solar spectrometry instrument SOLSPEC,&lt;ref name=&quot;SOLSPEC&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=11 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-56|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-56.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=11 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ATLAS-2 is one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. All seven ATLAS-2 instruments first flew on Spacelab ATLAS-1 during STS-45, and flew a third time in late 1994 on STS-66.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;

On 11 April 1993, the crew used the remote manipulator arm (Canadarm) to deploy the Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201 (SPARTAN-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. Collected data was stored on tape for playback after return to Earth. SPARTAN-201 was retrieved on 13 April 1993.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;
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==STS-55==
[[Image:STS-55 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serves as the Spacelab D-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-55 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-55.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-027A.

Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab D-2 and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia's payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission STS-61-A in October 1985.

The crew worked in two shifts around-the-clock to complete investigations into the areas of fluid physics, materials sciences, life sciences, biological sciences, technology, Earth observations, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Many of the experiments advanced the research of the D-1 mission by conducting similar tests, using upgraded processing hardware, or implementing methods that took full advantage of the technical advancements since 1985.
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==STS-56==
[[Image:STS057-89-042.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Endeavour'''s payload bay, with the Space habitat (SpaceHab) module (foreground), European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) (background), and astronauts David Low and Peter Wisoff performing an Extravehicular activity (EVA) (centre). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s57 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EURECA berth STS-57.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) is stowed by ''Endeavour'''s remote manipulator system (Canadarm). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-57 was a NASA Space Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-56.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-037A.

EURECA had been deployed from the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' in August 1992 (STS-46) and contained several experiments to study the long-term effects of exposure to microgravity.
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==STS-57==
[[Image:1993 s51 IMAX view of Discovery from Spas.JPG|thumb|right|250px|IMAX photography of ''Discovery'' in orbit, was viewed from the free-flying SPAS-ORFEUS astronomy platform. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s51 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch was seen from the RSS. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:51 SPAS 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The ORFEUS/SPAS platform is captured by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission. The flight featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of ''Discovery'' in space.

Names: Space Transportation System-57.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-058A.
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==STS-58==
[[Image:STS058-92-064.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab module LM2 is in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-58 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-58 pad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' is on Pad 39B ready for launch. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-58 was a NASA mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-58.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-065A.
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==STS-59==
[[Image:STS061-98-050 - Astronauts Musgrave and Hoffman during servicing of HST (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musgrave is being raised to the top of ''Hubble'' by Canadarm, as it sits in ''Endeavour'''s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-59 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 sts61 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows the first ''Hubble'' servicing mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-61 was the first NASA Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-59.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-075A.
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==STS-60==
[[Image:Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 (STS060-74-054).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Astrotech Corporation SPACEHAB-2 in ''Discovery'''s payload bay, as Canadarm grapples the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1). Credit: NASA STS-60 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-60 was the first mission of the U.S./Russian Shuttle-Mir Program. The mission used NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission carried the Wake Shield Facility experiment and a SPACEHAB module, developed by SPACEHAB Inc., into orbit.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-006A.

Names: Space Transportation System-60.
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==STS-61==
[[Image:1994_s62_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows ''Columbia'' on STS-62. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Owen, STS-62.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Typhoon Owen. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-015A

Names: Space Transportation System-61.
{{clear}}

==STS-62==
[[Image:EndeavourPayloadBaySTS59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is in orbit with SIR-C in its payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-020A.

Names: Space Transportation System-62.
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==STS-63==
[[Image:STS-65 spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the International Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-63 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-039A.

Names: Space Transportation System-63.
{{clear}}

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
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==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
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==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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{{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Orbital platforms}}

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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Image:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==Apollo-Soyuz==
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 1973 artist's conception of the docking of the two spacecraft is shown. Credit: R. Bruneau, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Saturn IB launch.jpg|thumb|left|A Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Soyuz Spacecraft in Orbit - GPN-2002-000155.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This scene was photographed with a handheld 70mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An artist's concept illustrates an Apollo-type spacecraft (on left) about to dock with a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft. A recent agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics provides for the docking in space of the Soyuz and Apollo-type spacecraft in Earth orbit in 1975. The joint venture is called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

The three American astronauts, Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Deke Slayton, and two Soviet cosmonauts, Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov, performed both joint and separate scientific experiments, including an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.

The photo on the left depicts the liftoff of the Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-210), for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, from the Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first international docking of the U.S.'s Apollo spacecraft and the U.S.S.R.'s Soyuz spacecraft in space. The objective of the ASTP mission was to provide the basis for a standardized international system for docking of manned spacecraft. The Soyuz spacecraft, with Cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov aboard, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh, Soviet Socialist Republic, at 8:20 a.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Apollo spacecraft, with Astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton aboard, was launched from Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 3:50 p.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Primary objectives of the ASTP were achieved. They performed spacecraft rendezvous, docking and undocking, conducted intervehicular crew transfer, and demonstrated the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. control centers and spacecraft crews. The mission marked the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle. The Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for development and sustaining engineering of the Saturn IB launch vehicle during the mission.

This scene (second image down on the right) was photographed with a handheld 70 mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. It shows the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft contrasted against a black-sky background with the Earth's horizon below. The American Docking Mechanism (DM) is visible at the top of the picture.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
{{clear}}

==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
{{clear}}

==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==Radars==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radars}}
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:TEIDE.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle Endeavour shows the Teide volcano. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A) was for remote sensing of Earth's resources. Experiments were conducted by Shuttle missions: STS-2.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay of STS-13.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

This radar image shows the Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, part of Spain, are located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Teide has erupted only once in the 20th Century, in 1909, but is considered a potentially threatening volcano due to its proximity to the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, shown in this image as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. The summit crater of Teide, clearly visible in the left center of the image, contains lava flows of various ages and roughnesses that appear in shades of green and brown. Different vegetation zones, both natural and agricultural, are detected by the radar as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks. Scientists are using images such as this to understand the evolution of the structure of Teide, especially the formation of the summit caldera and the potential for collapse of the flanks. The volcano is one of 15 identified by scientists as potentially hazardous to local populations, as part of the international cooperation agreement.

The image was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) onboard the space shuttle ''Endeavour'' on October 11, 1994, Space Transportation System-65. SIR-C/X-SAR, a joint mission of the German, Italian and the United States space agencies, is part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. The image is centered at 28.3 degrees North latitude and 16.6 degrees West longitude. North is toward the upper right. The area shown measures 90 kilometers by 54.5 kilometers (55.8 miles by 33.8 miles). The colors in the image are assigned to different frequencies and polarizations of the radar as follows: red is L-band horizontally transmitted, horizontally received; green is L-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received; blue is C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received.

STS-52: delivered (3) an Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System (ODERACS), an experiment which released 6 calibrated spheres into orbit in order to provide a source for fine-tuning ground-based radar facilities around the world.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments for environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
{{clear}}

==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.

Names: Space Transportation System-6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1982-110A.

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==
[[Image:S42-50-022 - STS-042 - STS-42 Earth observations - DPLA - 89f59f2368ab90105ca9847ed651ae57.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kunlun Mountains are in Tibet at lat: 36°N lon: 91°E. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
{{clear}}

==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-49==
[[Image:STS-46 Launch (19919136345).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''' STS-46 mission was launched on July 31, 1992, from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-86-073 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - accaf9e431417caa6b584443309329cb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earth observation is from the shuttle orbiter ''Atlantis'' during STS-46 of Dominican Republic, lat. 20°, lon. -71°. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-93-064 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - 41e6ccb6ebaff54dbc92eb925055ae3c.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Vietnam, Dong Hoi coastal area is at lat: 17.5° lon: 105.8°, tilt: 15°, dir: N, azi: 83, alt: 124, elev: 34. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

Names: Space Transportation System-49.

Secondary payloads included the Evaluation of Oxygen Integration with Materials/Thermal Management Processes (EOIM-III/TEMP 2A), Consortium for Materials Development in Space Complex Autonomous Payload (CONCAP II and CONCAP III), IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), Limited Duration Space Environment Candidate Materials Exposure (LDCE), Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Function (PHCF), and the Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).
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==STS-50==
[[Image:STS-047 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-47 Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105, lifts off from KSC. Credit: NASA.{{tlx||free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-47 payloadbay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'''s payload bay and the Spacelab-J science module are shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosten-Lake (Bosten-See), Xinjiang, China, 87.00E, 42.00N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bosten Lake area in East Turkestan (Xinjiang) is shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-061A.

&quot;STS 47 was the 50th Shuttle mission and flew as its primary payload Spacelab-J (SL-J), utilized pressurized Spacelab module. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, SL-J included 24 material science and 19 life sciences experiments, of which 34 were sponsored by NASDA, seven by NASA, and two collaborative efforts. The mission was extended one day to further science objectives. The materials science investigations covered such fields as biotechnology, electronic materials, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, glasses and ceramics, metals and alloys, and acceleration measurements. The life sciences investigations covered human health, cell separation and biology, development biology, animal and human physiology and behavior, space radiation, and biological rhythms. Test subjects included the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 47
|publisher=NASA GSFC
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-061A
|accessdate=26 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Also flown in the payload bay were 12 Get Away Special (GAS) canisters (10 holding experiments, two for ballast) attached to a GAS Bridge Assembly. Middeck experiments included Israeli Space Agency Investigation about Hornets (USAIAH); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II); Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS); and Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47/&gt;

Camera location for the second image on the right was 42° 00′ 00″ N, 87° 00′ 00″ E, taken on 13 September 1992, 04:07:31.
{{clear}}

==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba1992&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-52==
[[Image:STS-053 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch of ''Discovery'' is for a United States Department of Defense (DoD) mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-53 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission in support of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1992-086A.

&quot;The secondary unclassified experiments include: (1) Shuttle Glow (GLO), to investigate Shuttle/space environment interactions; (2) Cryogenic Heat Pipe Experiment (CRYOHP), a joint DoD and NASA Hitchhiker experiment to test advanced technology to regect excess heat generated by infrared sensors; [...] (4) Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor Test (BLAST), an Army space project to demonstrate the use of spaceborne laser receivers to detect laser energy from ground test locations; (5) Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense System (CLOUDS), a meteorological experiment to quantify the variation in apparent cloud cover as a function of orbital view angle; (6) Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM), an experiment designed to collect cosmic ray energy loss spectra, neutron fluxes, and induced radioactivity; (7) Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment (FARE), an experimen t to investigate the dynamics of fluid transfer in space; (8) Hand-held, earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System (HERCULES), a Naval Research Lab (NRL) experiment to enable a Shuttle astrionaut to point a camera at an Earth feature, record the image and determine the latitude and longitude of the feature; (10) Microencapsulation In Space (MIS), designed to incresae the knowledge of microencapsulated drug technology; (11) Radiation Monitoring Equipment -III (RME-III), an instrument to measure the exposure to ionizing radiation on the Shuttle; (12) Space Tissue Loss (STL), to study the effects of space on fragile life systems; and (13) Visual Function Tester - Model II (VFT-2), a series of vision performance experiments in space.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS53&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 53
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-086A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Names: Space Transportation System-52.
{{clear}}

==STS-53==

STS-54 was a NASA Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. This was the third flight for ''Endeavour'', and was launched on 13 January 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-53.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-003A.
{{clear}}

==STS-54==
[[Image:STS056-91-054 - Payload bay view with ATLAS pallet (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab ATLAS-2 laboratory are shown in the payload bay of ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-56 Launch - GPN-2000-000748.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-56. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS056-90-034 - SPARTAN-201 free-flying (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|SPARTAN-201 free-flying near STS-56. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew retouched by [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-54.

STS-56 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-023A.

The primary payload of the flight was the Spacelab Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the Sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special (GAS) canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the solar spectrometry instrument SOLSPEC,&lt;ref name=&quot;SOLSPEC&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=11 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-56|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-56.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=11 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ATLAS-2 is one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. All seven ATLAS-2 instruments first flew on Spacelab ATLAS-1 during STS-45, and flew a third time in late 1994 on STS-66.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;

On 11 April 1993, the crew used the remote manipulator arm (Canadarm) to deploy the Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201 (SPARTAN-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. Collected data was stored on tape for playback after return to Earth. SPARTAN-201 was retrieved on 13 April 1993.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-55==
[[Image:STS-55 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serves as the Spacelab D-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-55 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-55.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-027A.

Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab D-2 and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia's payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission STS-61-A in October 1985.

The crew worked in two shifts around-the-clock to complete investigations into the areas of fluid physics, materials sciences, life sciences, biological sciences, technology, Earth observations, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Many of the experiments advanced the research of the D-1 mission by conducting similar tests, using upgraded processing hardware, or implementing methods that took full advantage of the technical advancements since 1985.
{{clear}}

==STS-56==
[[Image:STS057-89-042.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Endeavour'''s payload bay, with the Space habitat (SpaceHab) module (foreground), European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) (background), and astronauts David Low and Peter Wisoff performing an Extravehicular activity (EVA) (centre). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s57 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EURECA berth STS-57.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) is stowed by ''Endeavour'''s remote manipulator system (Canadarm). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-57 was a NASA Space Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-56.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-037A.

EURECA had been deployed from the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' in August 1992 (STS-46) and contained several experiments to study the long-term effects of exposure to microgravity.
{{clear}}

==STS-57==
[[Image:1993 s51 IMAX view of Discovery from Spas.JPG|thumb|right|250px|IMAX photography of ''Discovery'' in orbit, was viewed from the free-flying SPAS-ORFEUS astronomy platform. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s51 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch was seen from the RSS. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:51 SPAS 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The ORFEUS/SPAS platform is captured by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission. The flight featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of ''Discovery'' in space.

Names: Space Transportation System-57.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-058A.
{{clear}}

==STS-58==
[[Image:STS058-92-064.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab module LM2 is in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-58 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-58 pad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' is on Pad 39B ready for launch. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-58 was a NASA mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-58.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-065A.
{{clear}}

==STS-59==
[[Image:STS061-98-050 - Astronauts Musgrave and Hoffman during servicing of HST (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musgrave is being raised to the top of ''Hubble'' by Canadarm, as it sits in ''Endeavour'''s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-59 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 sts61 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows the first ''Hubble'' servicing mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-61 was the first NASA Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-59.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-075A.
{{clear}}

==STS-60==
[[Image:Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 (STS060-74-054).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Astrotech Corporation SPACEHAB-2 in ''Discovery'''s payload bay, as Canadarm grapples the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1). Credit: NASA STS-60 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-60 was the first mission of the U.S./Russian Shuttle-Mir Program. The mission used NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission carried the Wake Shield Facility experiment and a SPACEHAB module, developed by SPACEHAB Inc., into orbit.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-006A.

Names: Space Transportation System-60.
{{clear}}

==STS-61==
[[Image:1994_s62_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows ''Columbia'' on STS-62. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Owen, STS-62.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Typhoon Owen. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-015A

Names: Space Transportation System-61.
{{clear}}

==STS-62==
[[Image:EndeavourPayloadBaySTS59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is in orbit with SIR-C in its payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-020A.

Names: Space Transportation System-62.
{{clear}}

==STS-63==
[[Image:STS-65 spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the International Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-63 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-039A.

Names: Space Transportation System-63.
{{clear}}

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
{{clear}}

==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
{{clear}}

==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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[[Category:Spaceflight]]</text>
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      <text bytes="197236" xml:space="preserve">&lt;imagemap&gt;
Image:Space station size comparison.svg|270px|thumb|[[File:interactive icon.svg|left|18px|link=|The image above contains clickable links|alt=The image above contains clickable links]] Size comparisons between current and past space stations as they appeared most recently. Solar panels in blue, heat radiators in red. Note that stations have different depths not shown by silhouettes. Credit: [[w:user:Evolution and evolvability|Evolution and evolvability]].{{tlx|free media}}
rect 0   0   550 420  [[International Space Station]]
rect 550 0   693 420  [[Tiangong Space Station]]
rect 0   420 260 700  [[Mir]]
rect 260 420 500 700  [[Skylab]]
rect 500 420 693 700  [[Tiangong-2]]
rect 0   700 160 921  [[Salyut 1]]
rect 160 700 280 921  [[Salyut 2]]
rect 280 700 420 921  [[Salyut 4]]
rect 420 700 550 921  [[Salyut 6]]
rect 550 700 693 921  [[Salyut 7]]
&lt;/imagemap&gt;
'''Def.''' a &quot;manned [crewed] artificial satellite designed for long-term habitation, research, etc.&quot;&lt;ref name=SpaceStationWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=space station
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=20 June 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/space_station
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''space station'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a space station, generally constructed for one purpose, that orbits a celestial body such as a planet, asteroid, or star&quot;&lt;ref name=OrbitalPlatform&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Roberts
|title=Orbital platform
|publisher=Roberts Space Industries
|location=
|date=2021
|url=https://robertsspaceindustries.com/galactapedia/article/box5vnAx5w-orbital-platform
|accessdate=6 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''orbital platform'''.
{{clear}}

==Apollo-Soyuz==
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz-Test-Program-artist-rendering.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A 1973 artist's conception of the docking of the two spacecraft is shown. Credit: R. Bruneau, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Apollo-Soyuz Test Project Saturn IB launch.jpg|thumb|left|A Saturn IB launch vehicle lifts the American ASTP crew into orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Soyuz Spacecraft in Orbit - GPN-2002-000155.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This scene was photographed with a handheld 70mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An artist's concept illustrates an Apollo-type spacecraft (on left) about to dock with a Soviet Soyuz-type spacecraft. A recent agreement between the United States and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics provides for the docking in space of the Soyuz and Apollo-type spacecraft in Earth orbit in 1975. The joint venture is called the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project.

The three American astronauts, Thomas P. Stafford, Vance D. Brand, and Deke Slayton, and two Soviet cosmonauts, Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov, performed both joint and separate scientific experiments, including an arranged eclipse of the Sun by the Apollo module to allow instruments on the Soyuz to take photographs of the solar corona.

The photo on the left depicts the liftoff of the Saturn IB launch vehicle (SA-210), for the Apollo/Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission, from the Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center. The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) was the first international docking of the U.S.'s Apollo spacecraft and the U.S.S.R.'s Soyuz spacecraft in space. The objective of the ASTP mission was to provide the basis for a standardized international system for docking of manned spacecraft. The Soyuz spacecraft, with Cosmonauts Alexei Leonov and Valeri Kubasov aboard, was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome near Tyuratam in the Kazakh, Soviet Socialist Republic, at 8:20 a.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Apollo spacecraft, with Astronauts Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, and Donald Slayton aboard, was launched from Launch Complex 39B, Kennedy Space Center, Florida, at 3:50 p.m. (EDT) on July 15, 1975. The Primary objectives of the ASTP were achieved. They performed spacecraft rendezvous, docking and undocking, conducted intervehicular crew transfer, and demonstrated the interaction of U.S. and U.S.S.R. control centers and spacecraft crews. The mission marked the last use of a Saturn launch vehicle. The Marshall Space Flight Center was responsible for development and sustaining engineering of the Saturn IB launch vehicle during the mission.

This scene (second image down on the right) was photographed with a handheld 70 mm camera from a rendezvous window of the American Apollo spacecraft in Earth orbit during the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) mission. It shows the Soviet Soyuz spacecraft contrasted against a black-sky background with the Earth's horizon below. The American Docking Mechanism (DM) is visible at the top of the picture.
{{clear}}

==International Space Station==
[[Image:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The International Space Station is featured in this image photographed by an STS-134 crew member on the space shuttle Endeavour after the station and shuttle began their post-undocking relative separation. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISS August06.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:539956main ISS466.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The MISSE are usually loaded on the outside of International Space Station. The inset image shows where. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:STS-134 the starboard truss of the ISS with the newly-installed AMS-02.jpg|thumb|left|250px|In this image, the Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-2 (AMS-02) is visible at center left on top of the starboard truss of the International Space Station. Credit: STS-134 crew member and NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Nasasupports.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a computer-generated image of the Extreme Universe Space Observatory (EUSO) as part of the Japanese Experiment Module (JEM) on the International Space Station (ISS). Credit: JEM-EUSO, Angela Olinto.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:BBND1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image shows a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector which is housed inside the small plastic ball when the top is put back on. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
On the right is the International Space Station after the undocking of STS-134 Space Shuttle.

The Space Shuttle Endeavor crew captured this shot [on the left] of the International Space Station (ISS) against the backdrop of Planet Earth.

&quot;Since 2001, NASA and its partners have operated a series of flight experiments called Materials International Space Station Experiment, or MISSE [on the second right]. The objective of MISSE is to test the stability and durability of materials and devices in the space environment.&quot;&lt;ref name=Sheldon&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Sheldon
|title=Materials: Out of This World
|publisher=NASA News
|location=Washington DC USA
|date=April 29, 2011
|url=http://spacestationinfo.blogspot.com/2011_04_01_archive.html
|accessdate=2014-01-08 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The '''Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer''' on the second left is designed to search for various types of unusual matter by measuring cosmic rays.

The '''Extreme Universe Space Observatory''' ('''EUSO''') [on the third right] is the first Space mission concept devoted to the investigation of cosmic rays and neutrinos of [[w:Ultra-high-energy cosmic ray|extreme energy]] ({{nowrap|E &gt; {{val|5|e=19|u=eV}}}}). Using the Earth's atmosphere as a giant detector, the detection is performed by looking at the streak of [[w:fluorescence|fluorescence]] produced when such a particle interacts with the Earth's atmosphere.

The Space Environment Data Acquisition equipment-Attached Payload (SEDA-AP) aboard the Kibo (International Space Station module) measures neutrons, plasma, heavy ions, and high-energy light particles in ISS orbit.

On the lower right is a Bonner Ball Neutron Detector &quot;BBND ... determined that galactic cosmic rays were the major cause of secondary neutrons measured inside ISS. The neutron energy spectrum was measured from March 23, 2001 through November 14, 2001 in the U.S. Laboratory Module of the ISS. The time frame enabled neutron measurements to be made during a time of increased solar activity (solar maximum) as well as observe the results of a solar flare on November 4, 2001.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) [shown with its cap off] measures neutron radiation (low-energy, uncharged particles) which can deeply penetrate the body and damage blood forming organs. Neutron radiation is estimated to be 20 percent of the total radiation on the International Space Station (ISS). This study characterizes the neutron radiation environment to develop safety measures to protect future ISS crews.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tony Choy
|title=Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND)
|publisher=NASA
|location=Johnson Space Center, Human Research Program, Houston, TX, United States
|date=July 25, 2012
|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/experiments/BBND.html
|accessdate=2012-08-17 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Six BBND detectors were distributed around the International Space Station (ISS) to allow data collection at selected points.

&quot;The six BBND detectors provided data indicating how much radiation was absorbed at various times, allowing a model of real-time exposure to be calculated, as opposed to earlier models of passive neutron detectors which were only capable of providing a total amount of radiation received over a span of time. Neutron radiation information obtained from the Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) can be used to develop safety measures to protect crewmembers during both long-duration missions on the ISS and during interplanetary exploration.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The Bonner Ball Neutron Detector (BBND) developed by Japan Aerospace and Exploration Agency (JAXA) was used inside the International Space Station (ISS) to measure the neutron energy spectrum. It consisted of several neutron moderators enabling the device to discriminate neutron energies up to 15 MeV (15 mega electron volts). This BBND characterized the neutron radiation on ISS during Expeditions 2 and 3.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;BBND results show the overall neutron environment at the ISS orbital altitude is influenced by highly energetic galactic cosmic rays, except in the South Atlantic Anomaly (SAA) region where protons trapped in the Earth's magnetic field cause a more severe neutron environment. However, the number of particles measured per second per square cm per MeV obtained by BBND is consistently lower than that of the precursor investigations. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the investigation was 3.9 micro Sv/hour or about 10 times the rate of radiological exposure to the average US citizen. In general, radiation damage to the human body is indicated by the amount of energy deposited in living tissue, modified by the type of radiation causing the damage; this is measured in units of Sieverts (Sv). The background radiation dose received by an average person in the United States is approximately 3.5 milliSv/year. Conversely, an exposure of 1 Sv can result in radiation poisoning and a dose of five Sv will result in death in 50 percent of exposed individuals. The average dose-equivalent rate observed through the BBND investigation is 3.9 micro Sv/hour, or about ten times the average US surface rate. The highest rate, 96 microSv/hour was observed in the SAA region.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;

&quot;The November 4, 2001 solar flare and the associated geomagnetic activity caused the most severe radiation environment inside the ISS during the BBND experiment. The increase of neutron dose-equivalent due to those events was evaluated to be 0.19mSv, which is less than 1 percent of the measured neutron dose-equivalent measured over the entire 8-month period.&quot;&lt;ref name=Choy/&gt;
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==Mir==
[[Image:Mir Space Station viewed from Endeavour during STS-89.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Approach view is of the Mir Space Station viewed from Space Shuttle Endeavour during the STS-89 rendezvous. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In the image on the right, a Progress cargo ship is attached on the left, a Soyuz manned spacecraft attached on the right. Mir is seen on the right from Space Shuttle Endeavour during STS-89 (28 January 1998).

Mir was a space station that operated in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia. Mir was the first modular space station and was assembled in orbit from 1986 to 1996. It had a greater mass than any previous spacecraft. At the time it was the largest artificial satellite in orbit, succeeded by the International Space Station (ISS) after Mir's orbit decayed.

''Mir'' was the first continuously inhabited long-term research station in orbit and held the record for the longest continuous human presence in space at 3,644 days, until it was surpassed by the ISS on 23 October 2010.&lt;ref name=Jackman&gt;{{cite journal|last=Jackman|first=Frank|title=ISS Passing Old Russian Mir In Crewed Time|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel=space&amp;id=news/asd/2010/10/28/11.xml|Journal=Aviation Week|date=29 October 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first module of the station, known as the Mir Core Module or base block, was launched in 1986 and followed by six further modules. Proton rockets were used to launch all of its components except for the Mir Docking Module, which was installed by US Space Shuttle mission STS-74 in 1995. When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several photovoltaic arrays attached directly to the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between {{convert|296|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} and {{convert|421|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700&amp;nbsp;km/h (17,200&amp;nbsp;mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.&lt;ref name=&quot;MirBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=The History of Mir 1986–2000|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-4-9}}|editor=Hall, R.|url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmir19860000unse |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;FinalBIS&quot;&gt;{{cite book|title=Mir: The Final Year|publisher=British Interplanetary Society|{{isbn|978-0-9506597-5-6}}|editor=Hall, R. |date=February 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;OrbitCalc&quot;&gt;{{cite web|title=Orbital period of a planet|publisher=CalcTool|accessdate=12 September 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191112095042/http://www.calctool.org/CALC/phys/astronomy/planet_orbit }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Polar Satellite 4==
[[Image:PSLV C45 EMISAT campaign 09.jpg|right|thumb|375x375px|Third and fourth stages of PSLV-C45. Credit: Indian Space Research Organisation.{{tlx|free media}}]]
PS4 has carried hosted payloads like AAM on PSLV-C8,&lt;ref name=&quot;:6&quot;&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C8/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C8 / AGILE brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; Luxspace (Rubin 9.1)/(Rubin 9.2) on PSLV-C14&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/PSLV-C14/files/assets/common/downloads/publication.pdf|title=PSLV C14/Oceansat-2 brochure}}&lt;/ref&gt; and mRESINS on PSLV-C21.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.dos.gov.in/sites/default/files/flipping_book/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013/files/assets/common/downloads/Space%20India%20July%2012-Aug%2013.pdf|title=Space-India July 2012 to August 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

PS4 is being augmented to serve as a long duration orbital platform after completion of its primary mission. PS4 Orbital Platform (PS4-OP) will have its own power supply, telemetry package, data storage and attitude control for hosted payloads.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/copuos/stsc/2019/tech-55E.pdf|title=Opportunities for science experiments in the fourth stage of India's PSLV|date=21 February 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/orbital_platform-_ao.pdf|title=Announcement of Opportunity (AO) for Orbital platform: an avenue for in-orbit scientific experiments|date=15 June 2019}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/2-days-after-space-station-news-isro-calls-for-docking-experiments-on-pslv-stage-4/articleshow/69800354.cms|title=2 days after Space Station news, Isro calls for &quot;docking experiments&quot; on PSLV stage-4|first=Chethan|last=Kumar|work=The Times of India|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C37 and PSLV-C38 campaigns,&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |title=''In-situ'' observations of rocket burn induced modulations of the top side ionosphere using the IDEA payload on-board the unique orbiting experimental platform (PS4) of the Indian Polar Orbiting Satellite Launch Vehicle mission - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/situ-observations-of-rocket-burn-induced-modulations-of-top-side-ionosphere-using-idea-payload-board |accessdate=2022-06-27 |website=www.isro.gov.in |language=en}}&lt;/ref&gt; as a demonstration PS4 was kept operational and monitored for over ten orbits after delivering spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Department of Space Annual Report 2017-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180213093132/https://www.isro.gov.in/sites/default/files/article-files/node/9805/annualreport2017-18.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Singh&gt;{{cite web |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/in-a-first-isro-will-make-dead-rocket-stage-alive-in-space-for-experiments/articleshow/67067817.cms|title=In a first, ISRO will make dead rocket stage &quot;alive&quot; in space for experiments|first=Surendra|last=Singh|work=The Times of India|date=16 December 2018|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Rajasekhar&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/science/science/200617/isro-to-lower-rockets-altitude.html|title=Isro to lower rocket's altitude|last=rajasekhar|first=pathri|publisher=Deccan Chronicle|date=2017-06-20|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

PSLV-C44 was the first campaign where PS4 functioned as independent orbital platform for short duration as there was no on-board power generation capacity.&lt;ref name=Rajwi&gt;{{cite news|last=Rajwi|first=Tiki |url=https://www.thehindu.com/news/national/kerala/pslv-lift-off-with-added-features/article25981654.ece|title=PSLV lift-off with added features|date=2019-01-12|newspaper=The Hindu|issn=0971-751X|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; It carried KalamSAT-V2 as a fixed payload, a 1U cubesat by Space Kidz India based on Interorbital Systems kit.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|title=PSLV-C44 - ISRO |url=https://www.isro.gov.in/launcher/pslv-c44|accessdate=26 June 2020|website=isro.gov.in}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|title=Congratulations to ISRO and SpaceKidzIndia on getting their CubeSat into orbit! The students modified their IOS CubeSat kit, complete w/ their own experiments!|author=Interorbital Systems|date=25 January 2019|url=https://twitter.com/interorbital/status/1088526772109422592 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On PSLV-C45 campaign, the fourth stage had its own power generation capability as it was augmented with an array of fixed solar cells around PS4 propellant tank.&lt;ref name=Clark&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2019/04/01/indian-military-satellite-20-more-planet-imaging-cubesats-aboard-successful-pslv-launch/|title=Indian military satellite, 20 more Planet imaging CubeSats launched by PSLV|last=Clark|first=Stephen|publisher=Spaceflight Now|accessdate=2020-02-23}}&lt;/ref&gt; Three payloads hosted on PS4-OP were, Advanced Retarding Potential Analyzer for Ionospheric Studies (ARIS 101F) by IIST,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://www.iist.ac.in/avionics/sudharshan.kaarthik|title=Department of Avionics, R. Sudharshan Kaarthik, Ph.D (Assistant Professor)}}&lt;/ref&gt; experimental Automatic identification system (AIS) payload by ISRO and AISAT by Satellize.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=https://satellize.com/index.php/exseed-sat-2/|title=Exseed Sat-2|publisher=Satellize|accessdate=23 February 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; To function as orbital platform, fourth stage was put in spin-stabilized mode using its RCS thrusters.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web |date=16 June 2021 |title=Opportunity for Scientific Experiments on PSLV Upper Stage Orbital Platform |url=https://www.unoosa.org/documents/pdf/psa/hsti/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/Hyper-Microgravity_Webinar2021/9_RegionalActivities/R._Senan_Hypermicrogravity_ISRO.pdf}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Salyut 1==
[[Image:Salyut 1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 1 is photographed from the departing Soyuz 11. Credit: [[w:user:Viktor Patsayev|Viktor Patsayev]].{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) was the world's first space station launched into low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on April 19, 1971. The Soyuz 11 crew achieved successful hard docking and performed experiments in Salyut 1 for 23 days.

Civilian Soviet space stations were internally referred to as DOS (the Russian acronym for &quot;Long-duration orbital station&quot;), although publicly, the Salyut name was used for the first six DOS stations (''Mir'' was internally known as DOS-7).&lt;ref&gt;Portree, David S. F. (March 1995). &quot;Part 2 – Almaz, Salyut, and Mir&quot; . Mir Hardware Heritage . Johnson Space Center Reference Series. NASA. NASA Reference Publication 1357 – via Wikisource.&lt;/ref&gt;

The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne Three-mirror_anastigmat system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32&amp;nbsp;Å/mm (3.2&amp;nbsp;nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5&amp;nbsp;Å at 2600&amp;nbsp;Å (0.5&amp;nbsp;nm at 260&amp;nbsp;nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars ''Vega'' and ''Beta Centauri'' between 2000 and 3800&amp;nbsp;Å (200 and 380&amp;nbsp;nm).&lt;ref name=Gurzadyan&gt;{{cite journal |title=Observed Energy Distribution of α Lyra and β Cen at 2000–3800 Å |journal=Nature |first1=G. A. |last1=Gurzadyan |first2=J. B. |last2=Ohanesyan |volume=239 |issue=5367 |page=90 |date=September 1972 |doi=10.1038/239090a0 |bibcode=1972Natur.239...90G|s2cid=4265702 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside of the Earth's atmosphere.&lt;ref name=&quot;Marett-Crosby2013&quot;&gt;{{cite book|last=Marett-Crosby|first=Michael|title=Twenty-Five Astronomical Observations That Changed the World: And How To Make Them Yourself|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0KRSphlvsqgC&amp;pg=PA282|accessdate=2018-04-18|date=2013-06-28|publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media|{{isbn|9781461468004}}|page=282 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==Salyut 3==
[[Image:Salyut 3 paper model.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 3 (Almaz 2) Soviet military space station model shows Soyuz 14 docked. Credit: [[c:user:Godai|Godai]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 3; also known as OPS-2&lt;ref name=Zak&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/almaz_ops2.html|title=OPS-2 (Salyut-3)|author=Anatoly Zak|publisher=RussianSpaceWeb.com}}&lt;/ref&gt; or Almaz 2&lt;ref name=Portree1995&gt;D.S.F. Portree (March 1995). &quot;Mir Hardware Heritage&quot; (PDF). NASA. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-09-07.&lt;/ref&gt;) was a Soviet Union space station launched on 25 June 1974. It was the second Almaz military space station, and the first such station to be launched successfully.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was included in the Salyut program to disguise its true military nature.&lt;ref name=Hall&gt;Rex Hall, David Shayler (2003). Soyuz: a universal spacecraft. Springer. p. 459. ISBN 1-85233-657-9.&lt;/ref&gt; Due to the military nature of the station, the Soviet Union was reluctant to release information about its design, and about the missions relating to the station.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman&gt;Robert Zimmerman (September 3, 2003). Leaving Earth: Space Stations, Rival Superpowers, and the Quest for Interplanetary Travel. Joseph Henry Press. pp. 544. ISBN 0-309-08548-9.&lt;/ref&gt;

It attained an altitude of 219 to 270&amp;nbsp;km on launch&lt;ref name=Bond&gt;Peter Bond (20 June 2002). The continuing story of the International Space Station. Springer. p. 416. {{ISBN|1-85233-567-X}}.&lt;/ref&gt; and NASA reported its final orbital altitude was 268 to 272&amp;nbsp;km.&lt;ref name=NASAcat&gt;{{cite web|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1974-046A|title=Salyut 3 - NSSDC ID: 1974-046A|publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The space stations funded and developed by the military, known as ''Almaz'' stations, were roughly similar in size and shape to the civilian DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; But the details of their design, which is attributed to Vladimir Chelomey, are considered to be significantly different from the DOS stations.&lt;ref name=Zimmerman/&gt; The first Almaz station was Salyut 2, which launched in April 1973, but failed only days after reaching orbit, and hence it was never manned.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

Salyut 3 consisted of an airlock chamber, a large-diameter work compartment, and a small diameter living compartment, giving a total habitable volume of 90 m³.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; It had two solar arrays, one docking port, and two main engines, each of which could produce 400 kgf (3.9 kN) of thrust.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Its launch mass was 18,900 kg.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The station came equipped with a shower, a standing sleeping station, as well as a foldaway bed.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; The floor was covered with hook and loop fastener (Velcro) to assist the cosmonauts moving around the station. Some entertainment on the station included a magnetic chess set, a small library, and a cassette deck with some audio compact Cassette tapes.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; Exercise equipment included a treadmill and Pingvin exercise suit.&lt;ref name=Portree/&gt; The first water-recycling facilities were tested on the station; the system was called Priboy.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The work compartment was dominated by the ''Agat-1'' Earth-observation telescope, which had a focal length of 6.375 metres and an optical resolution better than three metres, according to post-Soviet sources;&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt;. Another NASA source&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; states the focal length was 10 metres; but Portree's document preceded Siddiqi's by several years, during which time more information about the specifications was gathered. NASA historian Siddiqi has speculated that given the size of the telescope's mirror, it likely had a resolution better than one metre.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi&gt;{{cite book|title=Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945-1974|author=Siddiqi, Asif A.|publisher=NASA|year=2000}} SP-2000-4408. [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf Part 2 (page 1-499)], [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt2.pdf Part 1 (page 500-1011)]&lt;/ref&gt; The telescope was used in conjunction with a wide-film camera, and was used primarily for military reconnaissance purposes.&lt;ref name=Siddiqi/&gt; The cosmonauts are said to have observed targets set out on the ground at Baikonur. Secondary objectives included study of water pollution, agricultural land, possible ore-bearing landforms, and oceanic ice formation.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;

The Salyut 3, although called a &quot;civilian&quot; station, was equipped with a &quot;self-defence&quot; gun which had been designed for use aboard the station, and whose design is attributed to Alexander Nudelman.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; Some accounts claim the station was equipped with a Nudelman-Rikhter &quot;Vulkan&quot; gun, which was a variant of the Nudelman-Rikhter NR-23 (23 mm Nudelman) aircraft cannon, or possibly a Nudelman-Rikhter NR-30 (Nudelman NR-30) 30&amp;nbsp;mm gun.&lt;ref name=Olberg&gt;[http://space.au.af.mil/books/oberg/ch02.pdf James Olberg, ''Space Power Theory'', Ch. 2]&lt;/ref&gt; Later Russian sources indicate that the gun was the virtually unknown (in the West) Rikhter R-23.&lt;ref&gt;Широкоград А.Б. (2001) ''История авиационного вооружения'' Харвест (Shirokograd A.B. (2001) ''Istorya aviatsionnogo vooruzhenia'' Harvest. {{ISBN|985-433-695-6}}) (''History of aircraft armament'')
p. 162&lt;/ref&gt; These claims have reportedly been verified by Pavel Popovich, who had visited the station in orbit, as commander of Soyuz 14.&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Due to potential shaking of the station, in-orbit tests of the weapon with cosmonauts in the station were ruled out.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt; The gun was fixed to the station in such a way that the only way to aim would have been to change the orientation of the entire station.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; Following the last manned mission to the station, the gun was commanded by the ground to be fired; some sources say it was fired to depletion,&lt;ref name=Olberg/&gt; while other sources say three test firings took place during the Salyut 3 mission.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 4==
[[Image:Salyut-4 diagram.gif|thumb|right|250px|Diagram shows the orbital configuration of the Soviet space station Salyut 4 with a docked Soyuz 7K-T spacecraft. Credit: [[c:user:Bricktop|Bricktop]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Installed on the Salyut 4 were OST-1 (Orbiting Solar Telescope) 25&amp;nbsp;cm solar telescope with a focal length of 2.5m and spectrograph shortwave diffraction spectrometer for far ultraviolet emissions, designed at the Crimean Astrophysical Observatory, and two X-ray telescopes.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.friends-partners.org/partners/mwade/craft/salyut4.htm Salyut 4&lt;!-- Bot generated title --&gt;]&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1979IzKry..59...31B The design of the Salyut-4 orbiting solar telescope]&lt;/ref&gt; One of the X-ray telescopes, often called the ''Filin telescope'', consisted of four gas flow proportional counters, three of which had a total detection surface of 450&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; in the energy range 2–10 keV, and one of which had an effective surface of 37&amp;nbsp;cm&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt; for the range 0.2 to 2 keV (32 to 320 Attojoule (aJ)). The field of view was limited by a slit collimator to 3 in × 10 in full width at half maximum. The instrumentation also included optical sensors which were mounted on the outside of the station together with the X-ray detectors, and power supply and measurement units which were inside the station. Ground-based calibration of the detectors was considered along with in-flight operation in three modes: inertial orientation, orbital orientation, and survey. Data could be collected in 4 energy channels: 2 to 3.1 keV (320 to 497 aJ), 3.1 to 5.9 keV (497 to 945 aJ), 5.9 to 9.6 keV (945 to 1,538 aJ), and 2 to 9.6 keV (320 to 1,538 aJ) in the larger detectors. The smaller detector had discriminator levels set at 0.2 keV (32 aJ), 0.55 keV (88 aJ), and 0.95 keV (152 aJ).&lt;ref name=Salyut4&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-05-05|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120504183030/http://www.astronautix.com/craft/salyut4.htm }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Other instruments include a swivel chair for vestibular function tests, lower body negative pressure gear for cardiovascular studies, bicycle ergometer integrated physical trainer (electrically driven running track 1 m X .3 m with elastic cords providing 50&amp;nbsp;kg load), penguin suits and alternate athletic suit, sensors for temperature and characteristics of upper atmosphere, ITS-K infrared telescope spectrometer and ultraviolet spectrometer for study of earth's infrared radiation, multispectral earth resources camera, cosmic ray detector, embryological studies, new engineering instruments tested for orientation of station by celestial objects and in darkness and a teletypewriter.&lt;ref name=Salyut4/&gt;
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==Salyut 5==
[[Image:Salyut 5.jpeg|thumb|right|250px|Image was obtained from the Almaz OPS page. Credit: [[c:user:Mpaoper|Mpaoper]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Salyut 5 carried Agat, a camera which the crews used to observe the Earth. The first manned mission, Soyuz 21, was launched from Baikonur on 6 July 1976, and docked at 13:40 UTC the next day.&lt;ref name=Anikeev&gt;{{cite web|last=Anikeev|first=Alexander|title=Soyuz-21|work=Manned Astronautics, Figures and Facts|accessdate=31 December 2010|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110319191201/http://space.kursknet.ru/cosmos/english/machines/s21.sht }}&lt;/ref&gt;

On 14 October 1976, Soyuz 23 was launched carrying Vyacheslav Zudov and Valery Rozhdestvensky to the space station. During approach for docking the next day, a faulty sensor incorrectly detected an unexpected lateral motion. The spacecraft's Igla automated docking system fired the spacecraft's maneuvering thrusters in an attempt to stop the non-existent motion. Although the crew was able to deactivate the Igla system, the spacecraft had expended too much fuel to reattempt the docking under manual control. Soyuz 23 returned to Earth on 16 October without completing its mission objectives.

The last mission to Salyut 5, Soyuz 24, was launched on 7 February 1977. Its crew consisted of cosmonauts Viktor Gorbatko and Yury Glazkov, who conducted repairs aboard the station and vented the air which had been reported to be contaminated. Scientific experiments were conducted, including observation of the sun. The Soyuz 24 crew departed on 25 February. The short mission was apparently related to Salyut 5 starting to run low on propellant for its main engines and attitude control system.&lt;ref name=Zak/&gt;
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==Salyut 6==
[[Image:Salyut 6.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Salyut 6 is photographed with docked Soyuz (right) and Progress (left). Credit: A cosmonaut of the Soviet space programme.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 6 aka DOS-5, was a Soviet orbital space station, the eighth station of the Salyut programme. It was launched on 29 September 1977 by a Proton rocket. Salyut 6 was the first space station to receive large numbers of crewed and uncrewed spacecraft for human habitation, crew transfer, international participation and resupply, establishing precedents for station life and operations which were enhanced on Mir and the International Space Station.

Salyut 6 was the first &quot;second generation&quot; space station, representing a major breakthrough in capabilities and operational success. In addition to a new propulsion system and its primary scientific instrument—the BST-1M multispectral telescope—the station had two docking ports, allowing two craft to visit simultaneously. This feature made it possible for humans to remain aboard for several months.&lt;ref name=Chiara&gt;{{cite book |title=Spacecraft: 100 Iconic Rockets, Shuttles, and Satellites that put us in Space |last1=De Chiara |first1=Giuseppe |last2=Gorn |first2=Michael H. |publisher=Quarto/Voyageur |date=2018 |location=Minneapolis |{{ISBN|9780760354186}} |pages=132–135}}&lt;/ref&gt; Six long-term resident crews were supported by ten short-term visiting crews who typically arrived in newer Soyuz craft and departed in older craft, leaving the newer craft available to the resident crew as a return vehicle, thereby extending the resident crew's stay past the design life of the Soyuz. Short-term visiting crews routinely included international cosmonauts from Warsaw pact countries participating in the Soviet Union's Intercosmos programme. These cosmonauts were the first spacefarers from countries other than the Soviet Union or the United States. Salyut 6 was visited and resupplied by twelve uncrewed Progress spacecraft including Progress 1, the first instance of the series. Additionally, Salyut 6 was visited by the first instances of the new Soyuz-T spacecraft.
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==Salyut 7==
[[Image:Salyut7 with docked spacecraft.jpg|thumb|right|250px|A view of the Soviet orbital station Salyut 7, with a docked Soyuz spacecraft in view. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Salyut 7 a.k.a. DOS-6, short for Durable Orbital Station&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;) was a space station in low Earth orbit from April 1982 to February 1991.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; It was first crewed in May 1982 with two crew via Soyuz T-5, and last visited in June 1986, by Soyuz T-15.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Various crew and modules were used over its lifetime, including 12 crewed and 15 uncrewed launches in total.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt; Supporting spacecraft included the Soyuz T, Progress, and TKS spacecraft.&lt;ref name=Portree1995/&gt;
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==Skylab==
[[Image:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is an example of a manned observatory in orbit. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Skylab included an Apollo Telescope Mount, which was a multi-spectral solar observatory. Numerous scientific experiments were conducted aboard Skylab during its operational life, and crews were able to confirm the existence of coronal holes in the Sun. The Earth Resources Experiment Package (EREP), was used to view the Earth with sensors that recorded data in the visible, infrared, and microwave spectral regions.
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==Skylab 2==
[[Image:40 Years Ago, Skylab Paved Way for International Space Station.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed from the departing Skylab 2 spacecraft. Credit: NASA Skylab 2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
As the crew of Skylab 2 departs, the gold sun shield covers the main portion of the space station. The solar array at the top was the one freed during a spacewalk. The four, windmill-like solar arrays are attached to the Apollo Telescope Mount used for solar astronomy.
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==Skylab 3==
[[Image:Skylab 3 Close-Up - GPN-2000-001711.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Skylab is photographed by the arriving Skylab 3 crew. Credit: NASA Skylab 3 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A close-up view of the Skylab space station photographed against an Earth background from the Skylab 3 Command/Service Module during station-keeping maneuvers prior to docking. The Ilha Grande de Gurupá area of the Amazon River Valley of Brazil can be seen below. Aboard the command module were astronauts Alan L. Bean, Owen K. Garriott, and Jack R. Lousma, who remained with the Skylab space station in Earth's orbit for 59 days. This picture was taken with a hand-held 70mm Hasselblad camera using a 100mm lens and SO-368 medium speed Ektachrome film. Note the one solar array system wing on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) which was successfully deployed during extravehicular activity (EVA) on the first manned Skylab flight. The parasol solar shield which was deployed by the Skylab 2 crew can be seen through the support struts of the Apollo Telescope Mount.
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==Skylab 4==
[[Image:Skylab and Earth Limb - GPN-2000-001055.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The final view of Skylab, from the departing mission 4 crew, with Earth in the background. Credit: NASA Skylab 4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An overhead view of the Skylab Orbital Workshop in Earth orbit as photographed from the Skylab 4 Command and Service Modules (CSM) during the final fly-around by the CSM before returning home.

During launch on May 14, 1973, 63 seconds into flight, the micrometeor shield on the Orbital Workshop (OWS) experienced a failure that caused it to be caught up in the supersonic air flow during ascent. This ripped the shield from the OWS and damaged the tie-downs that secured one of the solar array systems.

Complete loss of one of the solar arrays happened at 593 seconds when the exhaust plume from the S-II's separation rockets impacted the partially deployed solar array system. Without the micrometeoroid shield that was to protect against solar heating as well, temperatures inside the OWS rose to 126°F.

The rectangular gold &quot;parasol&quot; over the main body of the station was designed to replace the missing micrometeoroid shield, to protect the workshop against solar heating. The replacement solar shield was deployed by the Skylab I crew.
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==Spacelabs==
[[Image:STS-42 view of payload bay.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|300px|STS-42 is shown with Spacelab hardware in the orbiter bay overlooking Earth. Credit: NASA STS-42 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
OSS-l (named for the NASA Office of Space Science and Applications) onboard STS-3 consisted of a number of instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet, intended to obtain data on the near-Earth environment and the extent of contamination caused by the orbiter itself. Among other experiments, the OSS pallet contained a X-ray detector for measuring the polarization of X-rays emitted by solar flares.&lt;ref name=Tramiel1984&gt;{{cite journal|author=Tramiel, Leonard J.|author2=Chanan, Gary A. |author3=Novick, R.|title=Polarization evidence for the isotropy of electrons responsible for the production of 5-20 keV X-rays in solar flares|bibcode=1984ApJ...280..440T|date=1 May 1984|journal=The Astrophysical Journal|doi=10.1086/162010|volume=280|page=440}}&lt;/ref&gt;
Spacelab was a reusable laboratory developed by European Space Agency (ESA) and used on certain spaceflights flown by the Space Shuttle. The laboratory comprised multiple components, including a pressurized module, an unpressurized carrier, and other related hardware housed in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The components were arranged in various configurations to meet the needs of each spaceflight.

&quot;Spacelab is important to all of us for at least four good reasons. It expanded the Shuttle's ability to conduct science on-orbit manyfold. It provided a marvelous opportunity and example of a large international joint venture involving government, industry, and science with our European allies. The European effort provided the free world with a really versatile laboratory system several years before it would have been possible if the United States had had to fund it on its own. And finally, it provided Europe with the systems development and management experience they needed to move into the exclusive manned space flight arena.&quot;&lt;ref&gt;[https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19880009991.pdf ''Spacelab: An International Success Story'' Foreword by NASA Administrator James C. Fletcher]&lt;/ref&gt;

NASA shifted its focus from the Lunar missions to the Space Shuttle, and also space research.&lt;ref name=Portree&gt;{{cite web |url=https://spaceflighthistory.blogspot.com/2017/03/nasa-seeks-to-pep-up-shuttlespacelab.html |title=Spaceflight History: NASA Johnson's Plan to PEP Up Shuttle/Spacelab (1981) |last=Portree |first=David S.F. |date=2017 |website=Spaceflight History}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Spacelab consisted of a variety of interchangeable components, with the major one being a crewed laboratory that could be flown in Space Shuttle orbiter's bay and returned to Earth.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;&gt;{{cite book |author=Joseph Angelo |title=Dictionary of Space Technology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wSzfAQAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PA393 |year=2013 |publisher=Routledge |{{isbn|978-1-135-94402-5}} |page=393}}&lt;/ref&gt; However, the habitable module did not have to be flown to conduct a Spacelab-type mission and there was a variety of pallets and other hardware supporting space research.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; The habitable module expanded the volume for astronauts to work in a shirt-sleeve environment and had space for equipment racks and related support equipment.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt; When the habitable module was not used, some of the support equipment for the pallets could instead be housed in the smaller Igloo, a pressurized cylinder connected to the Space Shuttle orbiter crew area.&lt;ref name=&quot;Angelo&quot;/&gt;

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Mission name
! Space Shuttle orbiter
! Launch date
! Spacelab &lt;br&gt;mission name
! Pressurized &lt;br&gt;module
! Unpressurized &lt;br&gt;modules
|-
| STS-2
| ''Columbia''
| November 12, 1981
| OSTA-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E002)&lt;ref name=STS2&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html |title=STS-2 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-3
| ''Columbia''
| March 22, 1982
| OSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (E003)&lt;ref name=STS3&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-3.html |title=STS-3 |publisher=NASA |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-9
| ''Columbia''
| November 28, 1983
| Spacelab 1
| Module LM1
| 1 Pallet (F001)
|-
| STS-41-G
| ''Challenger''
| October 5, 1984
| OSTA-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)&lt;ref name=NASA28&gt;{{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/1999/msad15mar99_1/ |title=Spacelab joined diverse scientists and disciplines on 28 Shuttle missions |publisher=NASA |date=15 March 1999 |accessdate=23 November 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-51-A
| ''Discovery''
| November 8, 1984
| Retrieval of 2 satellites
| 
| 2 Pallets (F007+F008)
|-
| STS-51-B
| ''Challenger''
| April 29, 1985
| Spacelab 3
| Module LM1
| Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure (MPESS)
|-
| STS-51-F
| ''Challenger''
| July 29, 1985
| Spacelab 2
| Igloo
| 3 Pallets (F003+F004+F005) + IPS
|-
| STS-61-A
| ''Challenger''
| October 30, 1985
| Spacelab D1
| Module LM2
| MPESS
|-
| STS-35
| ''Columbia''
| December 2, 1990
| ASTRO-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS
|-
| STS-40
| ''Columbia''
| June 5, 1991
| SLS-1
| Module LM1
| 
|-
| STS-42
| ''Discovery''
| January 22, 1992
| IML-1
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-45
| ''Atlantis''
| March 24, 1992
| ATLAS-1
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F004+F005)
|-
| STS-50
| ''Columbia''
| June 25, 1992
| USML-1
| Module LM1
| Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
|-
| STS-46
| ''Atlantis''
| July 31, 1992
| TSS-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=ESA-STS46&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.esa.int/Enabling_Support/Operations/ESA_hands_over_a_piece_of_space_history |title=ESA hands over a piece of space history |publisher=ESA}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-47 (J)
| ''Endeavour''
| September 12, 1992
| Spacelab-J
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-56
| ''Discovery''
| April 8, 1993
| ATLAS-2
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-55 (D2)
| ''Columbia''
| April 26, 1993
| Spacelab D2
| Module LM1
| Unique Support Structure (USS)
|-
| STS-58
| ''Columbia''
| October 18, 1993
| SLS-2
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-61
| ''Endeavour''
| December 2, 1993
| HST SM 01
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-59
| ''Endeavour''
| April 9, 1994
| SRL-1
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-65
| ''Columbia''
| July 8, 1994
| IML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-64
| ''Discovery''
| September 9, 1994
| LITE
| 
| 1 Pallet (F007)&lt;ref name=PraxisLog&gt;{{cite book |title=Manned Spaceflight Log 1961–2006 |author=Tim Furniss |author2=David Shayler |author3=Michael Derek Shayler |publisher=Springer Praxis |page=829 |date=2007}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|-
| STS-68
| ''Endeavour''
| September 30, 1994
| SRL-2
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-66
| ''Atlantis''
| November 3, 1994
| ATLAS-3
| Igloo
| 1 Pallet (F008)
|-
| STS-67
| ''Endeavour''
| March 2, 1995
| ASTRO-2
| Igloo
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010) + IPS + EDO
|-
| STS-71
| ''Atlantis''
| June 27, 1995
| Spacelab-Mir
| Module LM2
| 
|-
| STS-73
| ''Columbia''
| October 20, 1995
| USML-2
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-75
| ''Columbia''
| February 22, 1996
| TSS-1R / USMP-3
| 
| 1 Pallet (F003)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt; + 2 MPESS + EDO
|-
| STS-78
| ''Columbia''
| June 20, 1996
| LMS
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-82
| ''Discovery''
| February 21, 1997
| HST SM 02
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)&lt;ref name=NASA28/&gt;
|-
| STS-83
| ''Columbia''
| April 4, 1997
| MSL-1
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-94
| ''Columbia''
| July 1, 1997
| MSL-1R
| Module LM1
| EDO
|-
| STS-90
| ''Columbia''
| April 17, 1998
| Neurolab
| Module LM2
| EDO
|-
| STS-103
| ''Discovery''
| December 20, 1999
| HST SM 03A
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-99
| ''Endeavour''
| February 11, 2000
| SRTM
| 
| 1 Pallet (F006)
|-
| STS-92
| ''Discovery''
| Oktober 11, 2000
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F005)
|-
| STS-100
| ''Endeavour''
| April 19, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-104
| ''Atlantis''
| July 12, 2001
| ISS assembly
| 
| 2 Pallets (F002+F010)
|-
| STS-109
| ''Columbia''
| March 1, 2002
| HST SM 03B
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|-
| STS-123
| ''Endeavour''
| March 11, 2008
| ISS assembly
| 
| 1 Pallet (F004)
|-
| STS-125
| ''Atlantis''
| May 11, 2009
| HST SM 04
| 
| 1 Pallet (F009)
|}
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 1==
[[Image:Spacelab1 flight columbia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 1 was carried into space onboard STS-9. Credit: NASA STS-9 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Spacelab 1 mission had experiments in the fields of space plasma physics, solar physics, atmospheric physics, astronomy, and Earth observation.&lt;ref name=Shayler&gt;{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TweEC3h633AC&amp;pg=PA433 |title=NASA's Scientist-Astronauts |first1=David |last1=Shayler |last2=Burgess |first2=Colin |date=2007 |publisher=Springer Science &amp; Business Media |{{isbn|978-0-387-49387-9}} |page=433 |bibcode=2006nasa.book.....S }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 2==
[[Image:STS-51-F Instrument Pointing System.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab 2 pallet is shown in the open payload bay of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
View of the Spacelab 2 pallet in the open payload bay. The solar telescope on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS) is fully deployed. The Solar UV high resolution Telescope and Spectrograph are also visible.

The Spacelab Infrared Telescope (IRT) was also flown on the mission.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; The IRT was a {{cvt|15.2|cm}} aperture liquid helium-cooled infrared telescope, observing light between wavelengths of 1.7 to 118 μm.&lt;ref name=Kent&gt;[http://adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1992ApJS...78..403K Kent, et al. – '''Galactic structure from the Spacelab infrared telescope''' (1992)]&lt;/ref&gt; It was thought heat emissions from the Shuttle corrupting long-wavelength data, but it still returned useful astronomical data.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; Another problem was that a piece of mylar insulation broke loose and floated in the line-of-sight of the telescope.&lt;ref name=Kent/&gt; IRT collected infrared data on 60% of the galactic plane.&lt;ref name=&quot;ipac.caltech.edu&quot;&gt;{{cite web
|title=Archived copy of Infrared Astronomy From Earth Orbit|accessdate=2016-12-10|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221020839/http://www.ipac.caltech.edu/outreach/Edu/orbit.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; A later space mission that experienced a stray light problem from debris was ''Gaia'' astrometry spacecraft launch in 2013 by the ESA - the source of the stray light was later identified as the fibers of the sunshield, protruding beyond the edges of the shield.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite news|url=http://www.cosmos.esa.int/web/gaia/news_20141217|title=STATUS OF THE GAIA STRAYLIGHT ANALYSIS AND MITIGATION ACTIONS|publisher=ESA|date=2014-12-17|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Spacelab 3==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module is photographed in the Cargo Bay. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Crystal in VCGS furnace.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Mercuric iodide crystals were grown on STS-51-B, Spacelab 3. Credit: [[w:user:Lodewijk van den Berg|Lodewijk van den Berg]] and Marshall Space Flight Center, NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Vapor Crystal Growth System Furnace experiment is shown on STS-51-B. Credit: STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' launches on STS-51B. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS51B-06-010.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lodewijk van den Berg observes the crystal growth aboard Spacelab. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Van den Berg and his colleagues designed the EG&amp;G Vapor Crystal Growth System experiment apparatus for a Space Shuttle flight. The experiment required an in-flight operator and NASA decided that it would be easier to train a crystal growth scientist to become an astronaut, than it would be the other way around. NASA asked EG&amp;G and Van den Berg to compile a list of eight people who would qualify to perform the science experiments in space and to become a Payload Specialist. Van den Berg and his chief, Dr. Harold A. Lamonds could only come up with seven names. Lamonds subsequently proposed adding Van den Berg to the list, joking with Van den Berg that due to his age, huge glasses and little strength, he would probably be dropped during the first selection round; but at least they would have eight names. Van den Berg agreed to be added to the list, but didn't really consider himself being selected to be a realistic scenario.&lt;ref name=Engelen&gt;{{Cite news |title=Niet Wubbo maar Lodewijk van den Berg was de eerste |last=van Engelen |first=Gert |periodical=Delft Integraal |year=2005 |issue=3 |pages=23–26 |language=nl |accessdate=2017-08-24 |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170824215339/http://actueel.tudelft.nl/fileadmin/UD/MenC/Support/Internet/TU_Website/TU_Delft_portal/Actueel/Magazines/Delft_Integraal/archief/2005_DI/2005-3/doc/DI05-3-5LodewijkvdBerg.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot;&gt;{{cite video |title=De `vergeten astronaut`
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014203252/http://www.netwerk.tv/node/3884 |medium=documentary |publisher=Netwerk, NCRV and Evangelische Omroep (EO)|accessdate=2008-04-09 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The first selection round consisted of a selection based on science qualifications in the field in question, which Van den Berg easily passed. The final four candidates were tested on physical and mental qualifications which he also passed, while two of the others failed due to possible heart issues. He was now part of the final two, and NASA always trains two astronauts, a prime and a back-up. In 1983 he started to train as an astronaut and six months before the launch he was told that he would be the prime astronaut, much to his own surprise. When he went into space he was 53 years old, making him one of the oldest rookie astronauts.&lt;ref name=Engelen/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;netwerk&quot; /&gt;
{{clear}}

==Space Transportation Systems (STSs)==
[[Image:Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This artist's concept illustrates the use of the Space Shuttle, Nuclear Shuttle, and Space Tug in NASA's Integrated Program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The purpose of the system was two-fold: to reduce the cost of spaceflight by replacing the current method of launching capsules on expendable rockets with reusable spacecraft; and to support ambitious follow-on programs including permanent orbiting space stations around Earth and the Moon, and a human landing mission to Mars.

The Space Shuttles were often used as short term orbital platforms.
{{clear}}

==Radars==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Radars}}
[[Image:SIR-B Sudbury Impact Crater.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Sample image was taken using the SIR-B over Canada. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-G SIR-B antenna.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|SIR-B antenna deployment is shown. Credit: NASA STS-13 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:TEIDE.JPG|thumb|right|250px|A Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) radar image acquired by the SIR-C/X-SAR radar on board the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' shows the Teide volcano. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Shuttle Imaging Radar-A (SIR-A) was for remote sensing of Earth's resources. Experiments were conducted by Shuttle missions: STS-2.

The Shuttle Imaging Radar-B (SIR-B) was part of the OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay of STS-13.

The SIR-B was an improved version of a similar device flown on the OSTA-1 package during STS-2. It had an eight-panel antenna array measuring {{cvt|11|xx|2|m}}. It operated throughout the flight, but much of the data had to be recorded on board the orbiter rather than transmitted to Earth in real-time as was originally planned.

SIR-B radar image of the Sudbury impact structure (elliptical because of deformation by Grenville thrusting) and the nearby Wanapitei crater (lake-filled) formed much later. The partially circular lake-filled structure on the right (east) is the 8 km (5 mi) wide Wanapitei crater, estimated to have formed 34 million years (m.y.) ago. The far larger Sudbury structure (second largest on Earth) appears as a pronounced elliptical pattern, more strongly expressed by the low hills to the north. This huge impact crater, with its distinctive outline, was created about 1800 m.y. ago. Some scientists argue that it was at least 245 km (152 mi) across when it was circular. More than 900 m.y. later strong northwestward thrusting of the Grenville Province terrane against the Superior Province (containing Sudbury) subsequently deformed it into its present elliptical shape (geologists will recognize this as a prime example of the &quot;strain ellipsoid&quot; model). After Sudbury was initially excavated, magmas from deep in the crust invaded the breccia filling, mixing with it and forming a boundary layer against its walls. Some investigators think that the resulting norite rocks are actually melted target rocks. This igneous rock (called an &quot;irruptive&quot;) is host to vast deposits of nickel and copper, making this impact structure a 5 billion dollar source of ore minerals since mining began in the last century.

This radar image shows the Teide volcano on the island of Tenerife in the Canary Islands. The Canary Islands, part of Spain, are located in the eastern Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Morocco. Teide has erupted only once in the 20th Century, in 1909, but is considered a potentially threatening volcano due to its proximity to the city of Santa Cruz de Tenerife, shown in this image as the purple and white area on the lower right edge of the island. The summit crater of Teide, clearly visible in the left center of the image, contains lava flows of various ages and roughnesses that appear in shades of green and brown. Different vegetation zones, both natural and agricultural, are detected by the radar as areas of purple, green and yellow on the volcano's flanks. Scientists are using images such as this to understand the evolution of the structure of Teide, especially the formation of the summit caldera and the potential for collapse of the flanks. The volcano is one of 15 identified by scientists as potentially hazardous to local populations, as part of the international cooperation agreement.

The image was acquired by the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C/X-Band Synthetic Aperture Radar (SIR-C/X-SAR) onboard the space shuttle ''Endeavour'' on October 11, 1994, Space Transportation System-65. SIR-C/X-SAR, a joint mission of the German, Italian and the United States space agencies, is part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. The image is centered at 28.3 degrees North latitude and 16.6 degrees West longitude. North is toward the upper right. The area shown measures 90 kilometers by 54.5 kilometers (55.8 miles by 33.8 miles). The colors in the image are assigned to different frequencies and polarizations of the radar as follows: red is L-band horizontally transmitted, horizontally received; green is L-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received; blue is C-band horizontally transmitted, vertically received.

STS-52: delivered (3) an Orbital Debris Radar Calibration System (ODERACS), an experiment which released 6 calibrated spheres into orbit in order to provide a source for fine-tuning ground-based radar facilities around the world.

Space Transportation System-65: The primary payload is the Space Radar Laboratory (SRL-2), making its second flight to study the Earth's environment.

On Friday, 30 September 1994 at 5 pm CDT, Space Transportation System-65 MCC Status Report # 2 reports: Shortly after 4 pm that day, flight controllers reported that the on-orbit checkout of the Spaceborne Imaging Radar-C (SIR-C) and the Synthetic Aperture Radar (X-SAR) had been completed, and that the primary SRL-2 instruments were ready for operation. Throughout the checkout, data takes were recorded over a number of sites, including Raco, Michigan; Bermuda; Bebedouro, Brazil; the Northeast Pacific Ocean and the Juan de Fuca Strait, between the United States and Canada.

On Saturday, 1 October 1994 at 9 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 MCC Status Report # 3 reports: Environmental studies continued throughout Saturday morning aboard ''Endeavour'' as six astronauts working around the clock in two shifts to assist the Space Radar Laboratory science team on the ground with real-time observations from space.

Commander Mike Baker and Pilot Terry Wilcutt made attitude adjustments of the orbiter to assist in precisely pointing the radar systems.

The SRL team performed a series of data takes using the radar equipment as ''Endeavour'' moved over that area of the world. Those images will be compared with similar radar images gathered during the Space Transportation System-62 (STS-59) mission in April, prior to the volcanic activity. Other radar data gathering of the Earth's surface today included the desert regions of Africa, both the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans and mountainous regions of the East and West coasts of the United States.

On Sunday, 2 October 1994 at 9 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 MCC Status Report # 4 reports: Radar data gathering today included forest areas of North Carolina, ocean current patterns in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, desert areas in Africa, and mountainous regions of the East and West coasts of the United States.

On Monday, 3 October 1994 at 10 am CDT, STS-68 MCC Status Report # 5 reports: ''Endeavour'''s Space Radar Laboratory equipment continued to search the Earth's land masses and oceans for environmental changes that have occurred since the last SRL mission in April.

The Red Team of Mike Baker, Terry Wilcutt and Jeff Wisoff were on duty throughout much of the day. Radar data gathered today included much of the East Coast of the United States, current patterns in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans as well as other bodies of water, desert areas in Africa, and mountainous regions around the world.

On Monday, 3 October 1994 at 5 pm CDT, Space Transportation System-65 MCC Status Report # 6 reports: ''Endeavour'''s payload bay cameras sent to Earth dramatic video of the western coast of Oregon and the length of California and the Baja Peninsula that scientists will compare with radar images downlinked from Space Radar Laboratory-2 instruments earlier in the flight. The observations were part of a continuing effort to watch the Earth below for evidence of environmental changes that have occurred since the last SRL mission in April. The overall goal of the mission to better understand the differences in changes caused by natural processes and compare them to changes brought about by human activity. Radar data was recorded today over much of the East Coast of the United States, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, Manitoba, Canada, and French Guiana.

Astronauts relayed information about storms, lightning, fires and clear cutting to the SRL science team that will be used to help understand the radar images and MAPS data on carbon monoxide levels in the atmosphere.

On Tuesday, 4 October 1994 at 9 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 7 reports: STS-68 crew members this morning performed two slight maneuvers to fine-tune ''Endeavour'''s orbit to mirror its track on the first Space Radar Laboratory mission to support a new experiment called interferometry. The trim burns adjust the orbit to within 10 metres (33 ft) of where it was in April which will allow scientists to make near identical measurements with the radar equipment to develop a three-dimensional comparison of environmental changes during the six months separating the two missions—Space Transportation System-62 (STS-59) and STS-68.

On Tuesday, 4 October 1994 at 5 pm CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 8 reports: Space Radar Laboratory-2 scientists adjusted their observation plans to take advantage of an opportunity to train their instruments on the islands of Japan following a Tuesday night earthquake there. ''Endeavour'' passed over the Sarobetsu, Japan, calibration site about 3:30 pm CDT, and the Synthetic Aperture Radar sent down real-time data of the area below, allowing scientists to look for changes in the coastline of the islands that may have been due to the large tsunami waves associated with the quake. The Spaceborne Imaging Radar also recorded data on the area.

STS-68 crew members continued to perform slight maneuvers to fine-tune ''Endeavour'''s orbit to intersect its track on the SRL-1 mission to support a new experiment called interferometry. The trim burns adjusted the orbit to within 30 feet (9.1 m) of where it was in April as it passed over the Mammoth Mountain, Calif., backup supersite. This should allow scientists to make nearly identical measurements with the radar equipment to develop a three-dimensional comparison of environmental changes during the six months separating Space Transportation System-62 (STS-59) and Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68).

Radar images over the Sahara desert and the North Atlantic will help scientists evaluate global changes and how they affect the climates in other areas of the world.

Also on 4 October, Payload Commander Tom Jones discussed the significance of radar systems and the Earth's environment in an interview with ABC's Good Morning America. Mission Specialist Jeff Wisoff discussed the mission with CONUS Communications Syndicate affiliates WTKR-TV in his hometown of Norfolk, Va., and the All-News Channel in Minneapolis.

On Wednesday, 5 October 1994 at 8 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 9 reports: Space Radar Laboratory scientists received some images of Japan, near the location of Monday nights earthquake, but any evidence of the natural disaster was not immediately noticeable. Other radar observations during the night included studies of other volcanoes including Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines, Cotopaxi in Ecuador, and Teide in the Canary Islands.

Radar images processed on the ground included images of Pasadena, California, with sufficient clarity make the Rose Bowl distinguishable, as well as images of Washington State and Yellowstone National Park, both showing scars from forest fires.

During the night, the crew reported a missing thermal tile around one of the overhead windows of the orbiter. The tile apparently came off recently since crew members look out the window often to perform the visual observations that accompany radar operations. Flight controllers report that, while the tile is missing, the underlying thermal blanket is still intact.

Astronaut Linda Godwin, who served as the payload commander on the first Space Radar Laboratory mission in April, briefed the crew from the payload control room about 4:30 am Wednesday, commemorating the tenth anniversary of ''Challenger'''s 41-G mission, which carried the Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR-B) and the Measurement of Air Pollution by Satellite (MAPS). She also noted the first flight aboard a Shuttle of that radar-imaging equipment on Columbia in November 1981.

On Wednesday, 5 October 1994 at 4 pm CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 10 reports: Mission to Planet Earth observations by ''Endeavour'''s payload bay radar instruments were being suspended temporarily Wednesday afternoon to save fuel while flight controllers work to fix a minor problem involving the shuttle's small reaction control system jets.

The radar instruments earlier Wednesday collected images over the Kliuchevskoi volcano in Kamchatka, Russia, which erupted about 8 hours after ''Endeavour'''s launch Friday. Images also were collected over Yellowstone National Park, Wyo.; Chickasha, Okla.; Ruiz, Columbia; Cuprito, Nevada; Colima, Mexico; the Galapagos Islands and San Juan, Argentina. Observations with the Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellite were taken, with one particular target being line fires in British Columbia, Canada.

On Thursday, 6 October 1994 at 8 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 11 reports: ''Endeavour'''s small steering jets are now back in continuous operation and Space Radar Laboratory observations are continuing on schedule after Mission Control sent a software update to the shuttle about 3:30 am today.

The software patch accommodated a failed temperature sensor in one of the vernier jets and allows ''Endeavour'''s onboard computers to track the operation of the jet via a second sensor located near the failed sensor. While the patch was being developed and tested in simulators, observations by the Space Radar Laboratory continued at a reduced pace.

The observations using the radar systems that were missed while the software patch was being put in place, had been performed at least once previously during the mission and are scheduled for observation again later in the flight. SRL scientists say the impact of the temporary pause is minimal on the scientific investigations under way.

One observation completed during the night was of a controlled oil spill in the North Sea designed to test the radar's ability to discern oil spills from the naturally produced film caused by fish and plankton in the water. In addition to the 106 gallons of diesel oil placed in the water, 26 gallons of algae products were placed in the water nearby for radar comparison. The ground team expected to have the oil spill cleaned up within about two hours using oil-recovery ships in the area. The experiment was conducted to prove the usefulness of radar systems to more rapidly detect spills allowing quicker cleanup.

On Thursday, 6 October 1994 at 5 pm CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 12 reports: ''Endeavour'''s astronauts this afternoon sent down spectacular videotape views of the west coast of California recorded as the shuttle passed about 115 nautical miles (213 km) overhead on its 103rd orbit. The scenes covered the San Joaquin Valley, San Francisco Bay, Monterey Bay, Los Angeles, Vandenberg Air Force Base and San Diego Bay. During the next few days, scientists will test a new technique called &quot;interferometry&quot; as the earth observations data collection continues. The technique is expected to yield topographic information of unprecedented clarity by using slightly different shuttle positions to provide three-dimensional images of the terrain below. Among the Space Radar Laboratory observations today were the North Sea, where scientists intentionally released small oil and algae spills to see how well the SRL-2 instruments could track them, as well as observations of Bebedouro, Brazil; the Western and Northeast Pacific Ocean; Chickasha, Oklahoma; the Gulf of Mexico; Ruiz, Colombia; Sena Madureira, Brazil; Weddell Sea; the Kliuchevskoi Volcano in Kamchatmka; Stovepipe Wells, California; and the Galapagos Islands. Earlier today, the Mission Management Team extended STS-68 by one day to allow additional science. ''Endeavour'' is now expected to land at the Kennedy Space Center at about 10:36 am Tuesday.

On Friday, 7 October 1994 at 8 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 13 reports: Observations made during the night included the volcano Merapi on the Indonesian island of Java; Duke Forest in North Carolina; the Gulf of St. Lawrence; Sydney, Australia; and the volcano Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines. Tom Jones, the Payload Commander for this second flight of SRL, spent some time this morning explaining the importance of the radar's volcanic studies. Demonstrating with three common types of volcanic rock, Jones explained how the radar's various frequencies allow it to map lava and ash flows around volcanoes. The work one day may lead to a permanent radar platform in orbit for use in assisting predictions of impending volcanic eruptions and safeguarding people living near active volcanoes. Late Thursday, ''Endeavour'''s astronauts sent down spectacular views of the west coast of California recorded as the shuttle passed about 115 nautical miles (213 km) overhead on its 103rd orbit. The scenes included the San Joaquin Valley, San Francisco, Monterey Bay, Los Angeles, Vandenberg Air Force Base and San Diego. On Friday, 7 October 1994 at 5 pm CDT, STS-68 MCC Status Report # 14 reports: Astronauts aboard ''Endeavour'' and Space Radar Laboratory-2 scientists on the ground today began in earnest to test the new technique of &quot;interferometry&quot; to produce even richer images of the Earth's surface.

From an altitude of 111 nautical miles (206 km), the Spaceborne Imaging Radar and Synthetic Aperture Radar recorded long swaths of interferometric data over central North America, the Amazon forests of central Brazil, and the volcanoes of the Kamchatka Peninsula in Russia.

The radar array aboard the shuttle began a series of observations above volcanoes, glaciers and other sites designed to create 3-D images. These spaceborne radar images, produced regularly on a long-term basis, eventually could provide scientists with insight into movements of the Earth's surface as small as a fraction of an inch.

Such close monitoring may allow scientists to detect pre-eruptive changes in volcanoes and movements in fault lines that precede earthquakes, providing an early warning of imminent natural hazards. Other future applications could include tracking the rate of global warming by monitoring the movement of glaciers and the tracking of floods and mudslides.

On Sunday, 9 October 1994 at 9 am CDT, Space Transportation System-65 (STS-68) MCC Status Report # 16 reports: It has seemed like deja vu on board ''Endeavour'' as the crew spent much of the last 24 hours precisely repeating many Space Radar Laboratory observations to provide scientists with duplicate images for highly accurate three-dimensional maps of volcanoes, glaciers and other phenomena.

Overnight, Mission Specialists Jeff Wisoff and Steve Smith replaced one of three payload recorders which malfunctioned yesterday. The procedure, which the two astronauts trained for prior to the mission, was completed in about an hour and a half. Although only two of the payload high data rate recorders were functioning, the planned observations by the radar lab were not interrupted. The two recorders alone were sufficient for retaining the radar data obtained during the overnight shift of astronauts Smith, Dan Bursch and Tom Jones.

Small engine firings by ''Endeavour'' late yesterday aligned the spacecraft's trajectory to within an estimated 20 metres (66 ft) of what had been planned when the spacecraft's orbit was lowered on Friday. This permits the precise repeat observations by the radar.

Interferometry data gathering with the radar instruments in the orbiter's payload bay continued throughout the night and morning prior to the scheduled deactivation of the X- band Synthetic Aperture Radar. Interferometry will allow scientists to overlay radar images of the same site taken on successive days forming a three-dimensional image of the Earth's surface. These topographical images can be used to create a baseline used to understand the changes in the environmental and ecological climate around the world.
{{clear}}

==STS-1==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Columbia launching.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The April 12, 1981, launch at Pad 39A of STS-1, just seconds past 7 a.m., carries astronauts John Young and Robert Crippen into an Earth orbital mission scheduled to last for 54 hours, ending with unpowered landing at Edwards Air Force Base in California. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Columbia STS-1 training.jpg|thumb|right|250px|STS-1 crew is shown in Space Shuttle Columbia's cabin. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-1 (Space Transportation System-1) was the first orbital spaceflight of NASA's Space Shuttle program. The first orbiter, ''Columbia'', launched on April 12, 1981, and returned on April 14, 1981, 54.5 hours later, having orbited the Earth 36 times. The majority of the ''Columbia'' crew's approximately 53 hours in low Earth orbit was spent conducting systems tests including Crew Optical Alignment Sight (COAS) calibration, star tracker performance, Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU) performance, manual and automatic Reaction Control System (RCS) testing, radiation measurement, propellant crossfeeding, hydraulics functioning, fuel cell purging and Earth photography.
{{clear}}

==STS-2==
[[Image:Aerial View of Columbia Launch - GPN-2000-001358.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aerial view shows ''Columbia'' launch from Pad 39A at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Credit: NASA / John Young aboard NASA's Shuttle Training Aircraft (STA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-2 Canadarm debut.jpg|thumb|right|250px|On Space Shuttle mission STS-2, Nov. 1981, the Canadarm is flown in space for the first time. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-2 was the second Space Shuttle mission conducted by NASA, and the second flight of the orbiter ''Columbia''. It launched on November 12, 1981, and landed two days later on November 14, 1981.&lt;ref name=&quot;NASA - STS-2&quot;&gt;{{cite web|publisher=NASA|title=NASA – STS-2 |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-2.html|accessdate=May 9, 2008}}&lt;/ref&gt; On a Spacelab pallet were a number of remote-sensing instruments for environmental quality, and ocean and weather conditions.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970208115640/http://southport.jpl.nasa.gov/scienceapps/sira.html
|title=SIR-A: 1982|publisher=NASA|accessdate= 22 June 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt; The second launch of ''Columbia'' also included an onboard camera for Earth photography.

Other experiments or tests included Shuttle Multispectral Infrared Radiometer, Feature Identification and Location Experiment, Measurement of Air Pollution from Satellites, Ocean Color Experiment, Night/Day optical Survey of Lightning, Heflex Bioengineering Test, and Aerodynamic Coefficient Identification Package (ACIP).&lt;ref name=Becker&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-2.htm|title=Spaceflight mission report: STS-2|first=Joachim|last=Becker|website=spacefacts.de|accessdate=December 30, 2017}}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-3==
[[Image:STS-3 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-3 lifts off from Launch Complex-39A at Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-3 infrared on reentry.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Kuiper Airborne Observatory took an infrared image of the orbiter's heat shield to study its operational temperatures. In this image, ''Columbia'' is travelling at Mach{{nbsp}}15.6 at an altitude of {{cvt|56|km}}. Credit: .{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-3 was NASA's third Space Shuttle mission, and was the third mission for the Space Shuttle Columbia. It launched on March 22, 1982, and landed eight days later on March 30, 1982. In its payload bay, ''Columbia'' again carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) package, and a test canister for the Small Self-Contained Payload program – also known as the Getaway Special (GAS) – was mounted on one side of the payload bay.
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==STS-4==
[[Image:STS-4 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch view of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' for the STS-4 mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-4 Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View shows the Space Shuttle's RMS grappling the Induced Environment Contaminant Monitor (IECM) experiment. Credit: NASA STS-4 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-4 was the fourth NASA Space Shuttle mission, and also the fourth for Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on June 27, 1982,&lt;ref name=oomops&gt;{{cite book|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=OvlLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=4930%2C5770829|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review |location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle off on military operations|date=June 28, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed a week later on July 4, 1982.&lt;ref name=owastwrd&gt;{{cite book |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=QflLAAAAIBAJ&amp;pg=6186%2C1692654|newspaper=The Spokesman-Review|location=Spokane, Washington|agency=Associated Press|title=Shuttle test: 'Outstanding' was the word |date=July 5, 1982 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The North Atlantic Ocean southeast of the Bahamas is in the background as ''Columbia'''s remote manipulator system (RMS) arm and end effector grasp a multi-instrument monitor for detecting contaminants. The experiment is called the induced environment contaminant monitor (IECM). Below the IECM the tail of the orbiter can be seen.

In the shuttle's mid-deck, a Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor flew for the second time. The crew conducted a lightning survey with hand-held cameras, and performed medical experiments on themselves for two student projects. They also operated the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) with an instrument called the Induced Environment Contamination Monitor mounted on its end, designed to obtain information on gases or particles being released by the orbiter in flight.&lt;ref name=JSC&gt;{{cite web|url=http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/shuttle_pk/pk/Flight_004_STS-004_Press_Kit.pdf|title=STS-004 Press Kit|publisher=NASA|accessdate=4 July 2013}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-5==
[[Image:STS-5 Launch (18277306658).jpg|thumb|left|250px|''Columbia'' is launched from Launch Pad 39A on its fifth flight and first operational mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]

STS-5 was the fifth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. It launched on November 11, 1982, and landed five days later on November 16, 1982.

STS-5 carried a West German-sponsored microgravity Getaway Special (GAS) experiment canister in the payload bay. The crew also conducted three student-designed experiments during the flight.
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==STS-6==
[[Image:Space Shuttle Challenger (04-04-1983).JPEG|thumb|left|250px|STS-6 was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-6 was the sixth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. Launched from Kennedy Space Center on April 4, 1983, ''Challenger'' returned to Earth on April 9, 1983, at 10:53:42 a.m. PST.

Names: Space Transportation System-6, NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1982-110A.

STS-6 payloads included three Getaway Special (GAS) canisters and the continuation of the Mono-disperse Latex Reactor and Continuous Flow Electrophoresis experiments.
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==STS-7==
[[Image:Challenger launch on STS-7.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle Challenger launches on STS-7. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Space debris impact on Space Shuttle window.jpg|thumb|right|250px|An impact crater is in one of the windows of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' following a collision with a paint chip during STS-7. Credit: NASA STS-7 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-7 was NASA's seventh Space Shuttle mission, and the second mission for the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The shuttle launched from Kennedy Space Center on June 18, 1983, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base on June 24, 1983.

Norman Thagard, a mission specialist, conducted medical tests concerning Space adaptation syndrome, a bout of nausea frequently experienced by astronauts during the early phase of a space flight.

The mission carried the first Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-1), built by Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm (MBB). SPAS-1 was unique in that it was designed to operate in the payload bay or be deployed by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) as a free-flying satellite. It carried 10 experiments to study formation of metal alloys in microgravity, the operation of heat pipes, instruments for remote sensing observations, and a mass spectrometer to identify various gases in the payload bay. It was deployed by the Canadarm and flew alongside and over ''Challenger'' for several hours, performing various maneuvers, while a U.S.-supplied camera mounted on SPAS-1 took pictures of the orbiter. The Canadarm later grappled the pallet and returned it to the payload bay.

STS-7 also carried seven Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, which contained a wide variety of experiments, as well as the OSTA-2 payload, a joint U.S.-West Germany scientific pallet payload. The orbiter's Ku-band antenna was able to relay data through the U.S. tracking and data relay satellite (TDRS) to a ground terminal for the first time.
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==STS-8==
[[Image:STS_8_Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250|Space Shuttle ''Challenger'' begins its third mission on 30 August 1983, conducting the first night launch of the shuttle program. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-8 was the eighth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the third flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on August 30, 1983, and landed on September 5, 1983.

The secondary payload, replacing a delayed NASA communications satellite, was a four-metric-ton dummy payload, intended to test the use of the shuttle's Canadarm (remote manipulator system). Scientific experiments carried on board ''Challenger'' included the environmental testing of new hardware and materials designed for future spacecraft, the study of biological materials in electric fields under microgravity, and research into space adaptation syndrome (also known as &quot;space sickness&quot;).

The Payload Flight Test Article (PFTA) had been scheduled for launch in June 1984 on STS-16 in the April 1982 manifest,&lt;ref name=&quot;news 82-46&quot;&gt;{{cite press release|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19820014425.pdf|hdl=2060/19820014425|title=Space Shuttle payload flight manifest / News Release 82-46|date=April 14, 1982|publisher=NASA |last1=McCormack |first1= Dick |last2=Hess |first2=Mark |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412163838/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/citations/19820014425 |archive-date=2022-04-12 |url-status=live }}&lt;/ref&gt; but by May 1983 it had been brought forward to STS-11. That month, when the TDRS missions were delayed, it was brought forward to STS-8 to fill the hole in the manifest.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-8 Press Information, p. i&quot;&gt;''STS-8 Press Information'', p. i&lt;/ref&gt; It was an aluminum structure resembling two wheels with a {{cvt|6|m}} long central axle, ballasted with lead to give it a total mass of {{cvt|3855|kg}}, which could be lifted by the Canadarm Remote Manipulator System – the Shuttle's &quot;robot arm&quot; – and moved around to help astronauts gain experience in using the system. It was stored in the midsection of the payload bay.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 32&lt;/ref&gt;

The orbiter carried the Development Flight Instrumentation (DFI) pallet in its forward payload bay; this had previously flown on ''Columbia'' to carry test equipment. The pallet was not outfitted with any flight instrumentation, but was used to mount two experiments. The first studied the interaction of ambient atomic oxygen with the structural materials of the orbiter and payload, while the second tested the performance of a heat pipe designed for use in the heat rejection systems of future spacecraft.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 38–39. The first experiment was formally designated &quot;Evaluation of Oxygen Interaction with Materials&quot; (DSO-0301) while the second was the High Capacity Heat Pipe Demonstration (DSO-0101)&lt;/ref&gt;

Four Getaway Special (GAS) payloads were carried. One studied the effects of cosmic rays on electronic equipment. The second studied the effect of the gas environment around the orbiter using ultraviolet absorption measurements, as a precursor to ultraviolet equipment being designed for Spacelab 2. A third, sponsored by the Japanese ''Asahi Shimbun'' newspaper, tried to use water vapor in two tanks to create snow crystals. This was a second attempt at an experiment first flown on STS-6, which had had to be redesigned after the water in the tanks froze solid. The last was similar to an experiment flown on STS-3, and studied the ambient levels of atomic oxygen by measuring the rates at which small carbon and osmium wafers oxidized.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, pp. 40–41. In order, these were designated the Cosmic Ray Upset Experiment (CRUX) (G-0346); the Ultraviolet-Sensitive Photographic Emulsion Experiment (G-0347); the Japanese snow crystal experiment (G-0475), and the Contamination Monitor Package (G-0348).&lt;/ref&gt;

The mission, in cooperation with the United States Postal Service (USPS), also carried 260,000 postal covers franked with US$9.35 express postage stamps, which were to be sold to collectors, with the profits divided between the USPS and NASA. Two storage boxes were attached to the DFI pallet, with more stored in six of the Getaway Special canisters.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 37&lt;/ref&gt;

A number of other experiments were to be performed inside the orbiter crew compartment. Among these was the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System, being flown for the fourth time. This separated solutions of biological materials by passing electric fields through them; the experiment aimed at supporting research into diabetes treatments.&lt;ref&gt;Press kit, p. 38&lt;/ref&gt; A small animal cage was flown containing six rats; no animal experiment was carried out on the flight, but a student involvement project was planned for a later mission which would use the cage, and NASA wanted to ensure it was flight-tested.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;&gt;Press kit, p. 39&lt;/ref&gt; The student involvement project carried out on STS-8 involved William E. Thornton using biofeedback techniques, to try to determine if they worked in microgravity.&lt;ref name=&quot;Press kit, p. 39&quot;/&gt; A photography experiment would attempt to study the spectrum of a luminous atmospheric glow which had been reported around the orbiter, and determine how this interacted with firings of the reaction control system (RCS).&lt;ref&gt;''STS-9 Press Information'', p. 60. This was formally designated as &quot;Investigation of STS Atmospheric Luminosities&quot;.&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-9==
[[Image:Sts-9lift.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Columbia launches on mission STS-9 from Launch Pad 39-A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-9 (also referred to Spacelab 1) &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Fun facts about STS numbering&quot;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100527232806/http://enterfiringroom.ksc.nasa.gov/funFactsSTSNumbers.htm|date=2010-05-27
|NASA/KSC 29 October 2004. Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt; was the ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the sixth mission of the Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. Launched on 28 November 1983, the ten-day mission carried the first Spacelab laboratory module into orbit.

The mission was devoted entirely to Spacelab 1, a joint NASA/European Space Agency (ESA) program designed to demonstrate the ability to conduct advanced scientific research in space. Both the mission specialists and payload specialists worked in the Spacelab module and coordinated their efforts with scientists at the Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) Payload Operations Control Center (POCC), which was then located at the Johnson Space Center (JSC) in Texas. Funding for Spacelab 1 was provided by the ESA.

Over the course of the mission, 72 scientific experiments were carried out, spanning the fields of atmospheric and plasma physics, astronomy, solar physics, material sciences, technology, astrobiology and Earth observations. The Spacelab effort went so well that the mission was extended an additional day to 10 days, making it the longest-duration shuttle flight at that time.
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==STS-10==
[[Image:STS-41-B Launch (20071535339).jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41B was launched. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EVAtion - GPN-2000-001087.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|McCandless approaches his maximum distance from ''Challenger''. Credit: NASA STS-10 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-B was the tenth (STS-10) NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched on 3 February 1984, and landed on 11 February 1984. The mission carried five Get Away Special (GAS) canisters, six live rats in the middeck area, a Cinema-360 camera and a continuation of the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System and Monodisperse Latex Reactor experiments.&lt;ref name=Ency&gt;{{cite web |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20020415042717/http://www.astronautix.com/flights/sts41b.htm
|title=STS-41-B|publisher=Encyclopedia Astronautica|accessdate=July 20, 2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Included in one of the GAS canisters was the first experiment designed and built by a high school team to fly in space. The experiment, on seed germination and growth in zero gravity, was created and built by a team of four students from Brighton High School, Cottonwood Heights, Utah, through a partnership with Utah State University.&lt;ref name=Ency/&gt;
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==STS-11==
[[Image:SMMS repair by STS-41C Astronauts.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mission Specialists George Nelson and James D. A. van Hoften repair the captured Solar Maximum Mission satellite on 11 April 1984. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EL-1994-00475.jpeg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of STS-41-C on 6 April 1984 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-41-C-LDEF-deploy-small.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The deployed Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) became an important source of information on the small-particle space debris environment. Credit: NASA STS-13 (STS-41-C) crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-C (formerly STS-13) was NASA's eleventh Space Shuttle mission, and the fifth mission of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.&lt;ref name=Hoften&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/vanHoftenJD/vanHoftenJDA_12-5-07.pdf James D. A. van Hoften] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. 5 December 2007 Retrieved 20 July 2013&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Hart&gt;[http://www.jsc.nasa.gov/history/oral_histories/HartTJ/HartTJ_4-10-03.pdf Terry J. Hart] NASA Johnson Space Center Oral History Project. April 10, 2003 Retrieved July 20, 2013&lt;/ref&gt; The launch took place on 6 April 1984 and the landing on 13 April 1984 took place at Edwards Air Force Base.

On the second day of the flight, the LDEF was grappled by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and successfully released into orbit. Its 57 experiments, mounted in 86 removable trays, were contributed by 200 researchers from eight countries. Retrieval of the passive LDEF was initially scheduled for 1985, but schedule delays and the ''Challenger'' disaster of 1986 postponed the retrieval until 12 January 1990, when ''Columbia'' retrieved the LDEF during STS-32.
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==STS-12==
[[Image:STS-41-D launch August 30, 1984.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch of Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' on its first mission on 30 August 1984. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS41D-01-021.jpg|thumb|right|250px|View of the OAST-1 solar array on STS-41-D is shown. Credit: NASA STS-14 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41-D (formerly STS-14) was the 12th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the first mission of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 30 August 1984, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 5 September 1984.

A number of scientific experiments were conducted, including a prototype electrical system of the International Space Station, or extendable solar array, that would eventually form the basis of the main solar arrays on the International Space Station (ISS).

The OAST-1 photovoltaic module (solar array), a device {{cvt|4|m}} wide and {{cvt|31|m}} high, folded into a package {{cvt|18|cm}} deep. The array carried a number of different types of experimental solar cells and was extended to its full height several times during the mission. At the time, it was the largest structure ever extended from a crewed spacecraft, and it demonstrated the feasibility of large lightweight solar arrays for use on future orbital installations, such as the International Space Station (ISS).

A student experiment to study crystal growth in microgravity was also carried out.
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==STS-13==
STS-41-G (formerly STS-17) was the 13th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. ''Challenger'' launched on 5 October 1984 and landed at the Shuttle Landing Facility (SLF) at Kennedy Space Center – becoming the second shuttle mission to land there – on 13 October 1984, at 12:26 p.m. EDT.&lt;ref name=mis41g&gt;{{cite web|url=https://science.ksc.nasa.gov/shuttle/missions/41-g/mission-41-g.html|title=41-G (13) |publisher=NASA|accessdate=13 February 2018}}&lt;/ref&gt;.

The OSTA-3 experiment package (Spacelab) in the payload bay included the Large Format Camera (LFC) to photograph the Earth, another camera called MAPS which measured air pollution, and a feature identification and location experiment called FILE, which consisted of two TV cameras and two {{cvt|70|mm}} still cameras.

Payload Specialist Scully-Power, an employee of the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory (NRL), performed a series of oceanography observations during the mission. Garneau conducted a series of experiments sponsored by the Canadian government, called CANEX, which were related to medical, atmospheric, climatic, materials and robotic science. A number of Getaway Special (GAS) canisters, covering a wide variety of materials testing and physics experiments, were also flown.
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==STS-14==

STS-51-A (formerly STS-19) was the 14th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the second flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center on 8 November 1984, and landed just under eight days later on 16 November 1984.

STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 July 1985, and landed just under eight days later on 6 August 1985.

Names: Space Transportation System-19 and Spacelab 2.
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==STS-15==

STS-51-C (formerly STS-20) was the 15th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. It launched on 24 January 1985, and made the fourth shuttle landing at Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 27 January 1985.

==STS-16==

STS-51-D was the 16th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fourth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.&lt;ref name=PressKitit51D&gt;{{cite web |url=http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/STS-51D/STS51D.pdf|title=STS-51D Press Kit|author=NASA|accessdate=December 16, 2009}}&lt;/ref&gt; The launch of STS-51-D from Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 12 April 1985, and landed on 19 April 1985, at KSC.

''Discovery''s other mission payloads included the Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System III (CFES-III), which was flying for sixth time; two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments; the American Flight Echo-cardiograph (AFE); two Getaway specials (GASs); a set of Phase Partitioning Experiments (PPE); an astronomical photography verification test; various medical experiments; and &quot;Toys in Space&quot;, an informal study of the behavior of simple toys in a microgravity environment, with the results being made available to school students upon the shuttle's return.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-51D.html|title=STS-51D|publisher=NASA|accessdate=January 16, 2018|date=February 18, 2010}}&lt;/ref&gt;

==STS-17==
[[Image:STS-51-B crew in Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Transportation System-17, Spacelab 3, Overmyer, Lind, van den Berg, and Thornton are in the Spacelab Module LM1 during flight. Credit: NASA STS-17 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51B launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-51B is shown. Credit:NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51B was the 17th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''. The launch of ''Challenger'' was on April 29, 1985, and it landed successfully on May 6, 1985.

STS-51B was the second flight of the European Space Agency (ESA)'s Spacelab pressurized module, and the first with the Spacelab module in a fully operational configuration. Spacelab's capabilities for multi-disciplinary research in microgravity were successfully demonstrated. The gravity gradient attitude of the orbiter proved quite stable, allowing the delicate experiments in materials processing and fluid mechanics to proceed normally. The crew operated around the clock in two 12-hour shifts. Two squirrel monkeys and 24 Brown rats were flown in special cages,&lt;ref&gt;|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719061203/http://lis.arc.nasa.gov/lis/Programs/STS/STS_51B/STS_51B.html|date=July 19, 2011&lt;/ref&gt; the second time American astronauts flew live non-human mammals aboard the shuttle. The crew members in orbit were supported 24 hours a day by a temporary Payload Operations Control Center, located at the Johnson Space Center.

On the mission, Spacelab carried 15 primary experiments, of which 14 were successfully performed. Two Getaway Special (GAS) experiments required that they be deployed from their canisters, a first for the program. These were NUSAT (Northern Utah Satellite) and GLOMR (Global Low Orbiting Message Relay satellite). NUSAT deployed successfully, but GLOMR did not deploy, and was returned to Earth.
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==STS-18==
[[Image:STS-51-G Morelos 1 deployment.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Mexico's Morelos satellite deploys from Discovery's payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-G Spartan 1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Spartan 1 is shown after deployment on STS-51-G. Credit: NASA STS-18 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-G was the 18th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the fifth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

The SPARTAN-1 (Shuttle Pointed Autonomous Research Tool for AstroNomy) a deployable/retrievable carrier module, was designed to be deployed from the orbiter and fly free in space before being retrieved. SPARTAN-1 included {{cvt|140|kg}} of astronomy experiments. It was deployed and operated successfully, independent of the orbiter, before being retrieved. ''Discovery'' furthermore carried an experimental materials-processing furnace, two French biomedical experiments (French Echocardiograph Experiment (FEE) and French Postural Experiment (FPE)),&lt;ref name=SF51G&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51G|url=http://spacefacts.de/mission/english/sts-51g.htm|publisher=Spacefacts|accessdate=23 January 2021}}&lt;/ref&gt; and six Getaway Special (GAS) experiments, which were all successfully performed, although the GO34 Getaway Special shut down prematurely. This mission was also the first flight test of the OEX advanced autopilot which gave the orbiter capabilities above and beyond those of the baseline system.

The mission's final payload element was a High Precision Tracking Experiment (HPTE) for the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) (nicknamed &quot;Star Wars&quot;); the HPTE successfully deployed on orbit 64.
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==STS-19==
[[Image:STS-51-F shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Aborted launch attempt is at T-3 seconds on 12 July 1985. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-51-F Plasma Diagnostics Package.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP) is grappled by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Isabella lake STS51F-42-34.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|A view of the Sierra Nevada mountains and surroundings from Earth orbit was taken on the STS-51-F mission. Credit: NASA STS-19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51-F (also known as Spacelab 2) was the 19th flight of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

STS-51-F's primary payload was the laboratory module Spacelab 2. A special part of the modular Spacelab system, the &quot;Spacelab igloo&quot;, which was located at the head of a three-pallet train, provided on-site support to instruments mounted on pallets. The main mission objective was to verify performance of Spacelab systems, determine the interface capability of the orbiter, and measure the environment created by the spacecraft. Experiments covered life sciences, plasma physics, astronomy, high-energy astrophysics, solar physics, atmospheric physics and technology research. Despite mission replanning necessitated by ''Challenger''s abort to orbit trajectory, the Spacelab mission was declared a success.

The flight marked the first time the European Space Agency (ESA) Instrument Pointing System (IPS) was tested in orbit. This unique pointing instrument was designed with an accuracy of one arcsecond. Initially, some problems were experienced when it was commanded to track the Sun, but a series of software fixes were made and the problem was corrected. In addition, Anthony W. England became the second amateur radio operator to transmit from space during the mission.

The Plasma Diagnostics Package (PDP), which had been previously flown on STS-3, made its return on the mission, and was part of a set of plasma physics experiments designed to study the Earth's ionosphere. During the third day of the mission, it was grappled out of the payload bay by the Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm) and released for six hours.&lt;ref name=report&gt;{{cite web|title=STS-51F National Space Transportation System Mission Report|url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/52621059/STS-51F-National-Space-Transportation-System-Mission-Report|publisher=NASA Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center|accessdate=March 1, 2014|page=2|date=September 1985}}&lt;/ref&gt; During this time, ''Challenger'' maneuvered around the PDP as part of a targeted proximity operations exercise. The PDP was successfully grappled by the Canadarm and returned to the payload bay at the beginning of the fourth day of the mission.&lt;ref name=report/&gt;

In an experiment during the mission, thruster rockets were fired at a point over Tasmania and also above Boston to create two &quot;holes&quot; – plasma depletion regions – in the ionosphere. A worldwide group collaborated with the observations made from Spacelab 2.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|url=http://harveycohen.net/essex/index.htm|title=Elizabeth A. Essex-Cohen Ionospheric Physics Papers |date=2007|accessdate=5 February 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-20==

STS-51-I was the 20th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program and the sixth flight of Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on August 27, 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on September 3, 1985.

==STS-21==

STS-51-J was the 21st NASA Space Shuttle mission and the first flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 3 October 1985, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 7 October 1985.

==STS-22==

STS-61-A (also known as Spacelab D-1) was the 22nd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program. It was a scientific Spacelab mission, funded and directed by West Germany – hence the non-NASA designation of D-1 (for Deutschland-1). STS-61-A was the ninth and last successful flight of Space Shuttle ''Challenger''.

==STS-23==

STS-61-B was NASA's 23rd Space Shuttle mission, and its second using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The shuttle was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 26 November 1985. ''Atlantis'' landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, at 16:33:49 EST on 3 December 1985.

==STS-24==

STS-61-C was the 24th mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the seventh mission of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched from Florida's Kennedy Space Center on 12 January 1986, and landed six days later on 18 January 1986.

==STS-26==
[[Image:Return_to_Flight_Launch_of_Discovery_-_GPN-2000-001871.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Discovery'' lifts off from KSC, the first shuttle mission after the Challenger disaster. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS026 STS026-43-82.JPG|thumb|right|250px|This 70mm southward-looking view over the Pacific Ocean features the Hawaiian Islands chain. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-43-98.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Chad is photographed from orbit on STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS026 STS026-42-23.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Jebel Marra, Sudan, is photographed from Discovery, STS-26. Credit: NASA STS-26 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-26 was the 26th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the seventh flight of the orbiter Discovery. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 29 September 1988, and landed four days later on 3 October 1988.

The materials processing experiments included two Shuttle Student Involvement Projects, one on titanium grain formation and the other on controlling crystal growth with a membrane. Another materials science experiment, the Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids-2 (PVTOS-2), was a joint project of NASA's Office of Commercial Programs and the 3M company.

Three life sciences experiments were conducted, including one on the aggregation of red blood cells, intended to help determine if microgravity can play a beneficial role in clinical research and medical diagnostic tests. Two further experiments involved atmospheric sciences, while one was in communications research.

* Physical Vapor Transport of Organic Solids (PVTOS-2)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Infrared Communications Flight Experiment (IRCFE)
* Aggregation of Red Blood Cells (ARC)
* Isoelectric Focusing Experiment (IFE)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* Phase Partitioning Experiment (PPE)
* Earth-Limb Radiance Experiment (ELRAD)
* Automated Directional Solidification Furnace (ADSF)
* Two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments
* Voice Control Unit test and evaluation (VCU)

The Hawaiian Islands shown in the image on the right perturb the prevailing northeasterly winds producing extensive cloud wakes in the lee of the islands. The atmospheric haze in the Hawaii wake is probably a result of the continuing eruptions of Kilauea volcano on the southeast coast. From the lower right corner in a diagonal directed upward to the north are the islands of Nihau (1), Kauai (2), Oahu (3), Molokai (4), Lanai (5), Maui (6), Kahoolawe (7), and Hawaii (8).
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==STS-27==
[[Image:STS-27 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Atlantis'' launches on STS-27. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS027 STS027-33-79 2.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Brahmaputra River was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS027 STS027-32-34.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Fiji was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-27 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-27 was the 27th NASA Space Shuttle mission, and the third flight of Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. Launching on 2 December 1988, 14:30:34 UTC, and landing on 6 December 1988, 23:36:11 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 17.
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==STS-28==
[[Image:STS-29 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows mission STS-29 with shuttle ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS029 STS029-92-38.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Lake Natron, Tanzania, was photographed from ''Discovery'' on mission STS-29. Credit: NASA STS-28 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-29 was the 28th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the eighth flight of Discovery and the 28th Space Shuttle mission overall. It launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 13 March 1989,&lt;ref name=&quot;LATimes 1989-03-14&quot;&gt;{{cite news|last1=Dye|first1=Lee|title=Space Shuttle Launched, Puts Satellite in Orbit|newspaper=Los Angeles Times|url-status=live|date=1989-03-14|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106132036/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-14-mn-650-story.html|archive-date=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt; and landed on 18 March 1989, 14:35:50 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

''Discovery'' carried eight secondary payloads, including two Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP) experiments. One student experiment, using four live rats with tiny pieces of bone removed from their bodies, was to test whether the environmental effects of space flight inhibit bone healing. The other student experiment was to fly 32 chicken eggs to determine the effects of space flight on fertilized chicken embryos.&lt;ref name=Brown1990&gt;{{cite journal|title=NASA's Educational Programs|journal=Government Information Quarterly|date=1990|last=Brown|first=Robert W. |volume=7|issue=2|pages=185–195|issn=0740-624X|doi=10.1016/0740-624X(90)90054-R
|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106181752/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19900019131/downloads/19900019131.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;

One experiment, mounted in the payload bay, was only termed &quot;partially successful&quot;. The Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE), a potential cooling system for the planned Space Station ''Freedom'', operated continuously for less than 30 minutes under powered electrical loads. The failure was blamed on the faulty design of the equipment, especially the manifold section.&lt;ref name=Kosson&gt;{{cite book|last1=Kosson|first1=Robert|last2=Brown|first2=Richard|last3=Ungar|first3=Eugene|title=Space Station heat pipe advanced radiator element (SHARE) flight test results and analysis, In: ''28th Aerospace Sciences Meeting''|publisher=American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics|location=Reston, Virginia|date=1990-01-11|doi=10.2514/6.1990-59|url=https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/10.2514/6.1990-59|accessdate=2021-01-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;

All other experiments operated successfully. Crystals were obtained from all the proteins in the Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment. The Chromosomes and Plant Cell Division in Space (CHROMEX), a life sciences experiment, was designed to show the effects of microgravity on root development. An IMAX (70 mm) camera was used to film a variety of scenes for the 1990 IMAX film ''Blue Planet'',&lt;ref name=Venant&gt;{{cite web|last1=Venant|first1=Elizabeth|title=Astronauts Play Film Makers for IMAX 'Blue Planet'
|date=1989-03-18|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106175224/https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1989-03-18-ca-273-story.html }}&lt;/ref&gt; including the effects of floods, hurricanes, wildfires and volcanic eruptions on Earth. A ground-based United States Air Force experiment used the orbiter as a calibration target for the Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) in Hawaii.&lt;ref name=Viereck&gt;{{cite book|last1=Viereck|first1=R. A.|last2=Murad|first2=E.|last3=Pike|first3=C. P.|last4=Kofsky|first4=I. L.|last5=Trowbridge|first5=C. A.|last6=Rall|first6=D. L. A.|last7=Satayesh|first7=A.|last8=Berk|first8=A.|last9=Elgin|first9=J. B. |title=Photometric analysis of a space shuttle water venting, In: ''Fourth Annual Workshop on Space Operations Applications and Research (SOAR 90)''
|url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19910011413/downloads/19910011413.pdf|publisher=NASA|location=Houston, Texas|date=1990|pages=676–680}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-29==
[[Image:STS-30 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch of ''Atlantis'' is as STS-30. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-89-59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Thunderstorms are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-30 was the 29th NASA Space Shuttle mission and the fourth mission for the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 4 May 1989, and landed four days later on 8 May 1989 at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

Three mid-deck experiments were included on the mission. All had flown before. Mission Specialist Cleave used a portable laptop computer to operate and monitor the Fluids Experiment Apparatus (FEA).&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;/&gt;
[[Image:ISD highres STS030 STS030-76-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ocean waves off the coast of Mexico are imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-29 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
An {{cvt|8|mm}} video camcorder, flown for the first time on the Shuttle, provided the opportunity for the crew to record and downlink on-orbit activities such as the FEA, which was a joint endeavor between Rockwell International and NASA.
Payload bay video cameras were used to record storm systems from orbit as part of the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;MSER STS-30&quot;&gt;{{cite book|author1=Office of Safety, Reliability, Maintainability and Quality Assurance|title=Misson Safety Evaluation Report for STS-30 - Postflight Edition |publisher=NASA|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210106192422/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920013999/downloads/19920013999.pdf|location=Washington, D.C.|date=1989-08-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-30==
[[Image:1989_s28_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch of STS-28 is shown. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:SILTS Image.jpg|thumb|right|250px|SILTS camera infrared image shows the flight surfaces of Columbia during STS-28 reentry. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Skull1.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Human skull is flown as part of DSO-469 on Space Shuttle missions STS-28, 36, and 31 during a study of radiation doses in space. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS028 STS028-89-83.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Alaska and the vast Malaspina Glacier were photographed from Columbia on mission STS-28. Credit: NASA STS-30 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-28 was the 30th NASA Space Shuttle mission, the fourth shuttle mission dedicated to United States Department of Defense (DoD) purposes, and the eighth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia''. The mission launched on 8 August 1989 and landed on runway 17 of Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 13 August 1989.

The mission marked the first flight of an {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermoluminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-36 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;

The Shuttle Lee-side Temperature Sensing (SILTS) infrared camera package made its second flight aboard ''Columbia'' on this mission. The cylindrical pod and surrounding black tiles on the orbiter's vertical stabilizer housed an imaging system, designed to map thermodynamic conditions during reentry, on the surfaces visible from the top of the tail fin. Ironically, the camera faced the port wing of ''Columbia'', which was breached by superheated plasma on STS-107 (its disastrous final flight), destroying the wing and, later, the orbiter. The SILTS system was used for only six missions before being deactivated, but the pod remained for the duration of ''Columbia''s career.&lt;ref&gt;[http://spaceflight.nasa.gov/shuttle/reference/shutref/orbiter/comm/inst/silts.ht Shuttle Infrared Leeside Temperature Sensing]&lt;/ref&gt; ''Columbia's'' thermal protection system was also upgraded to a similar configuration as ''Discovery'' and ''Atlantis'' in between the loss of ''Challenger'' and STS-28, with many of the white LRSI tiles replaced with felt insulation blankets in order to reduce weight and turnaround time. One other minor modification that debuted on STS-28 was the move of ''Columbia's'' name from its payload bay doors to the fuselage, allowing the orbiter to be easily recognized while in orbit.
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==STS-31==
[[Image:STS-34 Launch (Low).jpg|thumb|left|250px|The launch was viewed from below. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EFS highres STS034 STS034-86-96.jpg|thumb|right|Greece was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ReefBase highres STS034 STS034-86-65.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Mekong River delta was imaged from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-31 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-34 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis''. It was the 31st shuttle mission overall, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1989, and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 23, California, on 23 October 1989.

''Atlantis''' payload bay held two canisters containing the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment. SSBUV, which made its first flight on STS-34, was developed by NASA to check the calibration of the ozone sounders on free-flying satellites, and to verify the accuracy of atmospheric ozone and solar irradiance data. The experiment operated successfully.

STS-34 carried a further five mid-deck experiments, all of which were deemed successful, including the Polymer Morphology (PM) experiment, sponsored by the 3M company under a joint endeavor agreement with NASA. The PM experiment was designed to observe the melting and resolidifying of different types of polymers while in orbit. The Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE), which had been flown on previous shuttle missions, observed the visual characteristics of large-scale lightning in the upper atmosphere. Chang-Díaz and Baker, a medical doctor, performed a detailed supplementary objective by photographing and videotaping the veins and arteries in the retinal wall of Baker's eyeball to provide detailed measurements which might give clues about a possible relationship between cranial pressure and motion sickness. Baker also tested the effectiveness of anti-motion sickness medication in space.
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==STS-32==
[[Image:1989 s33 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows STS-32. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-33 was NASA Space Shuttle mission 32 using the Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' that lifted off from Launch Complex 39B at Kennedy Space Center (KSC), Florida, on 22 November 1989 at 7:23:30 p.m. EST; and landed at Edwards Air Force Base, California, on 27 November 1989 at 7:30:16 p.m. EST.

STS-33 was observed by the {{cvt|1.6|m}} telescope of the United States Air Force, Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (AMOS) during five passes over Hawaii. Spectrographic and infrared images of the shuttle obtained with the Enhanced Longwave Spectral Imager (ELSI) were aimed at studying the interactions between gases released by the shuttle's primary reaction control system (RCS) and residual atmospheric oxygen and nitrogen species in orbit.&lt;ref name=Knecht&gt;{{cite web|title=Recovery of Images from the AMOS ELSI Data for STS-33|date=19 April 1990|first=David J. |last=Knecht|publisher=Geophysics Laboratory (PHK), Hanscom AFB|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213434/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?AD=ADA225653&amp;Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=Kofsky&gt;{{cite web|title=Measurements and Interpretation of Contaminant Radiations in the Spacecraft Environment|date=28 June 1991|author1=I.L. Kofsky|author2=D.L.A. Rall|author3=R.B. Sluder|publisher=Phillips Laboratory, Hanscom AFB |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121007213711/http://www.dtic.mil/cgi-bin/GetTRDoc?Location=U2&amp;doc=GetTRDoc.pdf&amp;AD=ADA241756 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-33==
[[Image:1990 s32 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|The launch show STS-32 from LC-39A. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-32 was the 33rd mission of NASA's Space Shuttle program, and the ninth launch of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', that launched on 9 January 1990, 12:35:00 UTC, from the Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, and landed on 20 January 1990, 09:35:36 UTC, at Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

A primary objective was to retrieve NASA's Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) on the fourth day of the flight using the shuttle's Remote Manipulator System (Canadarm). The crew performed a 41⁄2-hour photographic survey of the free-flying structure, which held 57 science, technology and applications experiments. The 12-sided cylinder, about the size of a small satellite bus, was then berthed in the orbiter's payload bay for return to Earth. LDEF had dropped to such a low altitude that the orbiter could not do the usual lower-orbit catch-up because of the thicker atmosphere, and had to reach the LDEF from above.

Earth observation footage from the IMAX camera was retrieved. STS-32 carried a number of mid-deck scientific payloads, some of which had already been flown on previous shuttle missions. The experiments included: 
* Characterization of ''Neurospora crassa'' Circadian Rhythms (CNCR)
* Protein Crystal Growth (PCG)
* Fluid Experiment Apparatus (FEA)
* American Flight Echocardiograph (AFE)
* Latitude / Longitude Locator (L3)
* Mesoscale Lightning Experiment (MLE)
* IMAX camera
* Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.
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==STS-34==
[[Image:STS-36 Launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-36 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'', the sixth flight, launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 28 February 1990, and landed on 4 March 1990 at Edwards Air Force Base Runway 23.

The mission marked another flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of radiation into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-31, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight/&gt;
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==STS-35==
[[Image:STS-31 Launch - GPN-2000-000684.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' launches from LC-39B for STS-31 with  ''Columbia'' on LC-39A in preparation for STS-35. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:HST over Bahamas.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' is high over Cuba. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Scanned highres STS031 STS031-76-39 copy.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Hubble drifts away over Peru. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Florida from STS-31.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Florida and The Bahamas are photographed. Credit: NASA STS-35 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-31 was the 35th mission of the NASA Space Shuttle program, launch date: 24 April 1990, 12:33:51 UTC, spacecraft: Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 29 April 1990, 13:49:57 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The mission was devoted to photography and onboard experiments.

At one point during the mission, ''Discovery'' briefly reached an apsis (apogee) of {{cvt|621|km}}, the highest altitude ever reached by a Shuttle orbiter.&lt;ref name=McDowell&gt;{{cite web|author=Jonathan McDowell
|title=Here is a comparison of the STS-31 and STS-82 TLE data (apogee and perigee given in 'conventional height', i.e. geocentric radius minus 6378 km)
|url=https://twitter.com/planet4589/status/1438322692097286151|accessdate=2021-09-16 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The record height also permitted the crew to photograph Earth's large-scale geographic features not apparent from lower orbits.

Experiments on the mission included a biomedical technology study, advanced materials research, particle contamination and ionizing radiation measurements, and a student science project studying zero gravity effects on electronic arcs. ''Discovery''{{'}}s reentry from its higher than usual orbit required a deorbit burn of 4 minutes and 58 seconds, the longest in Shuttle history up to that time.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;&gt;{{cite web |author1=Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center |date=May 1990 |title=STS-31 Space Shuttle Mission Report |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107114538/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19920008146/downloads/19920008146.pdf |publisher=NASA}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Secondary payloads included the IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC) to document operations outside the crew cabin, and a handheld IMAX camera for use inside the orbiter. Also included were the Ascent Particle Monitor (APM) to detect particulate matter in the payload bay; a Protein Crystal Growth (PCG) experiment to provide data on growing protein crystals in microgravity, [[Radiation]] Monitoring Equipment III (RME III) to measure gamma ray levels in the crew cabin; Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP) to determine porosity control in the microgravity environment, and an Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, or AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref name=&quot;STS-31 SSMR&quot;/&gt;

The mission marked the flight of a {{cvt|5|kg}} human skull, which served as the primary element of &quot;Detailed Secondary Objective 469&quot;, also known as the In-flight Radiation Dose Distribution (IDRD) experiment. This joint NASA/DoD experiment was designed to examine the penetration of [[radiation]] into the human cranium during spaceflight. The female skull was seated in a plastic matrix, representative of tissue, and sliced into ten layers. Hundreds of thermo-luminescent dosimeters were mounted in the skull's layers to record radiation levels at multiple depths. This experiment, which also flew on STS-28 and STS-36, was located in the shuttle's mid-deck lockers on all three flights, recording radiation levels at different orbital inclinations.&lt;ref name=Macknight&gt;{{cite book|last1=MacKnight|first1=Nigel|title=Space Year 1991: The Complete Record of the Year's Space Events|date=1991-12-31|publisher=Motorbooks International|location=Osceola, Wisconsin|{{isbn|978-0879384821}}|page=41}}&lt;/ref&gt;
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==STS-36==
[[Image:STS-41 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|STS-41 launches from Kennedy Space Center, on 6 October 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-41 was the 36th Space Shuttle mission, and the eleventh mission of the Space Shuttle ''Discovery''.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Chromosome and Plant Cell Division Experiment (CHROMEX)
# INTELSAT Solar Array Coupon (ISAC)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE)
# Radiation Monitoring Experiment (RME III)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Shuttle Student Involvement Program (SSIP)
# Voice Command System (VCS).

By comparing ''Discovery''{{'}}s measurements with coordinated satellite observations, scientists were able to calibrate their satellite instruments to insure the most accurate readings possible.

Until STS-41, previous research had shown that during the process of adapting to microgravity, animals and humans experienced loss of bone mass, cardiac deconditioning, and after prolonged periods (over 30 days), developed symptoms similar to that of terrestrial disuse osteoporosis. The goal of the STS-41 Physiological Systems Experiment (PSE), sponsored by the Ames Research Center and Pennsylvania State University's Center for Cell Research, was to determine if pharmacological treatments would be effective in reducing or eliminating some of these disorders. Proteins, developed by Genentech of San Francisco, California, were administered to eight rats during the flight while another eight rats accompanying them on the flight did not receive the treatment.
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==STS-37==
[[Image:STS-38 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-38. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:ISD highres STS038 STS038-76-68.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Sunlight on the ocean is shown. Credit: NASA STS-37 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-38 was a Space Shuttle mission by NASA using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 15 November 1990, 23:48:15 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 20 November 1990, 21:42:46 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.
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==STS-38==
[[Image:STS-35 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' finally heads aloft on 2 December 1990. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Onboard Photo - Astro-1 Ultraviolet Telescope in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|ASTRO-1 is in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S035 Parker.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|MS Robert A. Parker manually points ASTRO-1's instruments using a toggle on the aft flight deck. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-502-4.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Lake Eyre, Australia. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS035-602-24.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Namibia is photographed from orbit. Credit: NASA STS-38 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-35 was the tenth flight of Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', the 38th shuttle flight, and a mission devoted to astronomical observations with ASTRO-1, a Spacelab observatory consisting of four telescopes. The mission launched from Kennedy Space Center in Florida on 2 December 1990, 06:49:01 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 December 1990, 05:54:09 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 22.

The primary payload of mission STS-35 was ASTRO-1, the fifth flight of the Spacelab system and the second with the Igloo and two pallets train configuration. The primary objectives were round-the-clock observations of the celestial sphere in ultraviolet and X-ray spectral wavelengths with the ASTRO-1 observatory, consisting of four telescopes: Hopkins Ultraviolet Telescope (HUT); Wisconsin Ultraviolet Photo-Polarimeter Experiment (WUPPE); Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope (UIT), mounted on the Instrument Pointing System (IPS). The Instrument Pointing System consisted of a three-axis gimbal system mounted on a gimbal support structure connected to a Spacelab pallet at one end and the aft end of the payload at the other, a payload clamping system for support of the mounted experiment during launch and landing, and a control system based on the inertial reference of a three-axis gyro package and operated by a gimbal-mounted microcomputer.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.31, PAO, 1990&lt;/ref&gt; The Broad-Band X-Ray Telescope (BBXRT) and its Two-Axis Pointing System (TAPS) rounded out the instrument complement in the aft payload bay.

The crew split into shifts after reaching orbit, with Gardner, Parker, and Parise comprising the Red Team; the Blue Team consisted of Hoffman, Durrance, and Lounge. Commander Brand was unassigned to either team and helped coordinate mission activities. The telescopes were powered up and raised from their stowed position by the Red Team 11 hours into the flight. Observations began under the Blue Team 16 hours into the mission after the instruments were checked out.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p.129, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; In a typical ASTRO-1 ultraviolet observation, the flight crew member on duty maneuvered the Shuttle to point the cargo bay in the general direction of the astronomical object to be observed. The mission specialist commanded the pointing system to aim the telescopes toward the target. They also locked on to guide stars to help the pointing system remain stable despite orbiter thruster firings. The payload specialist set up each instrument for the upcoming observation, identified the celestial target on the guide television, and provided the necessary pointing corrections for placing the object precisely in the telescope's field of view. He then started the instrument observation sequences and monitored the data being recorded. Because the many observations created a heavy workload, the payload and mission specialists worked together to perform these complicated operations and evaluate the quality of observations. Each observation took between 10 minutes to a little over an hour.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p.35, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt;

Issues with the pointing precision of the IPS and the sequential overheating failures of both data display units (used for pointing telescopes and operating experiments) during the mission impacted crew-aiming procedures and forced ground teams at Marshall Space Flight Center (MSFC) to aim the telescopes with fine-tuning by the flight crew. BBXRT-01 was directed from the outset by ground-based operators at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC) and was not affected. The X-ray telescope required little attention from the crew. A crew member would turn on the BBXRT and the TAPS at the beginning of operations and then turn them off when the operations concluded. After the telescope was activated, researchers at Goddard could &quot;talk&quot; to the telescope via computer. Before science operations began, stored commands were loaded into the BBXRT computer system. Then, when the astronauts positioned the Shuttle in the general direction of the source, the TAPS automatically pointed the BBXRT at the object. Since the Shuttle could be oriented in only one direction at a time, X-ray observations had to be coordinated carefully with ultraviolet observations. Despite the pointing problems, the full suite of telescopes obtained 231 observations of 130 celestial objects over a combined span of 143 hours. Science teams at Marshall and Goddard estimated that 70% of the mission objectives were completed.&lt;ref&gt;Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, p. 133, Ben Evans, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; ASTRO-1 was the first shuttle mission controlled in part from the Spacelab Mission Operations Control facility at MSFC in Huntsville, Alabama.

Conducting short-wave radio transmissions between ground-based amateur radio operators and a Shuttle-based amateur radio operator was the basis for the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX-II). SAREX communicated with amateur stations in line-of-sight of the orbiter in one of four transmission modes: voice, Slow-scan television (SSTV), data or (uplink only) amateur television (Fast scan television) (FSTV). The voice mode was operated in the attended mode while SSTV, data or FSTV could be operated in either attended or unattended modes. During the mission, SAREX was operated by Payload Specialist Ron Parise, a licensed operator (WA4SIR), during periods when he was not scheduled for orbiter or other payload activities.&lt;ref&gt;STS-35 Press Kit, p. 41, PAO, 1990.&lt;/ref&gt; A ground-based experiment to calibrate electro-optical sensors at Air Force Maui Optical and Supercomputing observatory (Air Force Maui Optical Site, AMOS) in Hawaii was also conducted during the mission. The Space Classroom Program, Assignment: The Stars project was carried out to spark student interest in science, mathematics and technology. Mission Specialist Hoffman conducted the first classroom lesson taught from space on 7 December 1990 in support of this objective, covering material on the electromagnetic spectrum and the ASTRO-1 observatory. A supporting lesson was taught from the ASTRO-1 control center in Huntsville.
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==STS-39==
[[Image:STS-37 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows ''Atlantis'' on STS-37. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:KuwaitiOilFires-STS037-152-91-(2).jpg|thumb|upright=1|right|250px|Smoke plumes from aKuwaiti Oil Fires were seen during STS-37. Credit: NASA STS-39 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-37, the thirty-ninth NASA Space Shuttle mission and the eighth flight of the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', launch date: 5 April 1991, 14:22:45 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39B, landing date: 11 April 1991, 13:55:29 UTC, landing site	Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 33.

During the spaceflight, the crew was additionally able to photograph the Kuwaiti oil fires on 7 April 1991, as the Gulf War was ongoing during the spaceflight.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |url=https://nara.getarchive.net/media/s37-73-047-sts-037-kuwait-oil-fires-kuwait-taken-during-the-sts-37-mission-bef582|title= &quot;S37-73-047 - STS-037 - Kuwait Oil Fires, Kuwait taken during the STS-37 mission&quot; |accessdate= May 8, 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Smoke plumes from a few of the Kuwaiti Oil Fires on April 7, 1991, are seen during STS-37.&lt;ref name=&quot;gulflink.osd.mil&quot;&gt;{{cite web |url=https://eol.jsc.nasa.gov/SearchPhotos/photo.pl?mission=STS037&amp;roll=152&amp;frame=91|title=Astronaut Photo STS037-152-91 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Bioserve/Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA) to explore the commercial potential of experiments in the biomedical, manufacturing processes and fluid sciences fields
# Crew and Equipment Translation Aid (CETA), which involved scheduled six-hour spacewalk by astronauts Ross and Apt
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG), which has flown eight times before in various forms
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME Ill)
# Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II).
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==STS-40==
[[Image:STS-39 launch.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-39. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Critical-ionization-velocity.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Critical ionization velocity (CIV) experiment is shown in ''Discovery''{{'}}s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|STS-39 observes Aurora australis. Credit: NASA STS-40 crew,{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-39 was the twelfth mission of the NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', and the 40th orbital shuttle mission overall, launch date: 28 April 1991, 11:33:14 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 6 May 1991, 18:55:37 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

The high orbital inclination of the mission, 57.01° with respect to the equator, allowed the crew to fly over most of Earth's large land masses and observe and record environmental resources and problem areas.


Instruments:
# Chemical Release Observation (CRO)
# Cryogenic Infrared Radiance Instrumentation for Shuttle (CIRRIS)
# Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense Systems (CLOUDS-1A)
# Infrared Background Signature Survey (IBSS)
# Multi-Purpose Release Canister (MPEC)
# Shuttle pallet satellite (SPAS-II)
# Space Test Program (STP-01)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME-III).
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==STS-41==
[[Image:STS-040 shuttle.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Launch shows STS-40. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-40 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia''{{'}}s payload bay, served as the Spacelab Life Sciences laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-41 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-40, the eleventh launch of Space Shuttle Columbia, was a nine-day mission in June 1991. It carried the Spacelab module for Spacelab Life Sciences 1 (SLS-1), the fifth Spacelab mission and the first dedicated solely to biology.

The mission featured the most detailed and interrelated physiological measurements in space since 1973-1974 Skylab missions. Subjects were humans, 30 rodents and thousands of tiny jellyfish. Primary SLS-1 experiments studied six body systems; of 18 investigations, ten involved humans, seven involved rodents, and one used jellyfish.

Six body systems investigated were cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary (heart, lungs and blood vessels); renal/endocrine (kidneys and hormone-secreting organs and glands); blood (blood plasma); immune system (white blood cells); musculoskeletal (muscles and bones); and neurovestibular (brains and nerves, eyes and inner ear). Other payloads included twelve Getaway Special (GAS) canisters installed on GAS bridge in cargo bay for experiments in materials science, plant biology and cosmic radiation; Middeck Zero-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE); and seven Orbiter Experiments (OEXs).
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==STS-42==
[[Image:STS-43 Launch - GPN-2000-000731.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-43crew.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|Crew members pose for on-orbit portrait in the middeck of ''Atlantis''. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1991 s43 Atlantis over Florida.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|''Atlantis'' passes over Florida. SHARE-II is prominent on the left. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-43, the forty-second space shuttle mission overall, the ninth mission for Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', was a nine-day mission to test an advanced heatpipe radiator for potential use on the then-future space station, conduct a variety of medical and materials science investigations, and conduct astronaut photography of Earth. Launch date: 2 August 1991, 15:01:59 UTC, launch site	Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 11 August 1991, 12:23:25 UTC, landing site: Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 15.

On the left, the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' streaks skyward as sunlight pierces through the gap between the orbiter and ET assembly. ''Atlantis'' lifted off on the 42nd space shuttle flight at 11:02 a.m. EDT on August 2, 1991 carrying a crew of five and TDRS-E. A remote camera at the 275-foot level of the Fixed Surface Structure took this picture.

STS-43 crewmembers pose for on-orbit (in space) portrait on the middeck of ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104. At the left side of the frame are the forward lockers and at the right is the open airlock hatch. In between and in front of the starboard wall-mounted sleep restraints are (left to right) Mission Specialist (MS) G. David Low, MS Shannon W. Lucid, MS James C. Adamson, Commander John E. Blaha, and Pilot Michael A. Baker.

Other experiments included Auroral Photography Experiment (APE-B) Protein Crystal Growth Ill (PCG Ill); Bioserve / Instrumentation Technology Associates Materials Dispersion Apparatus (BIMDA); Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP); Space Acceleration Measurement System (SAMS); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Ultraviolet Plume imager (UVPI); and the Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS) experiment.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-43.html|title=NASA - STS-43}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Instruments:
# Optical Communications Through Windows (OCTW)
# Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE)
# Space Station Heat Pipe Advanced Radiator Element (SHARE II)
# Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultra-Violet (SSBUV)
# Tank Pressure Control Equipment (TPCE)
{{clear}}

==STS-43==
[[Image:STS48 launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-48. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-48 was a Space Shuttle mission that launched on 12 September 1991, 23:11:04 UTC, from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The orbiter was Space Shuttle ''Discovery''. The mission landed on 18 September at 12:38 a.m. EDT at Edwards Air Force Base on runway 22.

Names: Space Transportation System-43.

NSSDCA ID: 1991-063A, launch date: 1991-09-12.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Ascent Particle Monitor (APM)
# Cosmic Ray Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing (IPMP)
# Middeck 0-Gravity Dynamics Experiment (MODE)
# Physiological and Anatomical Rodent Experiment (PARE)
# Protein Crystal Growth (PCG II-2)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
{{clear}}

==STS-44==
[[Image:STS-044 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-44 ''Atlantis'', Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 104, soars into the evening darkness after liftoff from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) Launch Complex (LC) Pad at 6:44 pm (Eastern Standard Time (EST)). Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S44-72-084 - STS-044 - Earth observations taken during the STS-44 mission - DPLA - 6072e1427cecd676cbb4906ffa68900f.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Low oblique photograph was taken from ''Atlantis'' of clouds over the Indian Ocean. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Yuri eye.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This spectacular, low-oblique photograph shows the bowl-shaped eye (center of photograph) of Typhoon Yuri in the western Pacific Ocean just west of the Northern Mariana Islands. Credit: NASA STS-44 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-44 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using ''Atlantis'' that launched on 24 November 1991, 23:44:00 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, landing date: 1 December 1991, 22:34:12 UTC, landing site: Edwards Air Force Base, Runway 5. NSSDCA ID: 1991-080A, launch date: 1991-11-24.

Names: Space Transportation System-44.

The clouds over the Indian Ocean were photographed at tilt: Low Oblique cldp: 50, -24.2°N latitude, 89.8°N longitude, azimuth: 103°, 198 km altitude, elevation: 52°.

In the second image down on the right, the eye wall descends almost to the sea surface, a distance of nearly 45 000 feet (13 800 meters). In this case the eye is filled with clouds, but in many cases the sea surface can be seen through the eye. Yuri grew to super typhoon status, packing maximum sustained winds estimated at 165 miles (270 kilometers) per hour, with gusts reaching an estimated 200 miles (320 kilometers) per hour. The storm moved west toward the Philippine Islands before turning northeast into the north Pacific Ocean, thus avoiding any major landmass.

Instruments:
# Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS)
# Bioreactor Flow
# Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM)
# Extended Duration Orbiter Medical Project
# Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO)
# Interim Operational Contamination Monitor (IOCM)
# Military Man in Space (M88-1)
# Radiation Monitoring Equipment (RME III)
# Shuttle Activation Monitor (SAM)
# Terra-Scout
# Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI)
# Visual Function Tester (VFT-1)
{{clear}}

==STS-45==
[[Image:S42-50-022 - STS-042 - STS-42 Earth observations - DPLA - 89f59f2368ab90105ca9847ed651ae57.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Kunlun Mountains are in Tibet at lat: 36°N lon: 91°E. Credit: NASA STS-45 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-42/IML 1, NSSDCA ID: 1992-002A. launch date: 1992-01-22. Space Shuttle Mission STS-42 was the 45th Shuttle flight and the 15th flight of ''Discovery''.

&quot;The main objective of STS-42 was to carry out the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 (IML-1) mission, a collection of life science and microgravity experiments developed by more than 200 scientists from 16 countries. The IML-1 was the first in a series of IML missions planned to fly aboard the Space Shuttle this decade. In addition the the IML-1 module, STS-42 also carried 12 Get Away Special containers containing experiments ranging from materials processing work to investigations into the development of animal life in weightlessness. Two experiments from the Space Shuttle Student Involvement Program, Convection in Zero Gravity and Zero-G Capillary Rise of Liquid Through Granular Porous Media, were also flown. On ''Discovery'''s lower deck, the Investigation into Polymer Membrane Processing investigated advances in filtering technologies in microgravity, and the Radiation Monitoring Equipment-III recorded radiation levels in the crew cabin. The spacecraft maintained a gravity gradient orientation with its nose pointed to space and its tail to Earth in order to minimize firings of the Shuttle's small steering thrusters, thus avoiding disturbances to onboard experiments.&quot;&lt;ref name=Williams&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 42/IML 1
|publisher=Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-002A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-46==
[[Image:STS-45 payload.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab (ATLAS-1 laboratory) in the payload bay of ''Atlantis'' is shown. Credit: NASA STS-46 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-45 was a 1992 NASA Space Shuttle mission using the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'', Names: Space Transportation System-46. It was the 46th Space Shuttle mission and the 11th for ''Atlantis''. Launch date: 24 March 1992, 13:13:39 UTC, launch site: Kennedy Space Center, LC-39A, lLanding date: 2 April 1992, 11:23 UTC, landing site	Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-015A.&lt;ref name=STS-45&gt;https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/query&lt;/ref&gt;

STS-45 carried the first Spacelab (Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science) (ATLAS-1) experiments, placed on Spacelab pallets mounted in the orbiter's payload bay. The non-deployable payload, equipped with 12 instruments from the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, Switzerland, the Netherlands and Japan, conducted studies in atmospheric chemistry, solar radiation, space plasma physics and ultraviolet astronomy. ATLAS-1 instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS); Grille Spectrometer; Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS); Imaging Spectrometric Observatory (ISO); Atmospheric Lyman-Alpha Emissions (ALAE); Atmospheric Emissions Photometric Imager (AEPI); Space Experiments with Particle Accelerators (SEPAC); Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR); Measurement of Solar Constant (SOLCON); Solar Spectrum;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=26 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Solar Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM); and Far Ultraviolet Space Telescope (FAUST). Other payloads included the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV) experiment, a Get Away Special (GAS) experiment and six mid-deck experiments.
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==STS-47==

STS-49 was the NASA maiden flight of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'', which launched on 7 May 1992, Names: Space Transportation System-47.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-026A, launch date: 1992-05-07.

Other &quot;payloads of opportunity&quot; experiments conducted included: Commercial Protein Crystal Growth (CPCG), Ultraviolet Plume Imager (UVPI) and the Air Force Maui Optical Station (AMOS) investigation. Mission was extended two days to complete objectives.

==STS-48==
[[Image:Spacelab Module in Cargo Bay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, served as the United States Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-48 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-50 (U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1) was a NASA Space Shuttle mission, the 12th mission of the ''Columbia'' orbiter.

Names: Space Transportation System-48.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-034A, launch date: 1992-06-25.

&quot;Space Shuttle Mission STS 50 was the 48th Shuttle flight and the 12th flight of Columbia. [...] STS 50 carried the United States Microgravity Laboratory (USML 1), a Spacelab long module with an Extended Duration Orbiter (EDO) pallet in the aft cargo bay. The USML 1 consisted of 31 experiments ranging from the manufacture of crystals for possible semiconductor use to the study of the behavior of weightless fluids. STS 50 also carried the Investigations into Polymer Membrane Processing experiment and the Space Shuttle Amature Radio Experiment-II. Columbia landed July 9, 1992, at 11:43 a.m. UT on KSC's Shuttle Landing Facility Runway 33.&quot;&lt;ref name=WiiliamsSTS50&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 50/USML 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-034A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

''Columbia'''s &quot;stand-up&quot; orbital attitude, although ideal for microgravity experiments, was very far from optimal from the point of view of D&amp;M (Debris and Micrometeoroid) vulnerability. The orbiter received 40 radiation debris impacts, impacts on eight windows, and three impacts on the carbon-carbon wing leading edges.&lt;ref name=Young&gt;{{cite book|last=Young|first=John W.|title=Forever Young: A Life of Adventure in Air and Space|publisher=University Press of Florida|date=16 September 2012|chapter=22|page=432|{{isbn|978-0813042091}} }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-49==
[[Image:STS-46 Launch (19919136345).jpg|thumb|left|250px|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis''' STS-46 mission was launched on July 31, 1992, from the Kennedy Space Center. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-86-073 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - accaf9e431417caa6b584443309329cb.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Earth observation is from the shuttle orbiter ''Atlantis'' during STS-46 of Dominican Republic, lat. 20°, lon. -71°. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:S46-93-064 - STS-046 - Earth observations from the shuttle orbiter Atlantis during STS-46 - DPLA - 41e6ccb6ebaff54dbc92eb925055ae3c.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Vietnam, Dong Hoi coastal area is at lat: 17.5° lon: 105.8°, tilt: 15°, dir: N, azi: 83, alt: 124, elev: 34. Credit: NASA STS-49 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA ID: 1992-049A for STS-46 launch date 1992-07-31.

STS-46 was a NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' and was launched on July 31, 1992, 13:56:48 UTC, and landed on August 8, 1992, 13:11:50 UTC, at Kennedy Space Center, SLF Runway 33.

Names: Space Transportation System-49.

Secondary payloads included the Evaluation of Oxygen Integration with Materials/Thermal Management Processes (EOIM-III/TEMP 2A), Consortium for Materials Development in Space Complex Autonomous Payload (CONCAP II and CONCAP III), IMAX Cargo Bay Camera (ICBC), Limited Duration Space Environment Candidate Materials Exposure (LDCE), Pituitary Growth Hormone Cell Function (PHCF), and the Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).
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==STS-50==
[[Image:STS-047 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|STS-47 Endeavour, Orbiter Vehicle (OV) 105, lifts off from KSC. Credit: NASA.{{tlx||free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-47 payloadbay.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Part of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'''s payload bay and the Spacelab-J science module are shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Bosten-Lake (Bosten-See), Xinjiang, China, 87.00E, 42.00N.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Bosten Lake area in East Turkestan (Xinjiang) is shown. Credit: NASA STS-50 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-47 was the 50th NASA Space Shuttle mission of the program, as well as the second mission of the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''.

NSSDCA ID: 1992-061A.

&quot;STS 47 was the 50th Shuttle mission and flew as its primary payload Spacelab-J (SL-J), utilized pressurized Spacelab module. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, SL-J included 24 material science and 19 life sciences experiments, of which 34 were sponsored by NASDA, seven by NASA, and two collaborative efforts. The mission was extended one day to further science objectives. The materials science investigations covered such fields as biotechnology, electronic materials, fluid dynamics and transport phenomena, glasses and ceramics, metals and alloys, and acceleration measurements. The life sciences investigations covered human health, cell separation and biology, development biology, animal and human physiology and behavior, space radiation, and biological rhythms. Test subjects included the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 47
|publisher=NASA GSFC
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-061A
|accessdate=26 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Also flown in the payload bay were 12 Get Away Special (GAS) canisters (10 holding experiments, two for ballast) attached to a GAS Bridge Assembly. Middeck experiments included Israeli Space Agency Investigation about Hornets (USAIAH); Solid Surface Combustion Experiment (SSCE); Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment (SAREX II); Air Force Maui Optical Site (AMOS); and Ultraviolet Plume Instrument (UVPI).&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS47/&gt;

Camera location for the second image on the right was 42° 00′ 00″ N, 87° 00′ 00″ E, taken on 13 September 1992, 04:07:31.
{{clear}}

==STS-51==
[[Image:STS 52 Launch.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-52 was a ''Space Transportation System'' (NASA Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', and was launched on 22 October 1992.&lt;ref name=Ryba1992&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-52|work=Space Shuttle - Mission Archives |publisher=NASA|accessdate=22 April 2021|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422171154/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-52.html|date=31 March 2010 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

NSSDCA ID: 1992-070A, launch date: 1992-10-22. Names: Space Transportation System-51.

&quot;It carried the US Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) which contained several microgravity experimental packages. Among them were the growth of cadmium telluride crystals from vapor phase, growth of protein/enzyme crystals, and a number of high school experiments such as the clotting action of snake venom on blood plasma proteins, germination of Florida's official flower seeds, and microgravity effect on dry mustard seeds that were germinated after return. Also on-board were 6 rats that had been given anti-osteoporotic treatment with an experimental drug.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS52&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 52/USMP 1
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-070A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-52==
[[Image:STS-053 shuttle.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch of ''Discovery'' is for a United States Department of Defense (DoD) mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-53 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission in support of the United States Department of Defense (DoD). The mission was launched on 2 December 1992 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, United States.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1992-086A.

&quot;The secondary unclassified experiments include: (1) Shuttle Glow (GLO), to investigate Shuttle/space environment interactions; (2) Cryogenic Heat Pipe Experiment (CRYOHP), a joint DoD and NASA Hitchhiker experiment to test advanced technology to regect excess heat generated by infrared sensors; [...] (4) Battlefield Laser Acquisition Sensor Test (BLAST), an Army space project to demonstrate the use of spaceborne laser receivers to detect laser energy from ground test locations; (5) Cloud Logic to Optimize Use of Defense System (CLOUDS), a meteorological experiment to quantify the variation in apparent cloud cover as a function of orbital view angle; (6) Cosmic Radiation Effects and Activation Monitor (CREAM), an experiment designed to collect cosmic ray energy loss spectra, neutron fluxes, and induced radioactivity; (7) Fluid Acquisition and Resupply Equipment (FARE), an experimen t to investigate the dynamics of fluid transfer in space; (8) Hand-held, earth-oriented, Real-time, Cooperative, User-friendly, Location-targeting and Environmental System (HERCULES), a Naval Research Lab (NRL) experiment to enable a Shuttle astrionaut to point a camera at an Earth feature, record the image and determine the latitude and longitude of the feature; (10) Microencapsulation In Space (MIS), designed to incresae the knowledge of microencapsulated drug technology; (11) Radiation Monitoring Equipment -III (RME-III), an instrument to measure the exposure to ionizing radiation on the Shuttle; (12) Space Tissue Loss (STL), to study the effects of space on fragile life systems; and (13) Visual Function Tester - Model II (VFT-2), a series of vision performance experiments in space.&quot;&lt;ref name=WilliamsSTS53&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David R. Williams
|title=STS 53
|publisher=NASA Goddard Spaceflight Center
|location=Greenbelt, MD USA
|date=27 April 2022
|url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=1992-086A
|accessdate=25 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Names: Space Transportation System-52.
{{clear}}

==STS-53==

STS-54 was a NASA Space Transportation System (Space Shuttle) mission using Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. This was the third flight for ''Endeavour'', and was launched on 13 January 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-53.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-003A.
{{clear}}

==STS-54==
[[Image:STS056-91-054 - Payload bay view with ATLAS pallet (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Components of the Spacelab ATLAS-2 laboratory are shown in the payload bay of ''Discovery''. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS-56 Launch - GPN-2000-000748.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Launch shows STS-56. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS056-90-034 - SPARTAN-201 free-flying (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|SPARTAN-201 free-flying near STS-56. Credit: NASA STS-53 crew retouched by [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-54.

STS-56 was a NASA Space Shuttle Discovery mission to perform special experiments. The mission was launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 8 April 1993.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-023A.

The primary payload of the flight was the Spacelab Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), designed to collect data on the relationship between the Sun's energy output and Earth's middle atmosphere and how these factors affect the ozone layer. It included six instruments mounted on a Spacelab pallet in the cargo bay, with the seventh mounted on the wall of the bay in two Get Away Special (GAS) canisters. Atmospheric instruments included the Atmospheric Trace Molecule Spectroscopy (ATMOS) experiment, the Millimeter Wave Atmospheric Sounder (MAS), and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet (SSBUV/A) spectrometer (on the cargo bay wall). Solar science instruments were the solar spectrometry instrument SOLSPEC,&lt;ref name=&quot;SOLSPEC&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Background |url=http://solspec.projet.latmos.ipsl.fr/SOLSPEC_GB/Background.html |website=SOLSPEC |publisher=Institut Pierre Simon Laplace |accessdate=11 March 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; the Solar Ultraviolet Irradiance Monitor (SUSIM), and the Active Cavity Radiometer (ACR) and Solar Constant (SOLCON) experiments.&lt;ref name=Ryba&gt;{{cite web|last1=Ryba|first1=Jeanne|title=STS-56|url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/shuttle/shuttlemissions/archives/sts-56.html|publisher=NASA|accessdate=11 March 2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

ATLAS-2 is one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. All seven ATLAS-2 instruments first flew on Spacelab ATLAS-1 during STS-45, and flew a third time in late 1994 on STS-66.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;

On 11 April 1993, the crew used the remote manipulator arm (Canadarm) to deploy the Shuttle Point Autonomous Research Tool for Astronomy-201 (SPARTAN-201), a free-flying science instrument platform designed to study velocity and acceleration of the solar wind and observe the sun's corona. Collected data was stored on tape for playback after return to Earth. SPARTAN-201 was retrieved on 13 April 1993.&lt;ref name=Ryba/&gt;
{{clear}}

==STS-55==
[[Image:STS-55 Spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serves as the Spacelab D-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-55 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Names: Space Transportation System-55.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-027A.

Columbia carried to orbit the second reusable German Spacelab D-2 and demonstrated the shuttle's ability for international cooperation, exploration, and scientific research in space. The Spacelab module and an exterior experiment support structure contained in Columbia's payload bay comprised the Spacelab D-2 payload. The first German Spacelab flight, D-1, flew Shuttle mission STS-61-A in October 1985.

The crew worked in two shifts around-the-clock to complete investigations into the areas of fluid physics, materials sciences, life sciences, biological sciences, technology, Earth observations, atmospheric physics, and astronomy. Many of the experiments advanced the research of the D-1 mission by conducting similar tests, using upgraded processing hardware, or implementing methods that took full advantage of the technical advancements since 1985.
{{clear}}

==STS-56==
[[Image:STS057-89-042.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Endeavour'''s payload bay, with the Space habitat (SpaceHab) module (foreground), European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) (background), and astronauts David Low and Peter Wisoff performing an Extravehicular activity (EVA) (centre). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s57 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|Liftoff shows STS-51. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:EURECA berth STS-57.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) is stowed by ''Endeavour'''s remote manipulator system (Canadarm). Credit: NASA STS-56 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-57 was a NASA Space Shuttle-Spacehab mission of Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' that launched 21 June 1993 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-56.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-037A.

EURECA had been deployed from the Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'' in August 1992 (STS-46) and contained several experiments to study the long-term effects of exposure to microgravity.
{{clear}}

==STS-57==
[[Image:1993 s51 IMAX view of Discovery from Spas.JPG|thumb|right|250px|IMAX photography of ''Discovery'' in orbit, was viewed from the free-flying SPAS-ORFEUS astronomy platform. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 s51 Liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch was seen from the RSS. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:51 SPAS 04.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|250px|The ORFEUS/SPAS platform is captured by the Canadarm. Credit: NASA STS-57 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-51 was a NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'' mission. The flight featured the deployment and retrieval of the SPAS-ORFEUS satellite and its IMAX camera, which captured spectacular footage of ''Discovery'' in space.

Names: Space Transportation System-57.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-058A.
{{clear}}

==STS-58==
[[Image:STS058-92-064.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab module LM2 is in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the Spacelab Life Sciences-2 laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-58 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Sts-58 pad.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|''Columbia'' is on Pad 39B ready for launch. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-58 was a NASA mission flown by Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' launched from Kennedy Space Center, Florida, on 18 October 1993.

Names: Space Transportation System-58.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-065A.
{{clear}}

==STS-59==
[[Image:STS061-98-050 - Astronauts Musgrave and Hoffman during servicing of HST (Retouched).jpg|thumb|right|250px|Musgrave is being raised to the top of ''Hubble'' by Canadarm, as it sits in ''Endeavour'''s payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-59 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:1993 sts61 liftoff.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|left|250px|Launch shows the first ''Hubble'' servicing mission. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-61 was the first NASA Hubble Space Telescope servicing mission, and the fifth flight of the Space Shuttle Endeavour. The mission launched on 2 December 1993 from Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida.

Names: Space Transportation System-59.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1993-075A.
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==STS-60==
[[Image:Wake Shield Facility on STS-60 (STS060-74-054).jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Astrotech Corporation SPACEHAB-2 in ''Discovery'''s payload bay, as Canadarm grapples the Wake Shield Facility (WSF-1). Credit: NASA STS-60 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-60 was the first mission of the U.S./Russian Shuttle-Mir Program. The mission used NASA Space Shuttle ''Discovery'', which lifted off from Launch Pad 39A on 3 February 1994 from Kennedy Space Center, Florida. The mission carried the Wake Shield Facility experiment and a SPACEHAB module, developed by SPACEHAB Inc., into orbit.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-006A.

Names: Space Transportation System-60.
{{clear}}

==STS-61==
[[Image:1994_s62_Liftoff.jpg|thumb|left|250px|Liftoff shows ''Columbia'' on STS-62. Credit: NASA.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Typhoon Owen, STS-62.jpg|thumb|right|250px|''Columbia'' passes over Typhoon Owen. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-62 was a Space Shuttle program mission flown aboard Space Shuttle Columbia. The primary payloads were the USMP-02 microgravity experiments package and the OAST-2 engineering and technology payload, both in the orbiter's cargo bay. The two-week mission also featured a number of biomedical experiments focusing on the effects of long duration spaceflight.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-015A

Names: Space Transportation System-61.
{{clear}}

==STS-62==
[[Image:EndeavourPayloadBaySTS59.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Space Shuttle ''Endeavour'' is in orbit with SIR-C in its payload bay. Credit: NASA STS-61 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
STS-59 was a Space Shuttle program mission that took place in 1994. The launch was chronicled by the 1994 Discovery Channel special about the Space Shuttle program.

NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-020A.

Names: Space Transportation System-62.
{{clear}}

==STS-63==
[[Image:STS-65 spacelab.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spacelab Module LM1 in ''Columbia'''s payload bay, serving as the International Microgravity Laboratory. Credit: NASA STS-63 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
NSSDCA/COSPAR ID: 1994-039A.

Names: Space Transportation System-63.
{{clear}}

==Reflections==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reflections}}
[[Image:Ash and Steam Plume, Soufriere Hills Volcano, Montserrat.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-grey volcanic ash and steam plume extending westwards from the Soufriere Hills volcano. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Soufrière Hills, a volcano on the island of Montserrat, in the Lesser Antilles island chain in the Caribbean Sea, has been active since 1995. The most recent eruptive phase of the volcano began with a short swarm of volcano-tectonic earthquakes—earthquakes thought to be caused by movement of magma beneath a volcano—on October 4, 2009, followed by a series of ash-venting events that have continued through October 13, 2009. These venting events create plumes that can deposit ash at significant distances from the volcano. In addition to ash plumes, pyroclastic flows and lava dome growth have been reported as part of the current eruptive activity.

This oblique astronaut photograph from the International Space Station (ISS) captures a white-to-gray ash and steam plume extending westwards from the volcano on October 11, 2009. Oblique images are taken by astronauts looking out from the ISS at an angle, rather than looking straight downward toward the Earth (a perspective called a nadir view), as is common with most remotely sensed data from satellites. An oblique view gives the scene a more three-dimension quality, and provides a look at the vertical structure of the volcanic plume.

While much of the island is covered in green vegetation, gray deposits that include pyroclastic flows and volcanic mudflows (lahars) are visible extending from the volcano toward the coastline. When compared to its extent in earlier views, the volcanic debris has filled in more of the eastern coastline. Urban areas are visible in the northern and western portions of the island; they are recognizable by linear street patterns and the presence of bright building rooftops. The silver-gray appearance of the Caribbean Sea surface is due to sunglint, which is the mirror-like reflection of sunlight off the water surface back towards the handheld camera onboard the ISS. The sunglint highlights surface wave patterns around the island.
{{clear}}

==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals}}
[[Image:El Misti Volcano and Arequipa, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This mosaic of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. Credit: This image was taken by the NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This mosaic on the right of two astronaut photographs illustrates the closeness of Arequipa, Peru, to the 5,822-meter-high El Misti Volcano. The city centre of Arequipa, Peru, lies only 17 kilometres away from the summit of El Misti; the grey urban area is bordered by green agricultural fields (image left). Much of the building stone for Arequipa, known locally as sillar, is quarried from nearby pyroclastic flow deposits that are white. Arequipa is known as “the White City” because of the prevalence of this building material. The Chili River extends north-eastwards from the city centre and flows through a canyon (image right) between El Misti volcano and Nevado Chachani to the north.
{{clear}}

==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues}}
[[Image:Ifalik ISS021.png|thumb|right|250px|NASA astronaut image is of Ifalik Atoll, Yap State, Federated States of Micronesia. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Ifalik is a coral atoll of four islands in the central Caroline Islands in the Pacific Ocean, and forms a legislative district in Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia. Ifalik is located approximately {{convert|40|km|mi}} east of Woleai and {{convert|700|km|mi}} southeast of the island of Yap. The population of Ifalik was 561 in 2000,&lt;ref&gt;{{cite web|website=The Pacific Community|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924233537/http://www.spc.int/prism/country/fm/stats/Census%20%26%20Surveys/2000/Yap-BT.pdf
|title=Census &amp; Surveys: 2000: Yap|accessdate=4 September 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt; living on 1.5&amp;nbsp;km&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;. The primary islets of Ifalik are called Ella, Elangelap, Rawaii, and Falalop, which is the atoll's main island.&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.pacificweb.org/DOCS/fsm/Yap2000Census/2000%20Yap%20Census%20Report_Final.pdf Pacificweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

The total land area of Ifalik is only {{convert|1.47 |km2|sqmi}}, but it encloses a {{convert|20|m|ft}} deep lagoon of {{convert|2.43|km2|sqmi}}.&lt;ref&gt;Otis W. Freeman, ed., Geography of the Pacific, Wiley 1953&lt;/ref&gt; The total area is about six square kilometers.&lt;ref&gt;[ftp://rock.geosociety.org/pub/reposit/2001/2001075.pdf Geosociety], January 2020, InternetArchiveBot&lt;/ref&gt;

Ifalik is known as a “warrior island”. Prior to European contact, its warriors invaded the outer islands in Yap as well as some of the outer islands in Chuuk. Atolls under the attack included, Lamotrek, Faraulep, Woleai, Elato, Satawal, Ulithi, and Poluwat (outer islet of Chuuk).
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==Greens==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Greens}}
[[Image:ISS021-E-15710 Pearl Harbor, Hawaii.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph illustrates the southern coastline of the Hawaiian island Oahu, including Pearl Harbor. Credit: ISS Expedition 21 Crew Earth Observations.{{tlx|free media}}]]
A comparison between this image and a 2003 astronaut photograph of Pearl Harbor suggests that little observable land use or land cover change has occurred in the area over the past six years. The most significant difference is the presence of more naval vessels in the Reserve Fleet anchorage in Middle Loch (image center). The urban areas of Waipahu, Pearl City, and Aliamanu border the harbor to the northwest, north, and east. The built-up areas, recognizable by linear streets and white rooftops, contrast sharply with the reddish volcanic soils and green vegetation on the surrounding hills.
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges}}
[[Image:Northern Savage Island, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Selvagem Grande, with an approximate area of 4 square kilometres, is the largest of the Savage Islands. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Ounianga Lakes from ISS.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This astronaut photograph features one of the largest of a series of ten mostly fresh water lakes in the Ounianga Basin in the heart of the Sahara Desert of northeastern Chad. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Southern Savage Islands, Atlantic Ocean.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The irregularly-shaped Ilhéus do Norte, Ilhéu de Fora, and Selvagem Pequena are visible in the centre of the image. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Selvagem Grande Island is part of the Savage Islands archipelago, which themselves are part of the Portuguese Autonomous Region of Madeira in the North Atlantic Ocean.

The island ({{convert|2000|x|1700|m}}) belongs to the northeast group of the Savage Islands, which comprises in addition three islets: Sinho Islet, Palheiro de Terra and Palheiro do Mar.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot; /&gt;

It is generally flat, but has three summits, remnants of former volcanic cones appropriately named Atalaia, Tornozelos and Inferno, Atalaia being the highest of the three, reaching {{convert|163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} in altitude.&lt;ref name=&quot;NatGeoReport&quot;&gt;{{cite web |title=Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem Health of Ilhas Selvagens, Portugal |url=https://media.nationalgeographic.org/assets/file/PristineSeasSelvagensScientificReport.pdf |publisher=National Geographic Society |accessdate=4 November 2020}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The lakes in the image on the left are remnants of a single large lake, probably tens of kilometers long, that once occupied this remote area approximately 14,800 to 5,500 years ago. As the climate dried out during the subsequent millennia, the lake shrank, and large, wind-driven sand dunes invaded the original depression, dividing it into several smaller basins.
The area shown in this image is approximately 11 by 9 kilometers. The lakes’ dark surfaces are almost completely segregated by linear, orange sand dunes that stream into the depression from the northeast. The almost-year-round northeast winds and cloudless skies make for very high evaporation rates; an evaporation rate of more than 6 meters per year has been measured in one of the nearby lakes. Despite this, only one of the ten lakes is saline.

In the second image down on the right, the other Savage islands are ringed by bright white breaking waves along the fringing beaches.
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds}}
[[Image:Ankara, Turkey.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The central portion of the capital city of Turkey, Ankara, is featured in this astronaut photograph. Hill slopes around the city (image left and right) are fairly green due to spring rainfall. One of the most striking aspects of the urban area is the almost uniform use of red brick roofing tiles, which contrast with lighter-coloured roads; the contrast is particularly evident in the northern (image lower left) and southern (image upper right) portions of the city. Numerous parks are visible as green patches interspersed within the red-roofed urban region. A region of cultivated fields in the western portion of the city (image centre) is a recreational farming area known as the Atatürk Forest Farm and Zoo—an interesting example of intentional preservation of a former land use within an urban area.
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==Capes==
[[Image:Cape canaveral.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Cape Canaveral, Florida, and the NASA John F. Kennedy Space Center are shown in this near-vertical photograph. Credit: NASA STS-43 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;piece or point of land, extending beyond the adjacent coast into a sea or lake&quot;&lt;ref name=CapeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|title=cape
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2014
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/cape
|accessdate=2014-12-20 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''cape'''.
{{clear}}

==Coastlines==
[[Image:Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Dalmatian Coastline near Split, Croatia, is shown. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
In this image on the right, a thin zone of disturbed water (tan patches) marking a water boundary appears in the Adriatic Sea between Split and the island of Brač. It may be a plankton bloom or a line of convergence between water masses, which creates rougher water.
{{clear}}

==Craters==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Craters}}
[[Image:ISS020-E-026195 Aorounga Impact Crater Chad.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Mount Tambora Volcano, Sumbawa Island, Indonesia.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph depicts the summit caldera of the Mount Tambora. Credit: NASA ISS Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph on the right. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.

Aorounga Impact Crater is located in the Sahara Desert, in north-central Chad, and is one of the best preserved impact structures in the world. The crater is thought to be middle or upper Devonian to lower Mississippian (approximately 345–370 million years old) based on the age of the sedimentary rocks deformed by the impact. Spaceborne Imaging Radar (SIR) data collected in 1994 suggests that Aorounga is one of a set of three craters formed by the same impact event. The other two suggested impact structures are buried by sand deposits.

The concentric ring structure of the Aorounga crater—renamed Aorounga South in the multiple-crater interpretation of SIR data—is clearly visible in this detailed astronaut photograph. The central highland, or peak, of the crater is surrounded by a small sand-filled trough; this in turn is surrounded by a larger circular trough. Linear rock ridges alternating with light orange sand deposits cross the image from upper left to lower right; these are called yardangs by geomorphologists. Yardangs form by wind erosion of exposed rock layers in a unidirectional wind field. The wind blows from the northeast at Aorounga, and sand dunes formed between the yardangs are actively migrating to the southwest.
{{clear}}

==Glaciology==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cryometeors}}
[[Image:Upsala Glacier, Argentina.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. Credit: NASA Expedition 21 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Southern Patagonian Icefield of Argentina and Chile is the southern remnant of the Patagonia Ice Sheet that covered the southern Andes Mountains during the last ice age. This detailed astronaut photograph on the right illustrates the terminus of one of the ice-field’s many spectacular glaciers—Upsala Glacier, located on the eastern side of the ice-field.

This image was taken during spring in the Southern Hemisphere, and icebergs were calving from the glacier terminus into the waters of Lago Argentino (Lake Argentina, image right). Two icebergs are especially interesting because they retain fragments of the moraine (rock debris) that forms a dark line along the upper surface of the glacier. The inclusion of the moraine illustrates how land-based rocks and sediment may wind up in ocean sediments far from shore.

Moraines are formed from rock and soil debris that accumulate along the front and sides of a flowing glacier. The glacier is like a bulldozer that pushes soil and rock in front of it, leaving debris on either side. When two glaciers merge (image centre), moraines along their edges can join to form a medial moraine that is drawn out along the upper surface of the new glacier.
{{clear}}

==Lakes==
[[Image:STS001-012-0363 - View of China (Retouched).tif|thumb|right|250px|View shows the lake Jieze Caka in Tibet. Credit: NASA STS-1 crew, [[c:user:Askeuhd|Askeuhd]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:STS002-13-274 - View of China.jpg|thumb|left|250px|The image shows Bangong Lake in Himalaya, China. Credit: STS-2 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large, [landlocked]&lt;ref name=LakeWikt1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Paul G|Paul G]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 December 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; stretch of water&quot;&lt;ref name=LakeWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:Polyglot|Polyglot]]
|title=lake
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 July 2003
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/lake
|accessdate=15 July 2022 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''lake'''.

The image on the right show the Tibetan plateau containing lake Jieze Caka.
{{clear}}

==Mountains==
[[Image:Saint Helena Island.jpg|thumb|250px|right|This astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. Credit: NASA Expedition 19 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' a &quot;large mass of earth and rock, rising above the common level of the earth or adjacent land, usually given by geographers as above 1000 feet in height (or 304.8 metres), though such masses may still be described as hills in comparison with larger mountains&quot;&lt;ref name=MountainWikt&gt;{{ cite book
|author=[[wikt:User:92.7.198.35|92.7.198.35]]
|title=mountain
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=9 January 2011
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/mountain
|accessdate=2014-12-14 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''mountain'''.

The image on the right was acquired by astronauts onboard the International Space Station as part of an ongoing effort (the HMS Beagle Project) to document current biodiversity in areas visited by Charles Darwin.

Saint Helena Island, located in the South Atlantic Ocean approximately 1,860 kilometers (1,156 miles) west of Africa, was one of the many isolated islands that naturalist Charles Darwin visited during his scientific voyages in the nineteenth century. He visited the island in 1836 aboard the HMS Beagle, recording observations of the plants, animals, and geology that would shape his theory of evolution.

The astronaut photograph shows the island’s sharp peaks and deep ravines; the rugged topography results from erosion of the volcanic rocks that make up the island. The change in elevation from the coast to the interior creates a climate gradient. The higher, wetter center is covered with green vegetation, whereas the lower coastal areas are drier and hotter, with little vegetation cover. Human presence on the island has also caused dramatic changes to the original plants and animals of the island. Only about 10 percent of the forest cover observed by the first explorers now remains in a semi-natural state, concentrated in the interior highlands.
{{clear}}

==Rock structures==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Rocks}}
[[Image:Big Thomson Mesa, Capitol Reef National Park, Utah.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
This detailed astronaut photograph on the right shows part of Big Thomson Mesa, near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park. Capitol Reef National Park is located on the Colorado Plateau, which occupies the adjacent quarters of Arizona, Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. Big Thomson Mesa (image left) is part of a large feature known as the en:Waterpocket Fold. The Fold is a geologic structure called a monocline—layers of generally flat-lying sedimentary rock with a steep, one-sided bend, like a carpet runner draped over a stair step. Geologists think that monoclines on the Colorado Plateau result from faulting (cracking) of deeper and more brittle crystalline rocks under tectonic pressure; while the crystalline rocks were broken into raised or lowered blocks, the overlaying, less brittle sedimentary rocks were flexed without breaking.

The portion of the Waterpocket Fold illustrated in this image includes layered rocks formed during the Mesozoic Era (about 250 – 65 million years ago). The oldest layers are at the bottom of the sequence, with each successive layer younger than the preceding one going upwards in the sequence. Not all of the formation’s rock layers are clearly visible, but some of the major layers (units to geologists) can be easily distinguished. The top half of the image includes the oldest rocks in the view: dark brown and dark green Moenkopi and Chinle Formations. Moving toward the foot of the mesa, two strikingly coloured units are visible near image centre: light red to orange Wingate Sandstone and white Navajo Sandstone. Beyond those units, reddish brown to brown Carmel Formation and Entrada Sandstone occupy a topographic bench at the foot of a cliff. The top of the cliff face above this bench—Big Thomson Mesa—is comprised of brown Dakota Sandstone. This sequence represents more than 100 million years of sediments being deposited and turned into rock. Much younger Quaternary (2-million- to approximately 10,000-year-old) deposits are also present in the view.

The area shown in this astronaut photograph is located approximately 65 kilometers to the southeast of Fruita, UT near the southern end of Capitol Reef National Park.
{{clear}}

==Volcanoes==
[[Image:Mount Hood, Oregon.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Gray volcanic deposits from Mount Hood extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left). Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Teide Volcano, Canary Islands, Spain.jpg|thumb|left|250px|This detailed astronaut photograph features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island. Credit: NASA Expedition 20 crew.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Gray volcanic deposits extend southwards along the banks of the White River (image lower left) and form several prominent ridges along the south-east to south-west flanks of the volcano. The deposits contrast sharply with the green vegetation on the lower flanks of the volcano. North is to the right.

The detailed astronaut photograph on the left features two stratovolcanoes—Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo—located on Tenerife Island, part of the Canary Islands of Spain. Stratovolcanoes are steep-sided, typically conical volcanoes formed by interwoven layers of lava and fragmented rock material from explosive eruptions. Pico de Teide has a relatively sharp peak, whereas an explosion crater forms the summit of Pico Viejo. The two stratovolcanoes formed within an even larger volcanic structure known as the Las Cañadas caldera. A caldera is a large collapse depression usually formed when a major eruption completely empties the magma chamber underlying a volcano. The last eruption of Teide occurred in 1909. Sinuous flow levees marking individual lava flows are perhaps the most striking volcanic features visible in the image. Flow levees are formed when the outer edges of a channelized lava flow cool and harden while the still-molten interior continues to flow downhill. Numerous examples radiate outwards from the peaks of both Pico de Teide and Pico Viejo. Brown to tan overlapping lava flows and domes are visible to the east-south-east of the Teide stratovolcano.
{{clear}}

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Gravitationals|Gravitational astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Radars|Radar astronomy]]
* [[Radio astronomy]]
* [[Submillimeter astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Superluminals|Superluminal astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Is all this information too much? There's an condensed version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===
{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}

===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|date=March 2014|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=RE|last2=Roberts|first2=CR|last3=Chan|first3=W|date=April 2009|title=One-year incidence of psychiatric disorders and associated risk factors among adolescents in the community.|journal=Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines|volume=50|issue=4|pages=405-15|pmid=19175820}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|date=NaN|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States
|General Population
|9% &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).


==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Inter-rater reliability
!Test-retest reliability
!Construct validity
!Content validity
!Where to Access
|-
|[[wikipedia:Liebowitz_social_anxiety_scale|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|U
|U
|G
|E&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999/01|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-liebowitz-social-anxiety-scale/6891D37D00A9BEC179E61C8BFF30F08A|journal=Psychological Medicine|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|doi=10.1017/s0033291798007879|issn=1469-8978}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/2y3cq/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Norman|first=Sonya B.|last2=Cissell|first2=Shadha Hami|last3=Means-Christensen|first3=Adrienne J.|last4=Stein|first4=Murray B.|date=2006|title=Development and validation of an Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16688739|journal=Depression and Anxiety|volume=23|issue=4|pages=245–249|doi=10.1002/da.20182|issn=1091-4269|pmid=16688739}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|
|10-15 minutes
|
|
|
|
|
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/bkvj2/?action=download%26mode=render OASIS printable PDF]
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_Inventory|Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|NA
|A
|G
|G
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/svn9x/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF] 
|-
|Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F.|last2=Moffitt|first2=Catherine E.|last3=Gray|first3=Jennifer|date=2005-03|title=Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=43|issue=3|pages=309–322|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F|last2=Yim|first2=Letitia|last3=Moffitt|first3=Catherine|last4=Umemoto|first4=Lori A|last5=Francis|first5=Sarah E|date=2000-08|title=Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: a revised child anxiety and depression scale|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=38|issue=8|pages=835–855|doi=10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
|
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

&lt;li&gt;[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/s3fu2/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Child Self-reported (8-18 years)]&lt;/li&gt;*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

'''[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]'''

*
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_and_Anxiety_Inventory-Brief_form|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|A
|E
|E
|Not free
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC)
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|E
|G
|E
|Not free
|}

'''Note:''' '''L'''= Less than adequate; '''A'''= Adequate; '''G'''= Good; '''E'''= Excellent; '''U'''= Unavailable; '''NA'''= Not applicable

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
| E
| E
| E
| E
| 
|
* [http://www.excellenceforchildandyouth.ca/resource-hub. Website]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
| A
| G
| G
| G
| 
|
|Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=2018-06|editor-last=Hunsley|editor-first=John|editor2-last=Mash|editor2-first=Eric J.|title=A Guide to Assessments That Work|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001|journal=Oxford Clinical Psychology|doi=10.1093/med-psych/9780190492243.001.0001}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Semi-structured Interview
|Adults (Ages 18+)
|1-2 hours
| -Available for purchase from [https://www.appi.org/products/structured-clinical-interview-for-dsm-5-scid-5 APA Publishing] (Note: Not free)
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
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==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Is all this information too much? There's an condensed version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===
{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}

===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|date=March 2014|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=RE|last2=Roberts|first2=CR|last3=Chan|first3=W|date=April 2009|title=One-year incidence of psychiatric disorders and associated risk factors among adolescents in the community.|journal=Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines|volume=50|issue=4|pages=405-15|pmid=19175820}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|date=NaN|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States
|General Population
|9% &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).


==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Inter-rater reliability
!Test-retest reliability
!Construct validity
!Content validity
!Where to Access
|-
|[[wikipedia:Liebowitz_social_anxiety_scale|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|U
|U
|G
|E&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999/01|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-liebowitz-social-anxiety-scale/6891D37D00A9BEC179E61C8BFF30F08A|journal=Psychological Medicine|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|doi=10.1017/s0033291798007879|issn=1469-8978}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/2y3cq/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Norman|first=Sonya B.|last2=Cissell|first2=Shadha Hami|last3=Means-Christensen|first3=Adrienne J.|last4=Stein|first4=Murray B.|date=2006|title=Development and validation of an Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16688739|journal=Depression and Anxiety|volume=23|issue=4|pages=245–249|doi=10.1002/da.20182|issn=1091-4269|pmid=16688739}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|
|10-15 minutes
|
|
|
|
|
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/bkvj2/?action=download%26mode=render OASIS printable PDF]
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_Inventory|Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|NA
|A
|G
|G
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/svn9x/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF] 
|-
|Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F.|last2=Moffitt|first2=Catherine E.|last3=Gray|first3=Jennifer|date=2005-03|title=Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=43|issue=3|pages=309–322|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F|last2=Yim|first2=Letitia|last3=Moffitt|first3=Catherine|last4=Umemoto|first4=Lori A|last5=Francis|first5=Sarah E|date=2000-08|title=Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: a revised child anxiety and depression scale|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=38|issue=8|pages=835–855|doi=10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
|
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

&lt;li&gt;[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/s3fu2/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Child Self-reported (8-18 years)]&lt;/li&gt;*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

'''[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]'''

*
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_and_Anxiety_Inventory-Brief_form|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|A
|E
|E
|Not free
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC)
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|E
|G
|E
|Not free
|}

'''Note:''' '''L'''= Less than adequate; '''A'''= Adequate; '''G'''= Good; '''E'''= Excellent; '''U'''= Unavailable; '''NA'''= Not applicable

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
| E
| E
| E
| E
| 
|
* [http://www.excellenceforchildandyouth.ca/resource-hub. Website]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
| A
| G
| G
| G
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Psychological disorder portfolios|{{SUBPAGENAME}}]]
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{{medical disclaimer}}
{{:{{ROOTPAGENAME}}/Sidebar}}

==[[Evidence based assessment/Portfolio template/What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;|'''What is a &quot;portfolio&quot;?''']]==
* For background information on what assessment portfolios are, click the link in the heading above.
* Is all this information too much? There's an condensed version of this page [[Evidence-based assessment/Social anxiety disorder (disorder portfolio)|here]].

== [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase|'''Preparation phase''']] ==
=== Diagnostic criteria for phobic anxiety disorders ===
{{blockquotetop}}
&lt;big&gt;'''ICD-11 Diagnostic Criteria for Social Anxiety Disorder'''&lt;/big&gt;
*Social anxiety disorder is characterized by marked and excessive fear or anxiety that consistently occurs in one or more social situations such as social interactions (e.g., having a conversation), being observed (e.g., eating or drinking), or performing in front of others (e.g., giving a speech). The individual is concerned that he or she will act in a way, or show anxiety symptoms, that will be negatively evaluated by others. The social situations are consistently avoided or else endured with intense fear or anxiety. The symptoms persist for at least several months and are sufficiently severe to result in significant distress or significant impairment in personal, family, social, educational, occupational, or other important areas of functioning.

&lt;big&gt;'''Changes in DSM-5'''&lt;/big&gt;
* The diagnostic criteria for simple phobia changed slightly from [[DSM-IV]] to [[w:Diagnostic_and_Statistical_Manual_of_Mental_Disorders#DSM-IV-TR_.282000.29|DSM-5]]. Summaries are available [http://www.dsm5.org/Documents/changes%20from%20dsm-iv-tr%20to%20dsm-5.pdf here] and [[w:DSM-5|here]].
{{blockquotebottom}}

===Base rates of social phobia in different clinical settings===
This section describes the demographic setting of the population(s) sampled, base rates of diagnosis, country/region sampled and the diagnostic method that was used. Using this information, clinicians will be able to anchor the rate of social anxiety disorder they are likely to see in their clinical practice.
* '''''To see prevalence rates across multiple disorders,''''' [[Evidence based assessment/Preparation phase#Base rates for transdiagnostic comparison|'''''click here.''''']]

{|class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Demography
! Setting
! Base Rate
! Diagnostic Method
|-
| Rhode Island
| The Rhode Island Methods to Improve Diagnostic Assessment and Services (MIDAS) project. Psychiatric outpatient practice sample (n=859)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Zimmerman|first=Mark|last2=Morgan|first2=Theresa A.|last3=Young|first3=Diane|last4=Chelminski|first4=Iwona|last5=Dalrymple|first5=Kristy|last6=Walsh|first6=Emily|date=December 2015|title=Does Borderline Personality Disorder Manifest Itself Differently in Patients With Bipolar Disorder and Major Depressive Disorder?|url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25248008|journal=Journal of Personality Disorders|volume=29|issue=6|pages=847–853|doi=10.1521/pedi_2014_28_169|issn=1943-2763|pmid=25248008}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 27.8%
| SIDP-IV
|-
| Oakland, California
| Representative probability within primary care group sample ages 18-70 (n=1001)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Olfson|first1=M|last2=Kroenke|first2=K|last3=Wang|first3=S|last4=Blanco|first4=C|title=Trends in office-based mental health care provided by psychiatrists and primary care physicians.|journal=The Journal of clinical psychiatry|date=March 2014|volume=75|issue=3|pages=247-53|pmid=24717378}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 3%
| SCID
|-
| All of U.S.A.
|National Comorbidity Survey Replication (NCS-R). Nationally representative household survey, community sample of adults ages 18+ (n=9282).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ruscio|first1=AM|last2=Brown|first2=TA|last3=Chiu|first3=WT|last4=Sareen|first4=J|last5=Stein|first5=MB|last6=Kessler|first6=RC|date=January 2008|title=Social fears and social phobia in the USA: results from the National Comorbidity Survey Replication.|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=38|issue=1|pages=15-28|pmid=17976249}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 12.1% (lifetime) 
7.1% (12-month)
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview
|-
| All of U.S.A.
| NCS Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A) for ages 13 to 17. Community sample, (n=6243).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kessler|first1=RC|last2=Avenevoli|first2=S|last3=McLaughlin|first3=KA|last4=Green|first4=JG|last5=Lakoma|first5=MD|last6=Petukhova|first6=M|last7=Pine|first7=DS|last8=Sampson|first8=NA|last9=Zaslavsky|first9=AM|date=September 2012|title=Lifetime co-morbidity of DSM-IV disorders in the US National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement (NCS-A).|journal=Psychological medicine|volume=42|issue=9|pages=1997-2010|pmid=22273480|last10=Merikangas|first10=KR}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 11.2% 
Males 6.2% 
Total 8.6%
| WHO-CIDI Clinical Interview, modified to simplify language and use examples relevant to adolescents.
|-
| Western North Carolina.
| The Great Smoky Mountains Study (GSMS). Longitudinal, community sample of children ages 9 to 16 (n=6674)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mustillo|first1=S|last2=Worthman|first2=C|last3=Erkanli|first3=A|last4=Keeler|first4=G|last5=Angold|first5=A|last6=Costello|first6=EJ|date=April 2003|title=Obesity and psychiatric disorder: developmental trajectories.|journal=Pediatrics|volume=111|issue=4 Pt 1|pages=851-9|pmid=12671123}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Females 0.8% 
Males 0.3% 
Total 0.5%
| CAPA
|-
| Houston, Texas metropolitan area.
| Teen Health 2000 (TH2K). Community sample in large, metropolitan area, ages 11 to 17 (n=4,175).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=RE|last2=Roberts|first2=CR|last3=Chan|first3=W|date=April 2009|title=One-year incidence of psychiatric disorders and associated risk factors among adolescents in the community.|journal=Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines|volume=50|issue=4|pages=405-15|pmid=19175820}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 1.6%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Puerto Rico
| Representative household probability community sample, ages 4 to 17 (n=1886)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Ortega|first1=AN|last2=Goodwin|first2=RD|last3=McQuaid|first3=EL|last4=Canino|first4=G|title=Parental mental health, childhood psychiatric disorders, and asthma attacks in island Puerto Rican youth.|journal=Ambulatory pediatrics : the official journal of the Ambulatory Pediatric Association|date=NaN|volume=4|issue=4|pages=308-15|pmid=15264963}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 2.8%
| DISC-IV
|-
| Children referred to Anxiety Disorders clinic
| Child and Adolescent Anxiety Disorders outpatient research clinic, ages 8 to 13 with anxiety disorder diagnosis (n=199).&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Verduin|first1=TL|last2=Kendall|first2=PC|date=June 2003|title=Differential occurrence of comorbidity within childhood anxiety disorders.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|volume=32|issue=2|pages=290-5|pmid=12679288}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20%
| ADIS-C/P
|-
| All of U.S.A. – clinical settings
| Meta-analysis of data collected across multiple clinical settings, 1995-2006 (n=15,967)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rettew|first1=DC|last2=Lynch|first2=AD|last3=Achenbach|first3=TM|last4=Dumenci|first4=L|last5=Ivanova|first5=MY|date=September 2009|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews.|journal=International journal of methods in psychiatric research|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169-84|pmid=19701924}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 20% (SDI)
6% (unstructured interview)
|Structured or Semi-Structure Diagnostic Interviews and unstructured clinical interviews.
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|6% (DAU)&lt;ref name=&quot;:12&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Metanalysis of outpatient clinics 
|Outpatient clinic
|20% (SDI)&lt;ref name=&quot;:13&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Rettew|first=David C.|last2=Lynch|first2=Alicia Doyle|last3=Achenbach|first3=Thomas M.|last4=Dumenci|first4=Levent|last5=Ivanova|first5=Masha Y.|date=2009-09|title=Meta-analyses of agreement between diagnoses made from clinical evaluations and standardized diagnostic interviews|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/mpr.289|journal=International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=169–184|doi=10.1002/mpr.289|issn=1049-8931}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|-
|Intended to apply to the entire United States
|General Population
|9% &lt;ref name=&quot;:3&quot;&gt;Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., Costello, E. J., Georgiades, K., Green, J. G., Gruber, M. J., . . . Merikangas, K. R. (2012). Prevalence, persistence, and sociodemographic correlates of DSM-IV disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication Adolescent Supplement. Archives of General Psychiatry, 69(4), 372-380. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.160&lt;/ref&gt;
|
|}
'''Note:''' WHO-CIDI = World Health Organization Composite International Diagnostic Interview; NCS-A (lifetime prevalence); CAPA= Children and Adolescent Psychiatric Assessment (3-month prevalence); DISC-IV = Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children, Version 4 (12-month prevalence); ADIS-C/P=Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule for Children/Parents; SIDP-IV = Structured Interview for DSM-IV Personality; SCID=Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV; SDIs included in Rettew et al. (2009): CIDI, DAWBA, DICA, DISC, DIS, MINI, K-SADS-PL, SCAN-2, SCID, SCID-II.

* Higher rates of social anxiety disorder are found in females than in males, with more pronounced differences in adolescence. Prevalence rates in children and adolescents are comparable to those in adults. Onset is typically in early adolescence (DSM-5, 2013).


==[[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|'''Prediction phase''']]==

=== Psychometric properties of screening instruments for social anxiety disorder ===
The following section contains a list of screening and diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder. The section includes administration information, psychometric data, and PDFs or links to the screenings. 
* Screenings are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|prediction phase]] of assessment; for more information on interpretation of this data, or how screenings fit in to the assessment process, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase|here.]]

* ''For a list of more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Psychometric_properties_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! Measure 
!Format (Reporter)
!Age Range
!Administration/
Completion Time
!Inter-rater reliability
!Test-retest reliability
!Construct validity
!Content validity
!Where to Access
|-
|[[wikipedia:Liebowitz_social_anxiety_scale|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999-1|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10077308|journal=Psychological Medicine|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|issn=0033-2917|pmid=10077308}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|7 years-adult
|15 minutes
|U
|U
|G
|E&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Heimberg|first=R. G.|last2=Horner|first2=K. J.|last3=Juster|first3=H. R.|last4=Safren|first4=S. A.|last5=Brown|first5=E. J.|last6=Schneier|first6=F. R.|last7=Liebowitz|first7=M. R.|date=1999/01|title=Psychometric properties of the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/psychological-medicine/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-liebowitz-social-anxiety-scale/6891D37D00A9BEC179E61C8BFF30F08A|journal=Psychological Medicine|language=en|volume=29|issue=1|pages=199–212|doi=10.1017/s0033291798007879|issn=1469-8978}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|
*[http://nationalsocialanxietycenter.com/liebowitz-sa-scale/ Online questionnaire with scoring]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/2y3cq/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF]
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Norman|first=Sonya B.|last2=Cissell|first2=Shadha Hami|last3=Means-Christensen|first3=Adrienne J.|last4=Stein|first4=Murray B.|date=2006|title=Development and validation of an Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16688739|journal=Depression and Anxiety|volume=23|issue=4|pages=245–249|doi=10.1002/da.20182|issn=1091-4269|pmid=16688739}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (clinician administered, self-report)
|
|10-15 minutes
|
|
|
|
|
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/bkvj2/?action=download%26mode=render OASIS printable PDF]
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_Inventory|Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Connor|first=Kathryn M.|last2=Davidson|first2=Jonathan R. T.|last3=Churchill|first3=L. Erik|last4=Sherwood|first4=Andrew|last5=Weisler|first5=Richard H.|last6=Foa|first6=Edna|date=2000/04|title=Psychometric properties of the Social Phobia Inventory (SPIN): New self-rating scale|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/psychometric-properties-of-the-social-phobia-inventory-spin/9E4A3EE20D2B1A6C222CDB5807AC086A|journal=The British Journal of Psychiatry|language=en|volume=176|issue=4|pages=379–386|doi=10.1192/bjp.176.4.379|issn=0007-1250}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|12 years-adult
|5-10 minutes
|NA
|A
|G
|G
|
* [https://joyable.com/spin_snapshots/new Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://psychology-tools.com/spin/ Online questionnaire with scoring] 
* [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/svn9x/?action=download%26mode=render Printable PDF] 
|-
|Revised Children’s Anxiety and Depression Scale (RCADS)
|Questionnaire (Child)
|6-18
|12 minutes
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F.|last2=Moffitt|first2=Catherine E.|last3=Gray|first3=Jennifer|date=2005-03|title=Psychometric properties of the Revised Child Anxiety and Depression Scale in a clinical sample|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=43|issue=3|pages=309–322|doi=10.1016/j.brat.2004.02.004|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Chorpita|first=Bruce F|last2=Yim|first2=Letitia|last3=Moffitt|first3=Catherine|last4=Umemoto|first4=Lori A|last5=Francis|first5=Sarah E|date=2000-08|title=Assessment of symptoms of DSM-IV anxiety and depression in children: a revised child anxiety and depression scale|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|journal=Behaviour Research and Therapy|volume=38|issue=8|pages=835–855|doi=10.1016/s0005-7967(99)00130-8|issn=0005-7967}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|G&lt;ref name=&quot;:2&quot; /&gt;
|
|
*[http://www.corc.uk.net/outcome-experience-measures/revised-childrens-anxiety-and-depression-scale-and-subscales/ RCADS homepage]

'''PDFs for RCADS'''

&lt;li&gt;[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/s3fu2/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Child Self-reported (8-18 years)]&lt;/li&gt;*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/fp9mk/?action=download%26mode=render RCADS Parent-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/vy7ta/?action=download%26mode=render Child Scoring Aid]
*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t4bz6/?action=download%26mode=render Parent Scoring Aid]

'''Subscales'''

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/ectpf/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Self-reported]

*[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/pu6rn/?action=download%26mode=render Social Anxiety Parent-reported]

'''Translations'''

'''[https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/qsjh9/?action=download%26mode=render User Guide]'''

*
|-
|[[wikipedia:Social_Phobia_and_Anxiety_Inventory-Brief_form|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI)]]&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Garcia-Lopez|first=Luis Joaquin|last2=Hidalgo|first2=Maria D.|last3=Beidel|first3=Deborah C.|last4=Olivares|first4=Jose|last5=Turner†|first5=Samuel|date=2008-01-01|title=Brief Form of the Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory (SPAI-B) for Adolescents|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|journal=European Journal of Psychological Assessment|volume=24|issue=3|pages=150–156|doi=10.1027/1015-5759.14.3.150|issn=1015-5759}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|Questionnaire (self-report)
|14 years-adult
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|A
|E
|E
|Not free
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAIC)
|Questionnaire
|8-14 years
|20-30 minutes
|NA
|E
|G
|E
|Not free
|}

'''Note:''' '''L'''= Less than adequate; '''A'''= Adequate; '''G'''= Good; '''E'''= Excellent; '''U'''= Unavailable; '''NA'''= Not applicable

=== Likelihood ratios and AUCs of screening measures for social anxiety disorder ===
* ''For a list of the likelihood ratios for more broadly reaching screening instruments, [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prediction_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Likelihood_ratios_and_AUCs_of_common_screening_instruments '''click here.''']''
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
! Screening Measure (Primary Reference)
! AUC (Sample Size)
! DiLR+ (Score)
! DiLR- (Score)
!Clinical Generalizability
|-
|Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Liebowitz|first1=MR|title=Social phobia.|journal=Modern problems of pharmacopsychiatry|date=1987|volume=22|pages=141-73|pmid=2885745}}&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mennin|first1=DS|last2=Fresco|first2=DM|last3=Heimberg|first3=RG|last4=Schneier|first4=FR|last5=Davies|first5=SO|last6=Liebowitz|first6=MR|date=2002|title=Screening for social anxiety disorder in the clinical setting: using the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=16|issue=6|pages=661-73|pmid=12405524}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Santos|first1=LF|last2=Loureiro|first2=SR|last3=Crippa|first3=JA|last4=Osório|first4=FL|date=2015|title=Can the Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale - self-report version be used to differentiate clinical and non-clinical SAD groups among Brazilians?|journal=PloS one|volume=10|issue=3|pages=e0121437|pmid=25811489}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| 0.94 - differentiating from subclinical patients

0.98 - differentiating from healthy controls
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Overall Anxiety Severity And Impairment Scale (OASIS)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.87&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Campbell-Sills|first=Laura|last2=Norman|first2=Sonya B.|last3=Craske|first3=Michelle G.|last4=Sullivan|first4=Greer|last5=Lang|first5=Ariel J.|last6=Chavira|first6=Denise A.|last7=Bystritsky|first7=Alexander|last8=Sherbourne|first8=Cathy|last9=Roy-Byrne|first9=Peter|date=2009-1|title=Validation of a Brief Measure of Anxiety-Related Severity and Impairment: The Overall Anxiety Severity and Impairment Scale (OASIS)|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2629402/|journal=Journal of affective disorders|volume=112|issue=1-3|pages=92–101|doi=10.1016/j.jad.2008.03.014|issn=0165-0327|pmc=PMC2629402|pmid=18486238}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|3.07 (&gt; or = cut score 8)
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|Cut-score of ≥ 8 to be optimal given that it successfully classified 87% of the sample with the most favorable balance of sensitivity (89%) and specificity (71%)
|}
&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|Not reported
|Unknown&lt;ref name=&quot;:0&quot; /&gt;
|-
|Spence Children’s Anxiety Scale - Parent Version (SCAS-P)

(Nauta, 2005)
| 0.59 (n=543)
| Not reported
| Not reported
|
|-
|Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=March|first1=JS|last2=Parker|first2=JD|last3=Sullivan|first3=K|last4=Stallings|first4=P|last5=Conners|first5=CK|title=The Multidimensional Anxiety Scale for Children (MASC): factor structure, reliability, and validity.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=554-65|pmid=9100431}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dierker|first1=LC|last2=Albano|first2=AM|last3=Clarke|first3=GN|last4=Heimberg|first4=RG|last5=Kendall|first5=PC|last6=Merikangas|first6=KR|last7=Lewinsohn|first7=PM|last8=Offord|first8=DR|last9=Kessler|first9=R|date=August 2001|title=Screening for anxiety and depression in early adolescence.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|volume=40|issue=8|pages=929-36|pmid=11501693|last10=Kupfer|first10=DJ}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Anderson|first1=ER|last2=Jordan|first2=JA|last3=Smith|first3=AJ|last4=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first4=HM|date=December 2009|title=An examination of the MASC Social Anxiety Scale in a non-referred sample of adolescents.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=23|issue=8|pages=1098-105|pmid=19643571}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| .61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.69 for Females &lt;br&gt;.80 Total for SA Subscale &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
| 3.4(13.5+)
| .46
|
|-
|Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale (RCMAS)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last1=Reynolds|last2=Cecil|first2=R|last3=Richmond|first3=Burt|title=RCMAS-2: Revised Children’s Manifest Anxiety Scale|date=2008|publisher=Western Psychological Services; Second Edition edition|edition=2nd}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;:1&quot; /&gt; and (Hodges, 1990)
|.61 for Males &lt;br&gt;.58 for Females &lt;br&gt;(n=632)
|5.25 (t &gt;60)
|.63
|
|-
|Social Phobia and Anxiety Inventory for Children (SPAI-C) &lt;br&gt; (Beidel, Turner, &amp; Morris, 1995)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Inderbitzen-Nolan|first1=H|last2=Davies|first2=CA|last3=McKeon|first3=ND|date=2004|title=Investigating the construct validity of the SPAI-C: comparing the sensitivity and specificity of the SPAI-C and the SAS-A.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=18|issue=4|pages=547-60|pmid=15149713}}&lt;/ref&gt; and &lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Viana|first1=AG|last2=Rabian|first2=B|last3=Beidel|first3=DC|date=June 2008|title=Self-report measures in the study of comorbidity in children and adolescents with social phobia: research and clinical utility.|journal=Journal of anxiety disorders|volume=22|issue=5|pages=781-92|pmid=17888622}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.65 (n=172)
|3.55 (18+)
|.47
|
|-
|Screen for Child Anxiety and Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED)&lt;br&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Birmaher|first1=B|last2=Khetarpal|first2=S|last3=Brent|first3=D|last4=Cully|first4=M|last5=Balach|first5=L|last6=Kaufman|first6=J|last7=Neer|first7=SM|title=The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): scale construction and psychometric characteristics.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry|date=April 1997|volume=36|issue=4|pages=545-53|pmid=9100430}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Desousa|first1=DA|last2=Salum|first2=GA|last3=Isolan|first3=LR|last4=Manfro|first4=GG|date=June 2013|title=Sensitivity and specificity of the Screen for Child Anxiety Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED): a community-based study.|journal=Child psychiatry and human development|volume=44|issue=3|pages=391-9|pmid=22961135}}&lt;/ref&gt;
|.72 (n=119)
|1.9 (27+)
|.50
|
|-
|Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale Revised (BFNE-R) &lt;br&gt;(Leary, 1983)

&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carleton|first1=RN|last2=McCreary|first2=DR|last3=Norton|first3=PJ|last4=Asmundson|first4=GJ|date=2006|title=Brief fear of negative evaluation scale-revised.|journal=Depression and anxiety|volume=23|issue=5|pages=297-303|pmid=16688736}}&lt;/ref&gt;
| Not reported
|3.3 (+38)
|.45
|
|-
|}

{{collapse top| Click here for notes about the above table}}
* '''Note:''' All studies used some version of ADIS-C, K-SADS or CAS administered by trained raters. “LR+” refers to the change in likelihood ratio associated with a positive test score, and “LR-” is the likelihood ratio for a low score. Likelihood ratios of 1 indicate that the test result did not change impressions at all. LRs larger than 10 or smaller than .10 are frequently clinically decisive; 5 or .20 are helpful, and between 2.0 and .5 are small enough that they rarely result in clinically meaningful changes of formulation (Sackett et al., 2000). AUC guidelines according to Swets and Pickett (1982)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Song|first1=HH|title=Analysis of correlated ROC areas in diagnostic testing.|journal=Biometrics|date=March 1997|volume=53|issue=1|pages=370-82|pmid=9147602}}&lt;/ref&gt;: .50 to .70 (low accuracy), .70 to .90 (moderate accuracy), and greater than .90 (high accuracy).

* '''Note:''' Silverman &amp; Ollendick (2005)&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Silverman|first1=WK|last2=Ollendick|first2=TH|title=Evidence-based assessment of anxiety and its disorders in children and adolescents.|journal=Journal of clinical child and adolescent psychology : the official journal for the Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53|date=September 2005|volume=34|issue=3|pages=380-411|pmid=16026211}}&lt;/ref&gt; suggest that the SPAI-C is the better instrument for identifying those children and adolescents who most likely meet DSM-IV criteria for social phobia, but that this measure may miss some adolescents who would meet criteria for social phobia. Child and Adolescent Social Anxiety Disorder Jacqueline Nesi 7 Although the MASC has evidence to support it, the current evidence only applies to screening for GAD in girls and anxiety comorbidities (p.404). Thus, for both of these measures, another assessment method is to be used as well, such as an interview schedule (pp 401-5). The SCARED, MASC, and FSSC-R may be helpful to discriminate between youth with social phobia versus other anxiety disorders (p. 404).
{{collapse bottom}}

=== Interpreting social anxiety disorder screening measure scores ===
* For information on interpreting screening measure scores, click [[Evidence based assessment/Prediction phase#Interpreting screening measure scores|here.]]
* Also see the page on [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing] for more information

==[[Evidence based assessment/Prescription phase|'''Prescription phase''']]==
===Gold standard diagnostic interviews===

* For a list of broad reaching diagnostic interviews sortable by disorder with PDFs (if applicable), [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Prescription_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Common_Diagnostic_Interviews click here.]

===Recommended diagnostic interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| Anxiety Disorders Interview Schedule (ADIS)
| Interview (clinician)
| 7 years-adult
| 90 minutes
| E
| U
| E
| E
| 
|
* [http://www.excellenceforchildandyouth.ca/resource-hub. Website]

|-
| Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC-IV)
|Interview (clinician)
|6-17 years
|1-2 hours
| A
| G
| G
| G
| 
|
|-
|Structured Clinical Interview for DSM (SCID)
|Semi-structured Interview
|Adults (Ages 18+)
|1-2 hours
|E
|U
|E
|E
|
|
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

===Severity interviews for social anxiety disorder===
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
! colspan=&quot;10&quot; |Diagnostic instruments for social anxiety disorder
|-
! Measure
! Format (Reporter)
! Age Range
! Administration/
Completion Time
! Interrater Reliability
! Test-Retest Reliability
! Construct Validity
! Content Validity
! Highly Recommended
!Free and Accessible Measures
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|

|-
| 
|
|
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|-
| 
|
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 
|
|}
'''Note:''' '''L''' = Less than adequate; '''A''' = Adequate; '''G''' = Good; '''E''' = Excellent; '''U''' = Unavailable; '''NA''' = Not applicable

==[[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|'''Process phase''']]==
The following section contains a brief overview of treatment options for social anxiety disorder and list of process and outcome measures for social anxiety disorder. The section includes benchmarks based on published norms for several outcome and severity measures, as well as information about commonly used process measures. Process and outcome measures are used as part of the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase]] of assessment. For more information of differences between process and outcome measures, see the page on the [[Evidence based assessment/Process phase|process phase of assessment]].

=== Process measures ===
=== Outcome and severity measures ===
This table includes clinically significant benchmarks for social anxiety disorder specific outcome measures

* Information on how to interpret this table can be [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase '''found here'''].
* Additionally, these [[Evidence based assessment/Vignettes|'''vignettes''']] might be helpful resources for understanding appropriate adaptation of outcome measures in practice.
*''&lt;u&gt;For clinically significant change benchmarks for the CBCL, YSR, and TRF total, externalizing, internalizing, and attention benchmarks,&lt;/u&gt;'' [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Evidence_based_assessment/Process_phase&amp;wteswitched=1#Clinically_significant_change_benchmarks_for_widely-used_outcome_measures '''see here.''']

{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Non-Referred Sample of Adolescents (Anderson et al., 2009)'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Measure&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%;&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Subscale&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:130%&quot; width=&quot;300&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Cut-off scores&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:120%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; | &lt;b&gt; A&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; B&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; C&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 95%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; 90%&lt;/b&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;font-size:110%&quot; |&lt;b&gt; SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''MASC (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 63.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 38.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 10.0
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.1
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Social Anxiety Scale&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 19.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 11.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.0
|-
| rowspan=&quot;1&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''SPAI-C (2009)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | &lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 26.6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 15.9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7.5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6.3
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.8
|-
|}
{| class=&quot;wikitable sortable&quot; border=&quot;1&quot;
|-
| colspan=&quot;8&quot; style=&quot;font-size:110%; text-align:center;&quot; span |'''Benchmarks Based on Published Norms'''
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Measure&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Subscale&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Cut-off scores&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
| colspan=&quot;3&quot; |&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;Critical Change &lt;br&gt; (unstandardized scores)&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;A&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;B&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;C&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;95%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;90%&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|&lt;b&gt; &lt;big&gt;SE&lt;sub&gt;difference&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/b&gt;
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''CBCL T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 49
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 58
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.4
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 56
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.5
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''TRF T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 57
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 5
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 2.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 55
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.4
|-
| rowspan=&quot;2&quot; style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |'''YSR T-Scores (2001 Norms)'''
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Total&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 7
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 6
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 3.3
|-
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; |&lt;i&gt; Internalizing&lt;/i&gt;
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | n/a
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 70
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 54
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 9
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 8
| style=&quot;text-align:center;&quot; | 4.8
|}
'''&lt;big&gt;Note:&lt;/big&gt;''' '''''A''''' = Away from the clinical range; '''''B'''''= Back into the nonclinical range; and '''''C''''' = Closer to the nonclinical than clinical mean.

=== Treatment ===
{{collapse top| Click here for information of therapy for social anxiety}}
According to ''Effective Child Therapy,'' no “Well-Established” treatments have been empirically validated for Social Phobia. 

* However, group Cognitive Behavioral Therapy, or Group CBT, for Anxiety has been identified as “Probably Efficacious” in treating Social Phobia.

*According to Effective Child Therapy, the “Probably Efficacious” distinction marks a treatment as having “strong research support” but lacking the criteria that at least two large-scale randomized controlled trials have been conducted by “independent investigatory teams working at different research settings.” This prevents the treatment from moving into the “Well-Established” group. 
*Currently, however, CBT is identified as the most promising treatment for childhood and adolescent social phobia.

'''Cognitive Behavioral Therapy'''

* ''Effective Child Therapy'' identifies the following core components of CBT for anxious youth, including those with Social Phobia: Emotions Education and Relaxation. 
* Parents and child are taught about the interrelated physiological, cognitive, and behavioral components of anxiety.
* Activities help demonstrate different emotions, body postures, and cognitive and physiological correlates. Progressive relaxation training helps anxious children develop awareness and control over their own physiological and muscular responses to anxiety.

'''Cognitive restructuring''' 

* Cognitive restructuring helps children identify and replace distorted cognitions with more adaptive beliefs.
* Basic cognitive strategies include identifying and reducing negative self-talk, generating positive self-statements, thought stopping, thought challenging (weighing evidence for and against), testing both dysfunctional and adaptive beliefs, and creating a coping plan for feared situations.

'''Imaginal and in-vivo exposure'''

* The goals of exposures are to encourage approach behavior by positioning the child in a previously feared or challenging situation.

* The child attempts to complete tasks in a graded &quot;fear hierarchy&quot; such that the child experiences early success before attempting greater challenges.
* During individual exposures, a child is encouraged to use any number of coping skills, including relaxation exercises, coping thoughts (challenging anxious thoughts with more positive, realistic thoughts), concrete problem-solving, or rehearsal of desirable skills.

'''Parent Interventions'''

* Parents may have their own preconceptions about the threatening nature of anxiety and they may not know how best to encourage a child to cope with anxiety.
* CBT provides parents education about the risks of continued avoidance and guidance in managing their own anxiety
* CBT may also impart basic parenting strategies (e.g., positive/negative reinforcement, planned ignoring, modeling, reward planning) to facilitate the practice of therapy skills in the home.

Sources: Effective Child Therapy page on [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Fear, Worry &amp; Anxiety]
{{collapse bottom}}Please refer to the Wikipedia page on [[wikipedia:Social_anxiety|Social Anxiety Disorder]] for more information on available treatment for social anxiety or go to [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy] for a curated resource on effective treatments for anxiety disorders.

*For information on conducting Exposure Therapy for anxiety disordered youth, see [https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ www.BravePracticeForKids.com]

=='''External resources'''==

# [http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F40 ICD-10 diagnostic criteria]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Resources/Annotated_List_of_Where_and_How_to_Find_a_Therapist Find-a-Therapist]
#* A curated list of find-a-therapist websites where you can find a provider
# [https://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/anxiety-disorders/index.shtml NIMH] 
#* Go to this resource for more information on anxiety disorders
# OMIM (Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man)
#* [http://omim.org/entry/607834?search=anxiety&amp;highlight=anxiety Entry for anxiety] 
# [http://effectivechildtherapy.org/concerns-symptoms-disorders/disorders/fear-worry-and-anxiety/ Effective Child Therapy page for '''Fear, Worry, &amp; Anxiety''']
#* Effective Child Therapy is website sponsored by Division 53 of the American Psychological Association (APA), or The Society for Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology (SCCAP), in collaboration with the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies (ABCT). Use for information on symptoms and available treatments.
# [https://sccap53.org Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology]
# [https://mfr.osf.io/render?url=https://osf.io/t7b4d/?action=download%26mode=render Behavioral Health Virtual Resource]
#* This resource has free PDFs of anxiety screenings, as well as information on diagnosing and treating different anxiety disorders
# [https://www.abctcentral.org/eStore/ www.abctcentral.org] 
#* This is a website sponsored by the Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Therapies. 
#* Use the “Find a Therapist” option to search for local therapists using CBT, an effective treatment for Social Anxiety.
#[https://www.bravepracticeforkids.com/ '''www.BravePracticeForKids.com''']
#*This website, created by Dr. Emily Becker-Haimes at the University of Pennsylvania, has information on conducting [[wikipedia:Exposure_therapy|Exposure Therapy]] for anxiety disordered youth.

=='''References'''==
{{collapse top|Click here for references}}
{{Reflist|30em}}

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= Onboarding with HGAPS =
Welcome new member! So, you're interested in joining your university's chapter of HGAPS? This onboarding guide should help.

Onboarding is the process of integrating a member into a group, in this case, the process of getting a new member integrated into HGAPS (particularly HGAPS at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill). This document explains how to become onboarded into HGAPS including what training needs to be completed and how to become a member of a project team. This is especially important for new members or current members preparing for new members on their team. 

'''''Please ensure all onboarding steps are complete!'''''

= What is HGAPS? =
Although many new members may already know of HGAPS and its goals, if you are a new member and do not, this section describes more about how the organization functions. 

=== Background ===
Helping Give Away Psychological Science (HGAPS) began as a student-led organization at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC-CH) in 2016. Since then, the organization has grown into an officially recognized nonprofit and has incorporated chapters from across the U.S. including the  University of Maryland, Appalachian State University, and the University of California, Los Angeles.  

==== Goals ====
Our mission is to bridge the science-practice gap by collecting, distilling, and sharing psychological science to promote well-being in the community.  

To do this, HGAPS strives to disseminate evidence-based psychological information to those who need it most, creating better access to reliable science. This is done by creating small, project-focused groups within the organization that work together to consolidate and share evidence-based information and resources while collaborating with researchers and clinicians around the globe. We mostly do this through free platforms such as Wikiversity (Wikipedia’s sister site for research and learning materials), YouTube, Open Science Framework (OSF) and Zotero. By granting access to free and reliable resources for assessment, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention purposes, we can help clinics and researchers that lack funding and resources. Overall, the hope is to create tools and trainings to help future generations of practitioners and researchers while educating the general public. 

=== Membership in a University Chapter of HGAPS ===

==== Requirements ====
In the university chapter, members are decided by the university's individual bylaws and policies for student organizations. 

For UNC-CH, students must be '''full-time''' '''undergraduate''' '''or graduate''' '''students'''. Members must attend 30% of meetings performed in a given semester after they have joined the club. This means that if you joined mid-semester, you only need to attend 30% of the meetings after you join. If you will be leaving early, arriving late, or are unable to attend a meeting, let your project team know as soon as you discover your attendance will be impacted. Attendance is taken by the HGAPS Secretary on the RSVP sheet. Dues must also be paid according to the amount set in a given semester/year–typically $12 per semester or $20 per year. Finally, '''all members must have wiki accounts and perform the necessary trainings before making their own edits.'''

Members intending on pursuing future leadership positions should try to attend most meetings and refer to this [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/Growth in HGAPS|page]].

==== Project Teams ====
HGAPS splits members into different project teams focusing on different tasks that aid in the dissemination of psychological research and resources. In the case of UNC–CH, projects are also enumerated, so 1022 equates to the team working on updating the Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs). 

Sometimes, these team goals may overlap, get passed between different teams, or end up involving more than one team at the same time. For instance, at UNC-CH the Translations team translates assessment measures into different languages, then the Social Media group could post their accomplishments on Twitter! 

Members may participate in more than one group, but during the school year, focusing on one is advisable (see Meetings below). 

Each group has a leader position designated as a &quot;Water Carrier (WC)&quot;. This is a business term and our version of a team leader–the difference is, a water carrier doesn't indicate prior experience or seniority. Water carriers mainly lead by organizing the group and planning meetings, but they need no experience–in fact, a water carrier's job may entail asking others to help with their expertise. The term water carrier is used for this reason–to decrease feelings of superiority/inferiority while maintaining a structure to the groups. For more information, please refer to this SOP.

==== Meetings ====
UNC-CH HGAPS holds general &quot;working&quot; meetings on Thursday evenings from 6–8pm ET in a hybrid format utilizing the President's zoom and a designated meeting room on campus during the academic year. In the instance that the health of HGAPS members is put at risk by having in-person meetings, all meetings will occur via Zoom with no in person option available. The zoom links are sent in advance and you can sign up for weekly reminders through our Luma calendar. These meetings are working meetings, so during these two hours, members split into breakout rooms (in groups in person) to work with their teams. 

These meetings are typically outlined as follows: 

* Introduction: 6:00–6:15pm
** Members share how they are doing and any personal updates. Then, the Professor (Dr. Youngstrom in our case) or the President may give overall updates, such as different grant updates. This gives a chance for the President to organize breakout rooms.
* Breakout rooms: 6:15–7:45pm
** Members work in their groups. At the end, the water carrier (see Project Teams above) notes the teams accomplishments on a Google Doc used by the President and Professor to keep track of the team's accomplishments.
* Report out: 7:45–8:00pm
** This is when each water carrier says to the group what was accomplished and the Professor gives final updates.  

Aside from the general working meetings, specific teams may choose to meet outside of the general meeting time, so there may be instances where teams meet at a different time. You may also see that these working meetings continue through school breaks–don't worry, those are optional for UNC students.

== Onboarding Steps ==
Now that you know what you're joining, here are the steps you should follow in order to involve yourself in HGAPS as quickly and easily as possible. 

'''Step 1: Create a Wikipedia account and join the main means of communication.'''

Before your first meeting, it’s helpful to at least have a Wikipedia account created. That way, if you’re interested in becoming a member, you can follow along with the page changes being made by the rest of your team members during the meetings.

Read '''&lt;u&gt;Getting Step Up&lt;/u&gt;''' on [[Helping_Give_Away_Psychological_Science/Standard_Operating_Procedures/_Getting_Started|this page]] to learn how create a Wikipedia account. Luckily, this will create a Wikiversity link too!

As for communication, for UNC-CH, we primarily use Slack. Slack is a business platform where people can easily message, @ each other and communicate with people through multiple channels and even an app. Although email reminders will still be sent, most meeting reminders and general information will be sent on Slack, so go ahead and join! 

'''Step 2: Attend your first meeting.'''

As a new member, simply ask the President to stay behind or create a breakout room for new members–they’ll introduce you to the current projects, and you’ll have the opportunity to sit in and see if that project interests you! At that point, the water carrier will introduce you to the specifics and see what they can do about getting you up to speed as soon as possible. However, it's important to note that editing cannot be performed before completing the necessary trainings, so this introduction is just to help you understand the project's layout.

* Tip: if you and your water carrier are unsure of where to start, ask them to share their screen and walk you through their slack channel and project!

With that said, if you are currently unable to help and are given permission by your group's water carrier to do so during the meeting, you may move on to steps 3-4.

'''Step 3: Create your accounts.'''

HGAPS uses a variety of free platforms for different purposes as seen on the RSVP sheet. Two prominent examples are OSF and Zotero. used for uploading documents and creating citations, respectfully. 

Although not all projects require these accounts, it's good to have them in case a future project needs them. So make sure you:

* Follow [https://osf.io/register?campaign=&amp;next=&amp;view_only= this link] to create an OSF and add it to your RSVP sheet. It's recommended to use a personal email to ensure access to the account after graduation.
* Follow [https://www.zotero.org/user/register this link] to create a Zotero and add it to your RSVP sheet. It's recommended to use a personal email to ensure access to the account after graduation.
* Ask your project if any other platforms are being used!

'''Step 4: Complete your trainings and report back.'''

There are two trainings that must be complete in order to edit. More information regarding those can be found [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures/ Getting Started|here]]. After completing those, report that to your water carrier and your President or Professor. Your President/Professor so that they can add you to the HGAPS WikiUser Group (a group tracking our collective changes to better monitor our impact) and your water carrier so they can help you get more involved on their specific project.

= Further information =
If you'd like more information about the history of HGAPS and different events you can be involved in through HGAPS, feel free to check out this HGAPS User Guide, the HGAPS site linked [https://www.hgaps.org/ here], or this page of other [[Helping Give Away Psychological Science/Standard Operating Procedures|Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs)]].

Happy editing!</text>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Workings of ELF files in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410688</id>
      <parentid>2410485</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:15:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Object Files */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2152" xml:space="preserve">=== Executable and Linkable Format ===

==== Object Files ====
* Introduction
* ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]])
* Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]])
* String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]])
* Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220801.pdf |pdf]])
* Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]])
* Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ====
* Introduction 
* Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
* Program Loading
* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]])

==== C Library ====
* C Library

=== ELF Study === 

==== ELF Relocations ====
* Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]])

* PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]])
* Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]])

==== Relocation Examples ==== 
* Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]])
* Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]])
* Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]])
* Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]])
* Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]])
* Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]])
* Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]])
* Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Universal Language of Absolutes/Identity</title>
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[[File:Aleksis Kivi silhouette.png|left|thumb]]

== '''Identity''' ==
[[File:Silhouette of an unknown young lady Met DP887352.jpg|center|thumb]]


Giving credence to the possibility of division directly impinges negatively on any possible experience of Reality as a whole experience. All principles that we recognize as implicit standards in making Reality transparent (Archimedes--the principle of leverage et al.) are good testaments to the direct relationship between they who know and the known.

In this regard, complementary evident proof of realization the principle of leverage  can stand as markers to our innate ability to recognize consistent standards eventually. 

It is the quality of our inevitable experiences that dictates our ability to relate to ‘what is’. Conventionally we have presumed that our only means of defining ‘what is’ is generated by thought processes, and we have invested a great deal of human capital into securing that as the only way of experiencing Reality.
 
Equity means balance.
Balance means agreement. 
Agreement means equity.
 
The implicit ‘wholeness’ of all principles or absolutes lies in the fact that  they are equally interchangeable. Reality is not composed of definitive answers - it is what it is.  

But definitive answers answers act as stepping-stones toward real experience. When we cling to mind as the repository for actual knowledge, we then automatically set up a firewall to exclude any threat to its existence. It is the so-called ’mind’ that demands an exercise or involvement in some futile effort which propagates ‘more reasonable’ intractable theories.I experience, you experience, we all experience. To experience complete microscopic acts cannot be done in isolation. We do not observe in isolation; there must be a mutual connection. 

The Reality of the full microscopic action is that it has connection with the macrocosm in that it has all the implicit information necessary to provide us guidance (principle of leverage et  al.). You may liken the experience of realizing the properties of a grain of sand. In that instance, you then experience the stuff of every grain of sand.  

So to extend the analogy, if we experience the complete innate properties of a human being, we share the essential properties of every human being. It is our fundamental connection and it bestows on us the potential ability to identify wholly, and ultimately ‘who we are’. If it were not within our innate capacity to know ‘who we are’, life, as we live it in contact with other homo sapiens, would be an impossible nightmare! Implicit within that pure experience, everything is. Because there are constants, we can keep at least a tenuous grip on reality.”  

Observe human conformity at all levels, and there is the possibility that you will see that spatial dimension (expanse) in which all exist. That vision is not mind centered; it is part of the external spectrum. Instead of attempting to negate our very existence, let philosophy take its rightful place and address ‘what is’. The truth concerning the principle of leverage, measurements, etc., are not the personal property of Archimedes, or anyone else. They are Universal properties that we all equally share and consistently use. Principles do exist (experience understood), and it does not require a ‘mind’ or ‘consciousness’ to establish their Reality, however much you apply a ‘more reasonable’ standard of knowledge of their existence. All anyone can ever see is Reality in all its manifest forms. Never to see the principles operating in that Natural macrocosm is indeed a human tragedy.Reality is the principle - thought is a fictitious dichotomy. Whatever the truth that exists in Reality, we must learn to measure it. There is nothing else.

The human experience is premised on how we exist and concur with the principles of Nature. Despite that inescapable necessity, we seem to continue along a path that attempts to deny that we are of the properties of Nature. Our very appearance and existence are corrupted by a ‘mind’ that intrudes itself into our everyday operations and distorts the reality that exists. 

Any proposition put forward based on the existence of a ‘mind’ must inevitably be flawed if any knowledge base lies in a restricted mythical location. The error comes about through believing that thought is an irrefutable process that can provide solutions. In effect, when we experience ‘that which is’ then the illusion (belief) is destroyed, and the illusory ‘I’ goes with it.

In that circumstance, any question on the existence of Reality, Nature, Wholeness, is irrelevant. We can point to all Matter, all Energy, all Space, and all Time, as being objective imperatives without imposing any personal claim on their existence. The mind is an ‘I am’ delusional concept that for its protection, refuses to admit the external of a Reality that exists, and of who ‘we are’. That Reality is not an incorporated projection of an individual imaginary life, but the vibrant relationship with everything that is. Our constant engagement with Science, Art, Education, Industry, etc., is testament to that relationship, and our adherence to the innate principles contained in Nature and ourselves. It is not ‘minds’ that ‘think alike’ to be aware of Reality; it is the experience of that which is true. We have the opportunity then to engage with their absolute intrinsic principles (the stuff of the Universe) of which we are the beneficiaries, and realize that personal relationship.”

As life begins in its mothers womb it will start ‘experiencing’ and continues on at birth.

That external contact at whatever level for anyone, starts a life of ‘experiencing’ for however long it lives.

All of that particular life can never be known to anyone else - it is sacrosanct.

Thus begins the Mystery of Life even to the owner, and we constantly reason by association with the presumption

that we ‘know’ each other.

Any relationship that is of value can only be based on human reaction that measures its own feeling.

That feeling must also be determined by its own life ‘experience’.

And so our evolutionary lives and the historical structure of our existence seeks answers to address the ability we have

to write about life itself. Our need to sustain life itself and perpetuate new cultures and societies, points to how we communicate

the essential principles necessary to fulfil our obligations toward each other, and also our need to expose our personal nature.

 </text>
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  <page>
    <title>Helping Give Away Psychological Science/996 Conference Rapid Grant/Draft:Closing Report</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>/Added information to what went well in the Learning section/</comment>
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      <text bytes="8612" xml:space="preserve">== Goals ==
''Did you meet your goals? Are you happy with how the project went?''&lt;br&gt;We did meet our goals and are very happy with how the project went. We were able to create a template for conferences to use seen [[Template:Conferences|here]]. And updated all of the previous Future Directions Forum pages seen [[Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology Future Directions Forum (JCCAP FDF)|here]]. Additionally, we were able to create Wikipedia pages for some of the previous presenters of the Forum with a focus on women and other minority groups. By starting this, we have decided to try and continue this project moving forward. We have also recruited several new Wiki editors and trained those individuals how to use our template and how to edit Wiki pages. Many of the current editors working on the project have increased their skills on Wiki platforms and have attended workshops on transclusion and creating templates in order to increase our ability to effectively update pages and create the template for conferences to use. 

== Outcome ==
''Please report on your original project targets. Please be sure to '''[[Grants:Metrics#Three_shared_metrics|review and provide metrics required for Rapid Grants]]'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!
!Target outcome
!Achived outcome
!Explanation
|-
|1
|Host 2 edit-a-thons with HGAPS team members from both UNC and UMD 
|Hosted 2 edit-a-thons 
|Both edit-a-thons were successful. We had HGAPS members come from both UNC and UMD as well as UCLA. We also had individuals attend the edit-a-thons who are not a part of HGAPS.
|-
|2
|15+ contributors and attendees per edit-a-thon
|10 contributors per edit-a-thon 
|Although we were not able to get 15+ attendees at our edit-a-thons, we were able to get 10 at both events.
|-
|3
|5 new editors
|10 new editors 
|We had more than 5 new editors and ended with about 10 new editors who have not edited Wiki before.
|-
|4
|1 new article created, 20+ articles improved 
|5 new pages created and 25 pages updated 
|We were successful on this target and created 5 new pages related to keynote speakers and improved many existing articles with around 25 total.
|-
|5
|increase views within 6 months of launch
|Views have increased 
|We have had an increase in views on FDF related pages since updating the pages and creating new ones.
|}

== Learning ==
''Projects do not always go according to plan. Sharing what you learned can help you and others plan similar projects in the future. Help the movement learn from your experience by answering the following questions:''
*What worked well? 
#We made page templates using both Wiki and Canva for every page we created or improved. This was very helpful as it guided new editors and created a professional, organized, and visually continuous layout for every page we edited, even though most of our work was done collaboratively. This practice also helped to ensure that necessary and beneficial information was present on every page we edited. 
#Our team met regularly (at least once a week) via video call throughout the entirety of this project. Between meetings, we used a professional instant messaging platform to communicate thoughts, questions, ideas, and reminders both within our team and to other members of our larger organization. Having a clearly defined and hierarchical communication system that was still adaptable enough to meet the needs of our team (working internationally) allowed us to collaborate efficiently, solve problems as they arose, avoid miscommunication, and make the most of our time.  
#We did the majority of our planning work in rough drafts, instead of working/brainstorming directly on the wiki pages themselves. This allowed us to ensure that everything we put on Wiki was accurate, well thought out, and organized. The use of collaborative documents for brainstorming outside of Wiki also served to streamline the teamwork process, especially since a significant number of our editors did not have prior experience editing Wiki.
#We created documents with lists of web links for use on specific pages in advance of each Edit-A-Thon. Since these link lists were created by experienced team members, they allowed us to ensure that the information that editors used to build pages was accurate and extensive. Additionally, this process allowed editors to use their time most efficiently during the Edit-A-Thon, as they could focus on brainstorming and editing, instead of having to search for and vet links. 
#Including prizes, gift cards to virtually by lunch for editors, and designated time at the end of the Edit-A-Thon to collaboratively review pages helped not only to gather interest in the events we hosted, but also to incentivize editors to stay focused and productive over the two hour time frame. 
#Establishing a detailed time frame and plan for each Edit-A-Thon helped us avoid administrative errors during events and allowed us to plan how much we should expect participants to accomplish. This practice also made sure we used our time provided efficiently, and made sure that we were able to fulfill our goals at every Edit-A-Thon. 
#Providing new editors with Wiki training links in advance of the Edit-A-Thon, as well as with editing workshops during the first few minutes of every event helped us to ensure that new editors learned from this experience and were able to make valuable contributions to their teams. More advanced editing workshops were also provided to individuals with more experience, allowing people of all levels of Wiki editing skills to benefit from this experience and feel encouraged to continue to build their Wiki editing skills in the future. 
#With the help of the HGAPS Social Media team, we created Google Forms that participants were able to fill out to sign up for Edit-A-Thons. This way, our team was able to know how many editors to expect at each event, as well as to know how many new versus experienced editors planned to show up. These forms were created and advertised during HGAPS meetings and on social media well in advance of each event, in order to maximize our potential audience and gague interest. 
#Additionally, we used Google Forms to employ a page rating system that allowed teams to both give and receive feedback on their work, further refining editing skills and serving as an additional motivator for focused work.  
*What did not work so well? 
#
*What would you do differently next time?
#

== Finances ==

===Grant funds spent===
''Please describe how much grant money you spent for approved expenses, and tell us what you spent it on.''

* '''Wages for template/tool-kit creators''': $2,040 ($20 per hour x 3 creators x 34 hours)

* '''Wages for trainers''': $720 ($20 per hour x 3 trainers x 12 hours)

* '''Gift cards to virtually buy lunch for edit-a-thon participants''': $600 ($20 for 15 participants x 2 events)
** We spent $260 on gift cards to buy lunch for edit-a-thon participants. Not everyone that attended wanted one, which led to us being under budget here. We have reallocated these remaining funds ($340) to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''Incentives for sustained editing''': $500 (1st prize $100, 2nd prize $50, and 3rd prize $25 at 1 and 3 month follow-ups after last edit-a-thon = $175 x 4 &quot;contests&quot;)
** Upon organizing the edit-a-thons, we decided to change our method for prizes. Since we organized into teams we decided to have participants evaluate each teams work at the end of each edit-a-thon. We used these evaluations to come up with a first place and second place team and these teams were given prizes. We spent $350 in this category and reallocated these remaining funds ($150) to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''HGAPS merch for milestones completed in editor training''': $300
** We spent $248.27 on HGAPS merch for editors. The remaining funds ($51.73) were reallocated to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''Fiscal sponsor administrative fees (including access to Google Suites for Nonprofits platform and analytics)''': $832 (20% final budget)
** We spent the anticipated $832 for fiscal sponsor administrative fees.

'''Total''': USD $4,992

===Remaining funds===
''Do you have any remaining grant funds?''
No, we don't have any remaining grant funds left after the completion of the project.
&lt;!--Let us know if you would like to use the remaining funds on a similar or new project. Remember, a grants officer must approve this request before you spend the money.--&gt;

==Anything else==
''Anything else you want to share about your project?''
[[Category:Project/Rapid/Report]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410621</id>
      <parentid>2410596</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-31T22:51:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ncharamut</username>
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      <comment>/* Learning */ fixed typo</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="8606" xml:space="preserve">== Goals ==
''Did you meet your goals? Are you happy with how the project went?''&lt;br&gt;We did meet our goals and are very happy with how the project went. We were able to create a template for conferences to use seen [[Template:Conferences|here]]. And updated all of the previous Future Directions Forum pages seen [[Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology Future Directions Forum (JCCAP FDF)|here]]. Additionally, we were able to create Wikipedia pages for some of the previous presenters of the Forum with a focus on women and other minority groups. By starting this, we have decided to try and continue this project moving forward. We have also recruited several new Wiki editors and trained those individuals how to use our template and how to edit Wiki pages. Many of the current editors working on the project have increased their skills on Wiki platforms and have attended workshops on transclusion and creating templates in order to increase our ability to effectively update pages and create the template for conferences to use. 

== Outcome ==
''Please report on your original project targets. Please be sure to '''[[Grants:Metrics#Three_shared_metrics|review and provide metrics required for Rapid Grants]]'''''

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|+
!
!Target outcome
!Achived outcome
!Explanation
|-
|1
|Host 2 edit-a-thons with HGAPS team members from both UNC and UMD 
|Hosted 2 edit-a-thons 
|Both edit-a-thons were successful. We had HGAPS members come from both UNC and UMD as well as UCLA. We also had individuals attend the edit-a-thons who are not a part of HGAPS.
|-
|2
|15+ contributors and attendees per edit-a-thon
|10 contributors per edit-a-thon 
|Although we were not able to get 15+ attendees at our edit-a-thons, we were able to get 10 at both events.
|-
|3
|5 new editors
|10 new editors 
|We had more than 5 new editors and ended with about 10 new editors who have not edited Wiki before.
|-
|4
|1 new article created, 20+ articles improved 
|5 new pages created and 25 pages updated 
|We were successful on this target and created 5 new pages related to keynote speakers and improved many existing articles with around 25 total.
|-
|5
|increase views within 6 months of launch
|Views have increased 
|We have had an increase in views on FDF related pages since updating the pages and creating new ones.
|}

== Learning ==
''Projects do not always go according to plan. Sharing what you learned can help you and others plan similar projects in the future. Help the movement learn from your experience by answering the following questions:''
*What worked well? 
#We made page templates using both Wiki and Canva for every page we created or improved. This was very helpful as it guided new editors and created a professional, organized, and visually continuous layout for every page we edited, even though most of our work was done collaboratively. This practice also helped to ensure that necessary and beneficial information was present on every page we edited. 
#Our team met regularly (at least once a week) via video call throughout the entirety of this project. Between meetings, we used a professional instant messaging platform to communicate thoughts, questions, ideas, and reminders both within our team and to other members of our larger organization. Having a clearly defined and hierarchical communication system that was still adaptable enough to meet the needs of our team (working internationally) allowed us to collaborate efficiently, solve problems as they arose, avoid miscommunication, and make the most of our time.  
#We did the majority of our planning work in rough drafts, instead of working/brainstorming directly on the wiki pages themselves. This allowed us to ensure that everything we put on Wiki was accurate, well thought out, and organized. The use of collaborative documents for brainstorming outside of Wiki also served to streamline the teamwork process, especially since a significant number of our editors did not have prior experience editing Wiki.
#We created documents with lists of web links for use on specific pages in advance of each Edit-A-Thon. Since these link lists were created by experienced team members, they allowed us to ensure that the information editors used to build pages was accurate and extensive. Additionally, this process allowed editors to use their time most efficiently during the Edit-A-Thon, as they could focus on brainstorming and editing, instead of having to search for and vet links.
#Including prizes, gift cards to virtually by lunch for editors, and designated time at the end of the Edit-A-Thon to collaboratively review pages helped not only to gather interest in the events we hosted, but also to incentivize editors to stay focused and productive over the two hour time frame. 
#Establishing a detailed time frame and plan for each Edit-A-Thon helped us avoid administrative errors during events and allowed us to plan how much we should expect participants to accomplish. This practice also made sure we used our time provided efficiently, and made sure that we were able to fulfill our goals at every Edit-A-Thon. 
#Providing new editors with Wiki training links in advance of the Edit-A-Thon, as well as with editing workshops during the first few minutes of every event helped us to ensure that new editors learned from this experience and were able to make valuable contributions to their teams. More advanced editing workshops were also provided to individuals with more experience, allowing people of all levels of Wiki editing skills to benefit from this experience and feel encouraged to continue to build their Wiki editing skills in the future. 
#With the help of the HGAPS Social Media team, we created Google Forms that participants were able to fill out to sign up for Edit-A-Thons. This way, our team was able to know how many editors to expect at each event, as well as to know how many new versus experienced editors planned to show up. These forms were created and advertised during HGAPS meetings and on social media well in advance of each event, in order to maximize our potential audience and gague interest. 
#Additionally, we used Google Forms to employ a page rating system that allowed teams to both give and receive feedback on their work, further refining editing skills and serving as an additional motivator for focused work.  
*What did not work so well? 
#
*What would you do differently next time?
#

== Finances ==

===Grant funds spent===
''Please describe how much grant money you spent for approved expenses, and tell us what you spent it on.''

* '''Wages for template/tool-kit creators''': $2,040 ($20 per hour x 3 creators x 34 hours)

* '''Wages for trainers''': $720 ($20 per hour x 3 trainers x 12 hours)

* '''Gift cards to virtually buy lunch for edit-a-thon participants''': $600 ($20 for 15 participants x 2 events)
** We spent $260 on gift cards to buy lunch for edit-a-thon participants. Not everyone that attended wanted one, which led to us being under budget here. We have reallocated these remaining funds ($340) to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''Incentives for sustained editing''': $500 (1st prize $100, 2nd prize $50, and 3rd prize $25 at 1 and 3 month follow-ups after last edit-a-thon = $175 x 4 &quot;contests&quot;)
** Upon organizing the edit-a-thons, we decided to change our method for prizes. Since we organized into teams we decided to have participants evaluate each teams work at the end of each edit-a-thon. We used these evaluations to come up with a first place and second place team and these teams were given prizes. We spent $350 in this category and reallocated these remaining funds ($150) to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''HGAPS merch for milestones completed in editor training''': $300
** We spent $248.27 on HGAPS merch for editors. The remaining funds ($51.73) were reallocated to &quot;wages for template/tool-kit creators&quot;.

* '''Fiscal sponsor administrative fees (including access to Google Suites for Nonprofits platform and analytics)''': $832 (20% final budget)
** We spent the anticipated $832 for fiscal sponsor administrative fees.

'''Total''': USD $4,992

===Remaining funds===
''Do you have any remaining grant funds?''
No, we don't have any remaining grant funds left after the completion of the project.
&lt;!--Let us know if you would like to use the remaining funds on a similar or new project. Remember, a grants officer must approve this request before you spend the money.--&gt;

==Anything else==
''Anything else you want to share about your project?''
[[Category:Project/Rapid/Report]]</text>
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      <text bytes="781" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite journal | last= Baltimore | first= David | year= 1976 | title= Viruses, Polymerases and Cancer (Nobel Lecture) | series= Nobel Lectures delivered December 12, 1975 | journal= Science | volume= 192 | number= 4240 | pages= 632-636 | publication-date= May 14, 1976 | pmid= 57644 | doi= 10.1126/science.57644 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/baltimore-lecture.pdf }}
* {{cite AV media | last= Baltimore | first= David | year= 2018 | title= microRNAs Create Regulatory Tension in Mammalian Blood Cells | series= iBiology - Immunology Lectures | publisher= CalTech | publication-date= May 16, 2018 | url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r4zeXrgefZY&amp;list=PLXwMdtHQav9bwkYjX1frWSlaO7cN7WLSW&amp;index=14 }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:27:01)</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410721</id>
      <parentid>2410690</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:44:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8602" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Psychological needs:&lt;br&gt;What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]]</text>
      <sha1>551iy2eul9zn1ozxd2zfrwzvi86ntna</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410722</id>
      <parentid>2410721</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:44:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8602" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Physiological needs:&lt;br&gt;What are human's physiological needs and how does this influence motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]]</text>
      <sha1>nd0b43rdbpidqxz7mrb7ml27ki9lflq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410724</id>
      <parentid>2410722</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8579" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Physiological needs:&lt;br&gt;How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Alandmanson/Arthropods of Africa</title>
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      <text bytes="753" xml:space="preserve">A collection of stories about arthropods in Africa.

== Some general information about [[w:Arthropod|arthrodpods]]: ==

Arthropods are invertebrate animals that have:
* an exoskeleton - a cuticle made of chitin, often mineralised with calcium carbonate;
* a segmented body; and
* are bilaterally symmetrical with paired jointed limbs.

In order to keep growing, they must go through stages of moulting, a process whereby they shed their exoskeleton to reveal a new one. 

They are an extremely diverse group, with up to 10 million species. 

Arthropods form the phylum Arthropoda.

[https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-arthropod-story/ The Arthropod Story] by the [https://evolution.berkeley.edu/the-arthropod-story/credits/ Understanding Evolution team]</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species ()[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org].&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="333" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species ()[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org].</text>
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      <text bytes="373" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org waspweb]&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="365" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="514" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated here - &lt;ref&gt;[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa Hymenoptera of southern Africa].&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="514" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated here - &lt;ref&gt;[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|Hymenoptera of southern Africa].&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="572" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated on [[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|this page]].&lt;ref&gt;[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|Hymenoptera of southern Africa].&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="541" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated on [[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|this page]].&lt;ref&gt;[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa].&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="539" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated on [User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|this page].&lt;ref&gt;[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa].&lt;/ref&gt;

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="480" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated on [[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|this page]].

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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      <text bytes="706" xml:space="preserve">About 20 000 described species of hymenoptera (wasps, bees, ants and sawflies) are known from the Afrotropical region. Estimates of the actual species count for the region range from 100 000 species to as high as 500 000 species.&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.waspweb.org/Afrotropical_Hymenoptera_book/Background_and_Motivation.htm www.waspweb.org]&lt;/ref&gt; Nineteen different superfamilies are illustrated on [[User:Alandmanson/Hymenoptera of southern Africa|this page]].

The huge number of undescribed species means that many species will be extinct before we are even aware of them, as there are too few taxonomists employed to tackle the task of describing all of them in the next few decades.

References
{{reflist}}</text>
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    <title>Rudra's IAS</title>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;Rudra's IAS is a civil services training Institutes situated in Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh state in India . It is a dedicated Institutes for UPSC and MPPSC preparations in the city of Bhopal. This institute was established by Shri Chandra Mauli Mishra Sir (C M Mishra) in 2010.&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="293" xml:space="preserve">Rudra's IAS is a civil services training Institutes situated in Bhopal, the capital city of Madhya Pradesh state in India . It is a dedicated Institutes for UPSC and MPPSC preparations in the city of Bhopal. This institute was established by Shri Chandra Mauli Mishra Sir (C M Mishra) in 2010.</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite book | last= Agre | first= Peter | year= 2003 | chapter= Aquaporin Water Channels (Nobel Lecture) | title= Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Prizes 2003 | editor= Tore Frängsmyr | publisher= Nobel Foundation | location= Stockholm | publication-date= 2004 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2003/agre/lecture/ }}&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="329" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Agre | first= Peter | year= 2003 | chapter= Aquaporin Water Channels (Nobel Lecture) | title= Les Prix Nobel. The Nobel Prizes 2003 | editor= Tore Frängsmyr | publisher= Nobel Foundation | location= Stockholm | publication-date= 2004 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2003/agre/lecture/ }}</text>
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      <text bytes="729" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite AV media | last= Agre | first= Peter | year= 2003 | title= Aquaporin Water Channels (Nobel Lecture) | publisher= Nobel Prize | medium= Recorded December 8, 2003, Aula Magna, Stockholm University | publication-date= December 8, 2003 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/2003/agre/lecture/ }} [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] (0:45:27)
* {{cite journal | last= Agre | first= Peter | year= 2004 | title= Aquaporin Water Channels (Nobel Lecture) | journal= Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume= 43 | number= 33| pages= 4278-4290 | publication-date= August 13, 2004| pmid= 15368374 | doi= 10.1002/anie.200460804 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/uploads/2018/06/agre-lecture.pdf }}</text>
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    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Axelrod, Julius</title>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] === &lt;hr/&gt; '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.” &lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt; '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsa...&quot;</comment>
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Axelrod01.jpg|thumb|Axelrod01]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Axelrod01.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod (1912 - 2004)]]
[[File:Axelrod.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
* Catecholamine metabolism
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Axelrod01.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod (1912 - 2004)]]
[[File:Axelrod.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod 1970.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod 1970]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod.jpg|thumb|]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
* Catecholamine metabolism
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Axelrod01.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod (1912 - 2004)]]
[[File:Axelrod.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod 1970.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod 1970]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod.jpg|thumb|]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
* Catecholamine metabolism &amp; Neurotransmitters
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align=center | width= 80%
|'''Biosynthesis of the Catecholamine Neurotransmitters'''
[[File:Biosynthese catecholaminen.png|Biosynthese catecholaminen]]
&lt;br /&gt;
|}&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Julius Axelrod|Axelrod, Julius (1912 - 2004)]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Axelrod01.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod (1912 - 2004)]]
[[File:Axelrod.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod working at the blackboard on the structure of catecholamines]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod 1970.jpg|thumb|Julius Axelrod 1970]]
[[File:Julius Axelrod.jpg|thumb|]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1970/axelrod/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1970] -shared with Sir Bernard Katz and Ulf von Euler “for their discoveries concerning the humoral transmittors in the nerve terminals and the mechanism for their storage, release and inactivation.”
* Catecholamine Neurotransmitters &amp; their Metabolism
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center | width= 640px
|'''Biosynthesis of the Catecholamine Neurotransmitters'''
[[File:Biosynthese catecholaminen.png|640px|Biosynthese catecholaminen]]
&lt;br /&gt;
|}&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Axelrod, Julius}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;'''Libraries''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} *  &lt;u&gt;[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]&lt;/u&gt; - LibreTexts is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. [https://www.youtube.com/c/LibreTexts/about YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://bio.libretexts.org/ Biology LibreTexts] ** [https://chem.libretexts.org/...&quot;</comment>
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{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
*  &lt;u&gt;[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]&lt;/u&gt; - LibreTexts is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. [https://www.youtube.com/c/LibreTexts/about YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://bio.libretexts.org/ Biology LibreTexts]
** [https://chem.libretexts.org/ Chemistry LibreTexts]
** [https://geo.libretexts.org/ Geoscience LibreTexts]
** [https://math.libretexts.org/ Mathematics LibreTexts]
** [https://med.libretexts.org/ Medicine LibreTexts]
** [https://phys.libretexts.org/ Physics LibreTexts]]
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;'''Libraries''' {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} *  &lt;u&gt;[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]&lt;/u&gt; - LibreTexts is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. [https://www.youtube.com/c/LibreTexts/about YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]] ** [https://bio.libretexts.org/ Biology LibreTexts] ** [https://chem.libretexts.org/...&quot;</comment>
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{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
*  &lt;u&gt;[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]&lt;/u&gt; - LibreTexts is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. [https://www.youtube.com/c/LibreTexts/about YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
** [https://bio.libretexts.org/ Biology LibreTexts]
** [https://chem.libretexts.org/ Chemistry LibreTexts]
** [https://geo.libretexts.org/ Geoscience LibreTexts]
** [https://math.libretexts.org/ Mathematics LibreTexts]
** [https://med.libretexts.org/ Medicine LibreTexts]
** [https://phys.libretexts.org/ Physics LibreTexts]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
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      <text bytes="663" xml:space="preserve">'''Libraries'''
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
*  &lt;u&gt;[https://libretexts.org/index.html LibreTexts]&lt;/u&gt; - LibreTexts is a multi-institutional collaborative venture to develop the next generation of open-access texts to improve postsecondary education at all levels of higher learning. ([https://bio.libretexts.org/ Biology] - [https://chem.libretexts.org/ Chemistry] - [https://geo.libretexts.org/ Geoscience] - [https://math.libretexts.org/ Mathematics] - [https://med.libretexts.org/ Medicine] - [https://phys.libretexts.org/ Physics]) - [https://www.youtube.com/c/LibreTexts/about YouTube Channel] [[File:High-contrast-camera-video.svg|24px|video]]
{{RoundBoxBottom}}</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:David Baltimore|Baltimore, David (1938 - )]] === &lt;hr/&gt; [[File:David Baltimore at Caltech in 2021 A 05.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore at Caltech (2021)]] [[File:David Baltimore NIH.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore NIH]] [[File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg|thumb|VirusBaltimoreClassification]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1975/baltimore/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976] -shared with...&quot;</comment>
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=== [[w:David Baltimore|Baltimore, David (1938 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:David Baltimore at Caltech in 2021 A 05.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore at Caltech (2021)]]
[[File:David Baltimore NIH.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore NIH]]
[[File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg|thumb|VirusBaltimoreClassification]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1975/baltimore/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976] -shared with Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin “for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell.”
* Reverse Transcriptase
* Baltimore Viral Classification System
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center | width= 640px
|'''Baltimore Viral Classification System'''
[[File:Virus-en.gif|640px|Virus-en]]
&lt;br /&gt;
|}&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Baltimore, David}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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=== [[w:David Baltimore|Baltimore, David (1938 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:David Baltimore at Caltech in 2021 A 05.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore at Caltech (2021)]]
[[File:David Baltimore NIH.jpg|thumb|David Baltimore NIH]]
[[File:VirusBaltimoreClassification.svg|thumb|VirusBaltimoreClassification]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* [https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1975/baltimore/facts/ The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1976] -shared with Renato Dulbecco and Howard Martin Temin “for their discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell.”
* Reverse Transcriptase
* Baltimore Viral Classification System
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Baltimore, David}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align= center | width= 640px
|'''Baltimore Viral Classification System'''
[[File:Virus-en.gif|640px|Virus-en]]
&lt;br /&gt;
|}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] === &lt;hr/&gt; [[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]] '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Quorum Sensing in Bacteria &lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt; '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} &lt;hr /&gt;&quot;</comment>
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=== [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Quorum Sensing in Bacteria
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}}
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=== [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Quorum Sensing in Bacteria
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
Rutherford et al.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rutherford, Steven T.}}
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=== [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]]
[[File:AI-2.png|thumb|Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Quorum Sensing in Bacteria
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
Rutherford et al.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rutherford, Steven T.}}
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=== [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]]
[[File:AI-2.png|thumb|Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements - borate ester of 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione]]
[[File:Inter-Species Communication.jpg|thumb|Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione]]
[[File:Intra-Species Communication.jpg|thumb|Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Quorum Sensing in Bacteria
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
Rutherford et al.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rutherford, Steven T.}}
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=== [[w:Bonnie Bassler|Bassler, Bonnie Lynn (1962 - )]] ===
&lt;hr/&gt;
[[File:Bonnie Bassler.jpg|thumb|Bonnie Bassler]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Quorum Sensing in Bacteria
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{| align=center | width= 640px
|'''Quorum Sensing in Bacteria'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/Bonnie L. Bassler - Quorum Sensing}}
&lt;br /&gt;
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'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bassler, Bonnie}}
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
Rutherford et al.&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Rutherford, Steven T.}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite journal | last1= Rutherford | first1= Steven T. | last2= Bassler | first2= Bonnie L. | year= 2012 | title= Bacterial Quorum Sensing: Its Role in Virulence and Possibilities for Its Control | journal= Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine | volume= 2 | number= 11 | pages= a012427 | publication-date= November 2012 | pmid= 23125205 | pmc= 3543102 | doi= 10.1101/cshperspect.a012427 | url= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543102/pdf/cshperspectmed-...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="493" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite journal | last1= Rutherford | first1= Steven T. | last2= Bassler | first2= Bonnie L. | year= 2012 | title= Bacterial Quorum Sensing: Its Role in Virulence and Possibilities for Its Control | journal= Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine | volume= 2 | number= 11 | pages= a012427 | publication-date= November 2012 | pmid= 23125205 | pmc= 3543102 | doi= 10.1101/cshperspect.a012427 | url= https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3543102/pdf/cshperspectmed-BAC-a012427.pdf }}</text>
      <sha1>mu4gm8a59f5jacmx8z53p8vxswbai9q</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Gallery/Bonnie L. Bassler - Quorum Sensing</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285841</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410624</id>
      <timestamp>2022-07-31T23:24:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{| align= center | style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot; |{{Gallery  | title =  ''Quorum Sensing''  | width = 100  | height = 100  | align= center  | File:Intra-Species Communication.jpg|alt1= Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones|Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones  | File:Inter-Species Communication.jpg|alt2= Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione|Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione  | File:...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="787" xml:space="preserve">{| align= center | style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;
|{{Gallery
 | title =  ''Quorum Sensing''
 | width = 100
 | height = 100
 | align= center
 | File:Intra-Species Communication.jpg|alt1= Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones|Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones
 | File:Inter-Species Communication.jpg|alt2= Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione|Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione
 | File:TPDhydratesJanda.png|alt3= 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms|4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms 
 | File:AI-2.png|alt4= Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements|Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements
}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>5vcllpj8eovsj4tk99d0yxgsmlud6ms</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410626</id>
      <parentid>2410624</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-07-31T23:28:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="826" xml:space="preserve">{| align= center | style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;
|{{Gallery
 | title =  ''Quorum Sensing''
 | width = 100
 | height = 100
 | align= center
 | File:Intra-Species Communication.jpg|alt1= Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones|Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones
 | File:Inter-Species Communication.jpg|alt2= Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione|Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione
 | File:TPDhydratesJanda.png|alt3= 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms|4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms 
 | File:AI-2.png|alt4= Autoinducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements|Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ is a furanosyl borate diester of 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione
}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>d6yttf0ogzqorsaww34ped1z8lvw3xy</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2410643</id>
      <parentid>2410626</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:30:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="916" xml:space="preserve">{| align= center | style=&quot;font-size:85%&quot;
|{{Gallery
 | title =  ''Quorum Sensing''
 | width = 100
 | height = 100
 | align= center
 | File:Intra-Species Communication.jpg|alt1= Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones|Intra-Species Communication via N-acyl-homoserine lactones
 | File:Inter-Species Communication.jpg|alt2= Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione|Inter-Species Communication via 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione
 | File:TPDhydratesJanda.png|alt3= 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms|4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione in equilibrium with its cyclic acetal forms R-DHMF &amp; S-SHMF
 | File:AI-2.png|alt4= Autoinducer-2 for the LuxPQ quorum sensing elements|Auto Inducer-2 for the LuxPQ is a furanosyl borate diester of 4,5-Dihydroxypentane-2,3-dione
 | File:PDB 1tjy EBI.jpg|alt5= LsrB (PDB 1tjy EBI)|LsrB with R-THMF ligand
}}
|}</text>
      <sha1>ox4vodac91088t3be338qpicjmcmwup</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220801.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>285842</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410636</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:06:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=MP3.1F: Mutabilitiy - Lambda Calculus (20220801 - 20220801)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="247" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=MP3.1F: Mutabilitiy - Lambda Calculus (20220801 - 20220801)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}
== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
      <sha1>9m6qs02kx7grgw8y71wo1pptzgkrx3n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/People/Bertolotti, Anne</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285843</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410650</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:58:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Anne Bertolotti|Bertolotti, Anne]] === &lt;hr /&gt; '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Cellular defences against misfolded proteins and the mechanisms underlying their deposition in neurodegenerative diseases. &lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt; '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bertolotti, Anne}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} &lt;hr /&gt;&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="343" xml:space="preserve">{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== [[w:Anne Bertolotti|Bertolotti, Anne]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Cellular defences against misfolded proteins and the mechanisms underlying their deposition in neurodegenerative diseases.
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bertolotti, Anne}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>b4u2obfa589kfnrb2pfc6o5d2fo6pt1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410651</id>
      <parentid>2410650</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T00:59:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Bertolotti, Anne */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="366" xml:space="preserve">{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
=== [[w:Anne Bertolotti|Bertolotti, Anne]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Cellular defences against misfolded proteins and the mechanisms underlying their deposition in neurodegenerative diseases.
* Protein Phosphatases
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Bertolotti, Anne}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
      <sha1>tgke9h0mt9mcyznz3lzwz2k9lhnb9qx</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Corballis, Michael C.</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410665</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T02:57:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite book | last= Corballis | first= Michael C. | year= 1991 | title= The Lopsided Ape: Evolution of the Generative Mind | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-195-08352-1 | url= https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-lopsided-ape-9780195083521?cc=us&amp;lang=en&amp; }}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="283" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Corballis | first= Michael C. | year= 1991 | title= The Lopsided Ape: Evolution of the Generative Mind | publisher= Oxford University Press | isbn= 978-0-195-08352-1 | url= https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-lopsided-ape-9780195083521?cc=us&amp;lang=en&amp; }}</text>
      <sha1>d55n96epwih5nwaf9kfzur3gbz1w7os</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Calvin, Melvin</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285845</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410666</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:03:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite book | last= Calvin, Melvin | year= 1961 | chapter= The Path Of Carbon In Photosynthesis (Nobel Lecture) | title= Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942-1962, | publisher= Elsevier Publishing Company | location= Amsterdam | publication-date= 1964 | doi= 10.1142/3732 | isbn= 978-981-023407-2 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1961/calvin/lecture/ }}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="367" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Calvin, Melvin | year= 1961 | chapter= The Path Of Carbon In Photosynthesis (Nobel Lecture) | title= Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1942-1962, | publisher= Elsevier Publishing Company | location= Amsterdam | publication-date= 1964 | doi= 10.1142/3732 | isbn= 978-981-023407-2 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1961/calvin/lecture/ }}</text>
      <sha1>pubhgmokxsw9pxx7svsrlb912rt6vgn</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Corey, Elias James</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285846</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410667</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:05:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtwsaddress42</username>
        <id>234843</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;* {{cite book | last= Corey | first= Elias James | year= 1990 | chapter= The Logic of Chemical Synthesis: Multistep Synthesis of Complex Carbogenic Molecules (Nobel Lecture) | title= Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1981-1990 | editor= Tore Frängsmyr &amp; Bo G. Malmström | publisher= World Scientific Publishing Co. | location= Singapore | publication-date= 1992 | isbn= 978-981-02-0788-5 | doi= 10.1142/1507 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1990/corey/lecture/ }}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="475" xml:space="preserve">* {{cite book | last= Corey | first= Elias James | year= 1990 | chapter= The Logic of Chemical Synthesis: Multistep Synthesis of Complex Carbogenic Molecules (Nobel Lecture) | title= Nobel Lectures, Chemistry 1981-1990 | editor= Tore Frängsmyr &amp; Bo G. Malmström | publisher= World Scientific Publishing Co. | location= Singapore | publication-date= 1992 | isbn= 978-981-02-0788-5 | doi= 10.1142/1507 | url= https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/chemistry/1990/corey/lecture/ }}</text>
      <sha1>iiwctjnbur43kgorbmld3s49rtcx0dp</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:ARM.2ASM.VectoredInterrupt.20220801.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>285847</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410675</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:21:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Programming (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="250" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=ARM.2ASM: Vectored Interrupt Programming (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}
== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
      <sha1>0efcwu3cet5xg8y3stw3abln3i96mcu</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>285848</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410676</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:22:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=ARM.4ASM: Timer Architecture Examples (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="247" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=ARM.4ASM: Timer Architecture Examples (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}
== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
      <sha1>kcmzhyswrjykhhiv8bhk4d0wbvodz2y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220801.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>285849</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410677</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T03:23:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture Example (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="245" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=ARM.4ASM: UART Architecture Example (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{GFDL}}
}}
== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
      <sha1>n4yvm4c0cbp1vf9u4ztv5jujn3lje6i</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220801.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>285850</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410689</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:16:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="263" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=ELF1.1E: Weak and Common Symbols (20220801 - 20220730)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-01
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
      <sha1>04zj5dc8q9j5lrb1k90jkqmvonlis6r</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Psychological</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>285851</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410693</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:27:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs]]&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="46" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs]]</text>
      <sha1>db9wx1p83oig2x6fyktohfh4qqu93a0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs/Physiological</title>
    <ns>14</ns>
    <id>285852</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410720</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T04:43:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs]]&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="46" xml:space="preserve">[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Needs]]</text>
      <sha1>db9wx1p83oig2x6fyktohfh4qqu93a0</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection/Due</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285853</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410761</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:06:34Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;Week 04 Mon 9am 22 Aug 2022&lt;noinclude&gt; [[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="103" xml:space="preserve">Week 04 Mon 9am 22 Aug 2022&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>qy5drbriwu1sa12cjaf5jlql46j3iey</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285854</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2410765</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:21:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{title|Topic selection - Guidelines}} &lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Topic selection''&lt;/div&gt; {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} &lt;!-- Show this during semester {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}} {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} --&gt; ==Summary== This optional, unweighted, early assessment exercise involves registering a Wikiversity account and signing up to a topic which will be used for the Motivation...&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3426" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic selection - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Topic selection''&lt;/div&gt;
{{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}}
&lt;!-- Show this during semester {{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}
{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic/Quickstarttip}} --&gt;
==Summary==
This optional, unweighted, early assessment exercise involves registering a Wikiversity account and signing up to a topic which will be used for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you don't submit the topic selection, just move directly into the topic development.

==Overview==
# Weight: 0%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Register a Wikiversity account
# Sign up to a topic or propose a new topic
# Topics must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]. Suitable topics are unique (i.e., aren't covered by [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapters]]) and related to either [[motivation]] or [[emotion]].


==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines:
# Pre-approved topics are available (see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}).
## To sign up, [[Special:Userlogin/login|login to Wikiversity]], go to the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}, edit the page, add your Wikiversity user name alongside a topic which does not already have an author, and publish the page.
## Conduct an initial literature search to scope out whether there is sufficient theory and research to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. If not, propose a change to the topic by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] or sign up to a different topic.
# New topics can be proposed by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] these details:
## Title
## Sub-title (in the form of a question) - see [[/Proposed|examples]]
## Wikiversity user name
## Details of any related previous book chapter topics (check via this [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search box]])
# Proposed changes and topics will be evaluated according to:
## Uniqueness: Topic must not covered by a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous motivation and motivation book chapter]]. Search before making a proposal. If there are similar previous topics, make clear how the proposed topic builds on, and differs from, previous work.
## Theme: Topic must fit the overarching book theme: to help people to understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science.
## Scope: Is there enough theory and research to warrant a dedicated chapter? If the topic is too narrow, it may be difficult to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#The unit convener will check your submission and provide feedback.

==See also==
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection| ]]</text>
      <sha1>m8q7zxuf66c21eb59rmz9yvomcd9vtp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410770</id>
      <parentid>2410765</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:26:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Update for 2022</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3376" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic selection - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Topic selection''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}

==Summary==
This optional, unweighted, early assessment exercise involves registering a Wikiversity account and signing up to a topic which will be used for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you don't submit the topic selection, just move directly into the topic development.

==Overview==
# Weight: 0%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Register a Wikiversity account
# Sign up to a topic or propose a new topic
# Topics must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]. Suitable topics are unique (i.e., aren't covered by [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapters]]) and related to either [[motivation]] or [[emotion]].


==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines:
# Pre-approved topics are available (see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}).
## To sign up, [[Special:Userlogin/login|login to Wikiversity]], go to the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}, edit the page, add your Wikiversity user name alongside a topic which does not already have an author, and publish the page.
## Conduct an initial literature search to scope out whether there is sufficient theory and research to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. If not, propose a change to the topic by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] or sign up to a different topic.
# New topics can be proposed by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] these details:
## Title
## Sub-title (in the form of a question) - see [[/Proposed|examples]]
## Wikiversity user name
## Details of any related previous book chapter topics (check via this [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search box]])
# Proposed changes and topics will be evaluated according to:
## Uniqueness: Topic must not covered by a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous motivation and motivation book chapter]]. Search before making a proposal. If there are similar previous topics, make clear how the proposed topic builds on, and differs from, previous work.
## Theme: Topic must fit the overarching book theme: to help people to understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science.
## Scope: Is there enough theory and research to warrant a dedicated chapter? If the topic is too narrow, it may be difficult to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#The unit convener will check your submission and provide feedback.

==See also==
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection| ]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2410771</id>
      <parentid>2410770</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:27:08Z</timestamp>
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        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="3375" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic selection - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Topic selection''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}

==Summary==
This optional, unweighted, early assessment exercise involves registering a Wikiversity account and signing up to a topic which will be used for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you don't submit the topic selection, just move directly into the topic development.

==Overview==
# Weight: 0%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Register a Wikiversity account
# Sign up to a topic or propose a new topic
# Topics must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]. Suitable topics are unique (i.e., aren't covered by [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapters]]) and related to either [[motivation]] or [[emotion]].

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines:
# Pre-approved topics are available (see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}).
## To sign up, [[Special:Userlogin/login|login to Wikiversity]], go to the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}, edit the page, add your Wikiversity user name alongside a topic which does not already have an author, and publish the page.
## Conduct an initial literature search to scope out whether there is sufficient theory and research to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. If not, propose a change to the topic by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] or sign up to a different topic.
# New topics can be proposed by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] these details:
## Title
## Sub-title (in the form of a question) - see [[/Proposed|examples]]
## Wikiversity user name
## Details of any related previous book chapter topics (check via this [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search box]])
# Proposed changes and topics will be evaluated according to:
## Uniqueness: Topic must not covered by a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous motivation and motivation book chapter]]. Search before making a proposal. If there are similar previous topics, make clear how the proposed topic builds on, and differs from, previous work.
## Theme: Topic must fit the overarching book theme: to help people to understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science.
## Scope: Is there enough theory and research to warrant a dedicated chapter? If the topic is too narrow, it may be difficult to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

==Submission and marking==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#The unit convener will check your submission and provide feedback.

==See also==
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection| ]]</text>
      <sha1>s2kea6vc8nysr5o86xbtlikg93pu9sj</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-01T09:27:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Submission and marking */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3376" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Topic selection - Guidelines}}
&lt;div style=&quot;text-align: center;&quot;&gt;''Topic selection''&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Assessment/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- Show this during semester --&gt;{{:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Contents}}

==Summary==
This optional, unweighted, early assessment exercise involves registering a Wikiversity account and signing up to a topic which will be used for the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], and [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia presentation]]

No extensions or late submissions are available for this exercise. If you don't submit the topic selection, just move directly into the topic development.

==Overview==
# Weight: 0%
# Due: {{/Due}}
# Register a Wikiversity account
# Sign up to a topic or propose a new topic
# Topics must be approved by the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]]. Suitable topics are unique (i.e., aren't covered by [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous book chapters]]) and related to either [[motivation]] or [[emotion]].

==Guidelines==
Follow these general guidelines:
# Pre-approved topics are available (see the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}).
## To sign up, [[Special:Userlogin/login|login to Wikiversity]], go to the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}, edit the page, add your Wikiversity user name alongside a topic which does not already have an author, and publish the page.
## Conduct an initial literature search to scope out whether there is sufficient theory and research to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]. If not, propose a change to the topic by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] or sign up to a different topic.
# New topics can be proposed by emailing the [[Motivation and emotion/About/Staff|unit convener]] these details:
## Title
## Sub-title (in the form of a question) - see [[/Proposed|examples]]
## Wikiversity user name
## Details of any related previous book chapter topics (check via this [[Motivation and emotion/Book|search box]])
# Proposed changes and topics will be evaluated according to:
## Uniqueness: Topic must not covered by a [[Motivation and emotion/Book|previous motivation and motivation book chapter]]. Search before making a proposal. If there are similar previous topics, make clear how the proposed topic builds on, and differs from, previous work.
## Theme: Topic must fit the overarching book theme: to help people to understand and improve their motivational and emotional lives using psychological science.
## Scope: Is there enough theory and research to warrant a dedicated chapter? If the topic is too narrow, it may be difficult to satisfy the [[#Marking criteria|marking criteria]].

==Submission and feedback==
#Submit via {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}}.
#The unit convener will check your submission and provide feedback.

==See also==
* Assessment
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|Topic development]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
* Tutorials
** [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Topic selection|Tutorial 01: Topic selection]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Selection| ]]</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment]]&quot;</comment>
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