HTML

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'''HTML''' or '''HyperText Markup Language''' is a predominant [[w:markup language|markup language]] for web pages. It is a structured way of telling web browsers how a web page should be displayed. '''HTML''' is a static language, which means that it cannot process (or change its content based on) user input.

==Prerequisites==
Basic '''HTML''' has no prerequisites in any formal education. HTML is text-based computer-coding that can be made and run by children that understand the alphabet and symbols (Age: 6+). It requires no specialist computer knowledge at its basic level. Further insight (as delivered in these lessons) requires at least a moderately educated individual or supervisor. 

*Example: A children's lesson
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-

|[Tags for XML which include] HTML merely use diamond symbols: &lt;&gt; one uncut diamond, and then closed with &lt;/&gt; a cut diamond.
The basic set of HTML words are put in the diamonds.
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt; 
&lt;html&gt;
&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt; and then closed &lt;/title&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;
&lt;body&gt; but this is another section for the page.&lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|-
|To finish the child merely creates a filename with the dot html extension. Then, the child can click the icon on the desktop for go! The dot html file is associated with a browser. 
*Changing the use of filenames, extensions, and file associations may be necessary in untested machines - learn this if necessary. 
|}

==HTML Editor==
#To write HTML, you need to use an editor:
#*Any [[w:Text editor|plain-text editor]] will do, such as [[w:Notepad|Windows Notepad]], [[w:TextEdit|Macintosh TextEdit]] or [[w:gedit|gedit]]/[[w:Kate (text editor)|Kate]] for Linux.  A word processor, such as [[w:Microsoft Word|Microsoft Word]] or [[w:OpenOffice.org|OpenOffice]] is not acceptable, but a more advanced text editor such as [[w:Notepad++|Notepad++]] is fine, and even recommended. 
#*A [[w:WYSIWYG|What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get (WYSIWYG)]] editor, such as [[w:Microsoft Expression Web|Microsoft Expression Web]] (which replaced Frontpage (discontinued)) or [[w:Adobe Dreamweaver|Adobe Dreamweaver]] will work, but this course will focus on learning with a text editor before using a WYSIWYG editor.
#*You may also want to use a software that is specialized for programming, such as [[w:Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]].
#To view rendered HTML, you need a [[w:web browser|web browser]] (such as the one you are using to view this page). But it's a good idea to view your HTML documents in multiple browsers, because each browser has different rules to displays HTML documents. [[User:Jsbelk|Jsbelk]] 12:26, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

==HTML Structure==
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt;&lt;/title&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;
&lt;body&gt;&lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

;&lt;html&gt;&lt;/html&gt;
:Begin your HTML webpage

;&lt;head&gt;&lt;/head&gt;
:HTML tags contain the code which is not really seen by the website user. It contains for instant javascript or title tags. You will learn more in the next few pages

;&lt;title&gt;&lt;/title&gt;
:HTML tags contain the title of the webpage which you see at the top of your browser tab 

;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/body&gt;
:HTML tags contain, like it says, the body of the webpage which the user sees

==Lessons==
* [[/Introduction/]]&lt;!-- Coming soon: user Aepex is currently writing the first draft of this... -- See talk page for XHTML.--&gt;
* [[/HTML tags/]]
* [[/Basic formatting/]]
* [[/Fonts and colours/]]
* [[/Links/]]
* [[/Lists/]]
* [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Frames/]]
* [[/Forms/]]
* [[/Graphical Content and Multimedia/]] - Understand how to display audio, video, and images using HTML.
* [[/Meta Tags/]]
* [[WYSIWYG vs. Manual Coding in HTML]] - Advantages and disadvantages to both
* [[Web Design/What is HTML|What is HTML anyway?]] - Get started on the right foot with this fun introduction to HTML!
* [[Web Design/HTML Challenges|HTML Challenges]] - Work on your HTML skills with these visual challenges.
* [[/301 redirect/]]
*improving HTML

== See Also ==
{{wikipedia}}
* [[Internet Fundamentals/HTML]]
* [[Web design]]
* [[Web Foundations]]
* [[HTML5]]
* [[Exam 98-375: HTML5 Application Development Fundamentals]]
* [[Exam 98-383: Introduction to Programming using HTML and CSS]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/ HTMLSource]
* [http://htmldog.com/guides/htmlbeginner/ htmldog]
* [http://webdeconstructor.com/ WebDeconstructor]
* [http://www.w3train.com/html-code-tester-tool/ Online HTML Editor]
*[https://css-tricks.com/where-do-you-learn-html-css-in-2019/ Where Do You Learn HTML and CSS in 2019?]
*[https://espacosinvisiveis.com &amp;nbsp]

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      <text bytes="4579" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Html.png|right|200px|HTML]]

'''HTML''' or '''HyperText Markup Language''' is a predominant [[w:markup language|markup language]] for web pages. It is a structured way of telling web browsers how a web page should be displayed. '''HTML''' is a static language, which means that it cannot process (or change its content based on) user input.

==Prerequisites==
Basic '''HTML''' has no prerequisites in any formal education. HTML is text-based computer-coding that can be made and run by children that understand the alphabet and symbols (Age: 6+). It requires no specialist computer knowledge at its basic level. Further insight (as delivered in these lessons) requires at least a moderately educated individual or supervisor. 

*Example: A children's lesson
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-

|[Tags for XML which include] HTML merely use diamond symbols: &lt;&gt; one uncut diamond, and then closed with &lt;/&gt; a cut diamond.
The basic set of HTML words are put in the diamonds.
|-
|&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt; 
&lt;html&gt;
&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt; and then closed &lt;/title&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;
&lt;body&gt; but this is another section for the page.&lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
|-
|To finish the child merely creates a filename with the dot html extension. Then, the child can click the icon on the desktop for go! The dot html file is associated with a browser. 
*Changing the use of filenames, extensions, and file associations may be necessary in untested machines - learn this if necessary. 
|}

==HTML Editor==
#To write HTML, you need to use an editor:
#*Any [[w:Text editor|plain-text editor]] will do, such as [[w:Notepad|Windows Notepad]], [[w:TextEdit|Macintosh TextEdit]] or [[w:gedit|gedit]]/[[w:Kate (text editor)|Kate]] for Linux.  A word processor, such as [[w:Microsoft Word|Microsoft Word]] or [[w:OpenOffice.org|OpenOffice]] is not acceptable, but a more advanced text editor such as [[w:Notepad++|Notepad++]] is fine, and even recommended. 
#*A [[w:WYSIWYG|What-You-See-Is-What-You-Get (WYSIWYG)]] editor, such as [[w:Microsoft Expression Web|Microsoft Expression Web]] (which replaced Frontpage (discontinued)) or [[w:Adobe Dreamweaver|Adobe Dreamweaver]] will work, but this course will focus on learning with a text editor before using a WYSIWYG editor.
#*You may also want to use a software that is specialized for programming, such as [[w:Eclipse (software)|Eclipse]].
#To view rendered HTML, you need a [[w:web browser|web browser]] (such as the one you are using to view this page). But it's a good idea to view your HTML documents in multiple browsers, because each browser has different rules to displays HTML documents. [[User:Jsbelk|Jsbelk]] 12:26, 23 September 2011 (UTC)

==HTML Structure==
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
&lt;head&gt;
&lt;title&gt;&lt;/title&gt;
&lt;/head&gt;
&lt;body&gt;&lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

;&lt;html&gt;&lt;/html&gt;
:Begin your HTML webpage

;&lt;head&gt;&lt;/head&gt;
:HTML tags contain the code which is not really seen by the website user. It contains for instant javascript or title tags. You will learn more in the next few pages

;&lt;title&gt;&lt;/title&gt;
:HTML tags contain the title of the webpage which you see at the top of your browser tab 

;&lt;body&gt;&lt;/body&gt;
:HTML tags contain, like it says, the body of the webpage which the user sees

==Lessons==
* [[/Introduction/]]&lt;!-- Coming soon: user Aepex is currently writing the first draft of this... -- See talk page for XHTML.--&gt;
* [[/HTML tags/]]
* [[/Basic formatting/]]
* [[/Fonts and colours/]]
* [[/Links/]]
* [[/Lists/]]
* [[/Tables/]]
* [[/Frames/]]
* [[/Forms/]]
* [[/Graphical Content and Multimedia/]] - Understand how to display audio, video, and images using HTML.
* [[/Meta Tags/]]
* [[WYSIWYG vs. Manual Coding in HTML]] - Advantages and disadvantages to both
* [[Web Design/What is HTML|What is HTML anyway?]] - Get started on the right foot with this fun introduction to HTML!
* [[Web Design/HTML Challenges|HTML Challenges]] - Work on your HTML skills with these visual challenges.
* [[/301 redirect/]]
*improving HTML

== See Also ==
{{wikipedia}}
* [[Internet Fundamentals/HTML]]
* [[Web design]]
* [[Web Foundations]]
* [[HTML5]]
* [[Exam 98-375: HTML5 Application Development Fundamentals]]
* [[Exam 98-383: Introduction to Programming using HTML and CSS]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.yourhtmlsource.com/ HTMLSource]
* [http://htmldog.com/guides/htmlbeginner/ htmldog]
* [http://webdeconstructor.com/ WebDeconstructor]
* [http://www.w3train.com/html-code-tester-tool/ Online HTML Editor]
*[https://css-tricks.com/where-do-you-learn-html-css-in-2019/ Where Do You Learn HTML and CSS in 2019?]

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  <page>
    <title>Wisdom</title>
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      <comment>/* Wise Decision Making */</comment>
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      <text bytes="43562" xml:space="preserve">'''Introduction'''&lt;br&gt;
[[File:Ouroboros.png|thumb|250px|The [[w:Ouroboros|Ouroboros]] sometimes represents self-reflexivity or cycles.]]
Although the subject of [[w:Wisdom|wisdom]] has been contemplated and debated by philosophers for millennia, there is little consensus on its definition. More importantly, although wise choices could help us increase human well-being, there is little understanding, discussion, or application of wisdom in our lives. This course explores the topic of wisdom with a particular emphasis on applying wisdom to solve practical problems. 
{{100%done}}{{Non-formal education}}{{By|lbeaumont}}
Philosopher [[w:Nicholas_Maxwell |Nicholas Maxwell]]  defines wisdom as “the capacity, the desire, and the active endeavor to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.”

At its simplest, wisdom is [http://www.thewisepath.org/wisdom.htm choosing humanity]. This will become more clear as we progress through the course.

The objectives of this course are to:
* Explore the definitions and nature of wisdom,
* Examine how wisdom can help solve important problems,
* Describe a path of study and experience that can increase your wisdom,
* Help to increase your wisdom and [[w:Quality_of_life|well-being]],
* Suggest areas for your further study and growth.

This course is part of the Applied Wisdom [[/Curriculum/]].

The list of [[Wise Affirmations|wise affirmations]] on the [[Wise_Affirmations/Wisdom|topic of wisdom]] may help you develop habits based on the ideas in this course.

If you wish to contact the instructor, please [[Special:Emailuser/Lbeaumont | click here to send me an email]].
{{TOC limit|limit=2}}

== Defining Wisdom ==
Definitions of wisdom are as elusive as they are numerous.&lt;ref&gt;An inventory of essays, articles, talks, and websites dealing with the question &quot;what is wisdom&quot; is available at the Wisdom Page, [http://www.wisdompage.com/introwis02.html Introduction to Wisdom] section.&lt;/ref&gt; In his doctoral dissertation [http://www.wisdompage.com/TheScientificApproachtoWisdom.doc ''The Scientific Approach of Wisdom''] researcher [http://wisdomcenteredlife.org/ Dr. Richard Trowbridge] surveys candidate definitions organized into sections labeled: wisdom as optimal choice, cultural differences, kinds of wisdom, difficulty of distinguishing wisdom, wisdom as a distinct, unique ability, wisdom and the good life, and wisdom and the common good. Of these “[http://thewisepath.blogspot.com/2013/02/toward-global-perspectiveseeing-through.html seeing through illusion]” is perhaps the most intriguing, if somewhat ambiguous characterization of wisdom.

Here is a gallery of selected definitions of wisdom:
* “the capacity, the desire, and the active endeavor to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.” ~ [[w:Nicholas_Maxwell|Nicholas Maxwell]]
* “Wisdom is an understanding of what is important, where this understating informs a (wise) person’s thought or action.” ~ [[w:Robert_Nozick|Robert Nozick]]&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book 
|title=The Examined Life: Philosophical Meditations 
|last=Nozick 
|first=Robert 
|authorlink=w:Robert_Nozick
|year=1990
|publisher=Simon &amp; Schuster
|isbn=0671725017
|pages=320
|url=http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Examined_Life
}} Page 267.&lt;/ref&gt;
* “the application of successful intelligence and creativity as mediated by values toward the achievement of a common good.” ~ [[w:Robert_Sternberg|Robert Sternberg]]&lt;ref&gt;Robert J. Sternberg, Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized, (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 152.&lt;/ref&gt;
*  “Wisdom is the comprehension of things just as they are.” ~ [[w:Hugh_of_Saint_Victor|Hugh of St. Victor]] &lt;ref&gt;
Hugh of St. Victor. Didascalicon. &lt;http://freespace.virgin.net/angus.graham/Hugh.htm&gt;. Text from the edition by Charles Henry Buttimer (1939), ''Hugonis de Sancto Victore Didascalicon de Studio Legendi, a critical text'', Studies in Medieval and Renaissance Latin X, Washington: The Catholic University Press. &lt;/ref&gt;
* “Seeing through illusion” ~ Patrick McKee and Clifton Barber&lt;ref&gt; McKee, Patrick, and Clifton Barber. 1999. “On Defining Wisdom.” ''The International Journal of Aging and Human Development'' 49(2):149-164. &lt;/ref&gt;
* “To know that you know what you know, and that you do not know what you do not know, that is true wisdom.” ~ [[w:Confucius|Confucius]]&lt;ref&gt;[[w:Analects|''Analects'']], Chapter II &lt;/ref&gt;
* “knowledge of means to good ends”  ~ [[w:John Kekes|John Kekes]] &lt;ref&gt;Kekes, John. 1983. “Wisdom.” ''American Philosophical Quarterly'' 20:277-286. &lt;/ref&gt;
* “Wisdom is that understanding which is essential to living the best life” ~ Richard Garrett&lt;ref&gt;Garrett, Richard. 1996. “Three Definitions of Wisdom.” Pp. 221-232 in K. Lehrer, B. J. Lum, B. A. Slichta, &amp; N. D. Smith, (Eds.). ''Knowledge, Teaching and Wisdom''. Dordrecht and Boston: Kluwer. &lt;/ref&gt;
*  “Wisdom is nothing more than the vision of things as they are, the vision of the cosmos as it is in the light of reason.” ~ [[w:Pierre_Hadot|Pierre Hadot]] &lt;ref&gt; Philosopher Pierre Hadot  as quoted by  Achenaum, W. Andrew . 2004. Wisdom’s Vision of Relations. Human Development (Karger), Vol. 47(5), September:300-303.&lt;/ref&gt;
* “Wisdom is the highest expression of self-development and future consciousness. It is the continually evolving understanding of and fascination with the big picture of life, of what is important, ethical, and meaningful, and the desire and creative capacity to apply this understanding to enhance the well being of life, both for oneself and others.” ~ Tom Lombardo&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book 
|last=Lombardo 
|first=Thomas 
|title=Wisdom, Consciousness, and the Future: Collected Essays 
|year=2011 
|publisher=Xlibris Corp 
|isbn=978-1462883608 
|pages=462
}}&lt;/ref&gt;
* “Practical wisdom consists in the capacities needed to make good judgments about what matters in life and to bring one’s actions into accordance, insofar as this is in one’s control.” ~ The Rosewood Report&lt;ref&gt;[http://wisdomresearch.org/forums/t/846.aspx# The Rosewood Report: Questions about Wisdom], Valerie Tiberius, University of Chicago, July, 2010 &lt;/ref&gt;
* “''Competence'' in, ''intention'' to, and ''application'' of, ''critical'' life events to facilitate the ''optimal development'' of ''self'' and ''others''”.&lt;ref&gt;[http://evidencebasedwisdom.com/2016/11/06/wisdom-profiles-jeffrey-dean-webster/ Jeffrey Dean Webster], developed after an extensive review of the literature, especially [http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10804-009-9081-z Wisdom and Positive Psychosocial Values in Young Adulthood], Webster, J.D. J Adult Dev (2010) 17: 70.&lt;/ref&gt;
*“morally grounded excellence in social-cognitive processing” &lt;ref&gt;[https://wisdomcenter.uchicago.edu/news/wisdom-news/toronto-wisdom-task-force-publishes-common-model-wisdom-guide-future-research Toronto Wisdom Task Force Publishes Common Model of Wisdom to Guide Future Research]. University of Chicago, Center for Practical Wisdom, August 10, 2020&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;sup&gt;,&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/9QVXEAYIPRSBWGATPPQQ/full?target=10.1080%2F1047840X.2020.1750917&amp;fbclid=IwAR0QMlmLLMjOXAGasQ6ldcfLaA8t0-WWMaZ14IT5Wg_0q4E6VObuImezIZA&amp; The Science of Wisdom in a Polarized World: Knowns and Unknowns], Psychological Inquiry, Volume 31, 2020 - Issue 2, Igor Grossmann, et al.&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Practical and Ultimate Wisdom ===
In [[w:Nicomachean Ethics#Book VI: Intellectual virtue|Book 6]] of the ''Nicomachean Ethics'', [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle]] distinguishes between two intellectual virtues which are sometimes translated as &quot;wisdom&quot;: [[w:sophia|''sophia'']] and [[w:phronesis|''phronesis'']].

Sophia is the true conception of the first principles of existence and that which follows from them. This is perfect wisdom, the wisdom of the gods, unattainable by mortal men. This ultimate form of wisdom is sometimes called “Theoretical wisdom” and is often intimately tied to theology.

Phronesis, sometimes translated as “practical wisdom” is the highest level of insight attainable by mortals; the wise deliberation about human affairs.

This course concentrates on practical wisdom.

=== Wisdom as a virtue ===
[[Virtues/Wisdom|Wisdom]] is the virtue of good judgment.

Wisdom is a [[Virtues|virtue]] because folly is not. The deliberation, decision, and action of wisdom guide the other virtues toward the [[Virtues/Good|good]].&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book 
|title=A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Uses of Philosophy in Everyday Life 
|last=Comte-Sponville 
|first=André  
|year=2002 
|publisher=Picador 
|isbn=978-0805045567 
|pages=368
}} &lt;/ref&gt;

[[w:Prudence|Prudence]]—knowing what to do—is one of the four classic western [[w:Cardinal_virtues|cardinal virtues]]. Aristotle recognized prudence is what makes it possible to decide correctly what is good and what is bad for man. Wisdom tells us what best to do—what we should do—for the good

Wisdom is using good judgment to consider how today’s choices may determine how we confront the future. It is the good sense to go to the dentist today, enduring the brief inconvenience and pain, to avoid more trouble later. Wisdom differentiates action from impulse, and heroes from hotheads. Wisdom seeks to do for our future what memory does for our past.&lt;ref&gt; {{cite book
|title=A Small Treatise on the Great Virtues: The Uses of Philosophy in Everyday Life
|last=Comte-Sponville
|first=André 
|year=2002
|publisher=Picador
|isbn=978-0805045567
|pages=368
}} &lt;/ref&gt;

To Socrates and Plato, philosophy was literally the love of Wisdom (philo-sophia).
====Assignment====
Complete the Wikiversity course on [[Virtues|the virtues]].

===Personal Aspects of Wisdom===
Wise people characteristically exhibit several personal qualities. Read pages 61-84 of [http://www.wisdompage.com/TheScientificApproachtoWisdom.doc ''The Scientific Approach of Wisdom''] to learn about these personal aspects of wisdom.

===Exemplars of Wisdom===
Any list of wise people will be criticized for its omissions as well as its inclusions. Ideally a group of people, already widely acknowledged as wise, would work together to establish such a list. That has not yet happened.&lt;ref&gt;Richard Hawley Trowbridge, [http://www.wisdompage.com/TheScientificApproachtoWisdom.doc ''The Scientific Approach of Wisdom''], Doctoral dissertation, the Union Institute &amp; University, Cincinnati, Ohio, October 30, 2005&lt;/ref&gt; Alternatively, an assessment instrument, such as the Three-Dimensional Wisdom Scale developed by Monika Ardelt&lt;ref&gt; Empirical assessment of a three-dimensional wisdom scale, Monika Ardelt, Research on Aging, vol. 25 no. 3, May 2003 275-324&lt;/ref&gt; or the [[Wisdom/wisdom_assessment_form|wisdom assessment form]] could be used to identify wise people. None the less, it is helpful to browse a well-chosen list of people considered wise, and to study their lives to help understand their way to wisdom. “To really know what wise people are like, it is important to actually study them.”&lt;ref&gt;
Orwoll, Lucinda, and Marion Perlmutter. 1990. “The Study of Wise Persons: Integrating a Personality Perspective.” Pp. 160-177 in Wisdom: Its Nature, Origins, and Development, edited by Robert. J. Sternberg. New York: Cambridge University Press.&lt;/ref&gt;

Here is a candidate list of wise people (ordered by birth date) for you to consider, study, and learn from:
[[File:EleanorRooseveltHumanRights.png|thumb|200px|Eleanor Roosevelt wisely oversaw preparation of the [[w:Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights|Universal Declaration of Human Rights]].]] 

* The ancients – We will never know the names of those ancient innovators who first developed stone tools, cave paintings, the wheel, pottery vessels, writing, music, poetry, constructive uses of fire, and so many great ideas that have allowed humanity to move forward. More recently we know of [[w:Confucius|Confucius]], [[w:Gautama_Buddha|Buddha]], [[w:Laozi|Lao-Tzu]], [[w:Socrates|Socrates]], [[w:Plato|Plato]], [[w:Aristotle|Aristotle]], [[w:Jesus|Jesus of Nazareth]], [[w:Muhammad|Muhammad]] and many other wise humanitarians from ancient times.  
* [[w:Baruch_Spinoza|Baruch Spinoza]] —  was a Jewish-Dutch philosopher who established the groundwork for the 18th century Enlightenment and modern biblical criticism, including modern conceptions of the self and, arguably, the universe. He came to be considered one of the great rationalists of 17th-century philosophy. 
*[[w:Mary_Wollstonecraft|Mary Wollstonecraft]] — was an eighteenth-century British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women's rights. During her brief career, she wrote novels, treatises, a travel narrative, a history of the French Revolution, a conduct book, and a children's book.
* [[w:Dorothea_Dix|Dorothea Dix]] — was an American activist on behalf of the indigent insane who, through a vigorous program of lobbying state legislatures and the United States Congress, created the first generation of American mental asylums. During the Civil War, she served as Superintendent of Army Nurses.
* [[w:Abraham_Lincoln|Abraham Lincoln]] — was the 16th President of the United States, serving from March 1861 until his assassination in April 1865. Lincoln successfully led his country through its greatest constitutional, military, and moral crisis – the American Civil War – preserving the Union while ending slavery, and promoting economic and financial modernization.
* [[w:Susan_B._Anthony|Susan B. Anthony]] — was a prominent American civil rights leader who played a pivotal role in the 19th century women's rights movement to introduce women's suffrage into the United States.
* [[w:Anton_Chekhov|Anton Chekhov]] — was a Russian physician, dramaturge and author who is considered to be among the greatest writers of short stories in history. [http://www.wisdompage.com/ChekhovEssay.pdf Read more].
* [[w:Mohandas_Karamchand_Gandhi|Mahatma Gandhi]] — was the preeminent leader of Indian nationalism in British-ruled India. Employing non-violent civil disobedience, Gandhi led India to independence and inspired movements for non-violence, civil rights and freedom across the world.
* [[w:Friedrich Nietzsche|Friedrich Nietzsche]] — was a German philosopher known for his controversial criticisms of religion, and his views on humankind.
*[[w:Bertrand_Russell|Bertrand Russell]] — a British philosopher, logician, mathematician, historian, and social critic. He is widely held to be one of the 20th century's premier logicians.
* [[w:Robert_Frost|Robert Frost]] — an American poet highly regarded for his realistic depictions of rural life and his command of American colloquial speech.
*[[w:Eleanor_Roosevelt|Eleanor Roosevelt]] — Though widely respected in her later years, Roosevelt was a controversial First Lady for her outspokenness, particularly for her stands on racial issues.
*[[w:David_Ben-Gurion|David Ben Gurion]] — the main founder and the first Prime Minister of Israel. He believed in the equal rights of Arabs who remained in and would become citizens of Israel.
* [[w:Carl_Sandburg|Carl Sandburg]] — was an American writer and editor, best known for his poetry. He was the recipient of three Pulitzer Prizes: two for his poetry and another for his biography of Abraham Lincoln. H. L. Mencken called Sandburg &quot;indubitably an American in every pulse-beat&quot;. His wife Lilian (Paula) Steichen shares credit for their work. [http://www.wisdompage.com/SandburgEssay.pdf Read more]. 
* [[w:Dorothy_Day|Dorothy Day]] — was an American journalist, social activist, and devout Catholic convert; she advocated the Catholic economic theory of distributism. Day &quot;believed all states were inherently totalitarian,&quot; and was considered to be an anarchist who did not hesitate to use the term. [http://www.wisdompage.com/2012%20Articles/Dorothy_Day_Wisdom_Essay%202d_Moss.pdf Read more].
* [[w:E._F._Schumacher|E. F. Schumacher]] — was an internationally influential economic thinker, statistician and economist in Britain, serving as Chief Economic Adviser to the UK National Coal Board for two decades. He is best known for his critique of Western economies and his proposals for human-scale, decentralized and appropriate technologies. [http://www.wisdompage.com/SchumacherEssay.pdf Read more].
* [[w:Nelson_Mandela|Nelson Mandela]] — a South African politician who served as President of South Africa from 1994 to 1999, the first to be elected in a fully representative democratic election. Before being elected President, Mandela was a militant anti-apartheid activist.
* [[w:Andrei_Sakharov|Andrei Sakharov]] — was a Soviet nuclear physicist, dissident, and human rights activist. He became renowned as the designer of the Soviet Union's Third Idea, a codename for Soviet development of thermonuclear weapons. Sakharov was an advocate of civil liberties and civil reforms in the Soviet Union. He was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1975. [http://www.wisdompage.com/SakharovEssay.pdf Read more].
* [[w:Martin_Luther_King,_Jr.|Martin Luther King, Jr.]] — an American clergyman, activist, and prominent leader in the Civil Rights Movement. He is best known for his role in the advancement of civil rights using nonviolent civil disobedience.
* [[w:14th_Dalai_Lama|Tenzin Gyatso]] — The 14th Dali Lama won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989, and is also well known for his lifelong advocacy for Tibetans inside and outside Tibet.
* [[w:Aung_San_Suu_Kyi|Aung San Suu Kyi]] — is a Burmese opposition politician and chairperson of the National League for Democracy (NLD) in Burma.

In addition to these luminaries, perhaps there are people in your life, a grandparent, teacher, colleague, or acquaintance, who you consider to be wise. Learn what you can from them.
====Further Reading====
Students wanting to learn more about particular people considered to be wise may be interested in reading these books:
*(Evaluate: ''Wisdom: Conversations With The Elder Wise Men Of Our Day (24 Interviews)'', by James Nelson)
*(Evaluate:  ''Wisdom For Our Time'', by James Nelson)
*(Evaluate: Schwartz, Tony. 1996. ''What Really Matters: Searching For Wisdom In America''. New York: Bantam.

=== Choosing a working definition ===
There are so many disparate definitions of wisdom that we can become overwhelmed by its scope, diversity, and the challenges and choices it presents us. But to make progress we need to become energized and focused by the possibilities of wisdom, not paralyzed by it. Therefore I present three working definitions of wisdom, chosen to align with your own level of understanding, achievement, and progress toward all that wisdom can be.

Each definition of wisdom [[Wisdom#Defining_Wisdom|surveyed above]] emphasizes the importance of:  1) Good judgment, 2) taking action, and 3) working toward the common good. These themes are preserved in the three definitions proposed below.

'''Basic Wisdom:'''  “Pursuit of well-being”.  Begin by doing whatever improves your [[w:Quality_of_life|well-being]], without jeopardizing the well-being of others. When it becomes possible for you to improve the well-being of others, then take the opportunity to do good for others. First, do no harm; reduce the folly. This is essential wisdom.

'''Wisdom:'''  “The capacity, the desire, and the active endeavor to realize what is of value in life, for oneself and others.” A narrow focus on well-being may neglect important aspects of wisdom. This may include creating and enjoying various art forms such as poetry, music, theater, and the visual arts. It may include development of the various personal qualities associated with wisdom [[Wisdom#Personal_Aspects_of_Wisdom|described above]], and it may include exploring advanced mental states such as [[Meditation|meditation]], [[w:Mindfulness_(psychology)|mindfulness]], awareness,&lt;ref&gt;”There is an inner light, an inner peace, that can be found. There is an awakening of your mind possible that will indeed make ordinary conciseness seem like a state of sleep. It will make you more, not less, effective in the ordinary world, and allow you to give more genuine attention, care, and compassion to others.” From: {{cite book
|last=Tart
|first=Charles |authorlink=w:Charles_Tart
|title=Waking Up: Overcoming the Obstacles to Human Potential 
|year=2001
|publisher=iUniverse
|isbn=978-0595196647 
|pages=344
}} Page xvi&lt;/ref&gt;
&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book
|last=Macdonald
|first=Copthorne
|title=Matters of Consequence 
|year=2004
|publisher=Big Ideas Press
|isbn=978-0968961872 
|pages=412
}} Page 39 &lt;/ref&gt; and natural inclusion.&lt;ref&gt;For information on Natural Inclusionality, see the website [http://www.inclusionality.org/ inclusionality.org]  &lt;/ref&gt;

'''Ultimate Wisdom:'''  “All knowing, all caring, all loving”. We can only begin to imagine the ultimate potential of the human mind and spirit.

=== Assignment: === 
'''Part 1:'''

Consider a wide variety of candidate definitions for wisdom drawn from those cited above, the references to this course, or other reliable sources. Choose the one you consider to be the most fitting. Discuss and defend your choice.

'''Part 2:'''

Choose one of the three working definitions of wisdom, presented above, best suited to your current experience, situation, resources, and aspirations. Work toward fulfilling that definition in the way you think and act everyday.

'''Part 3: (Optional)'''

View this video on &quot;[http://evidencebasedwisdom.com/2016/03/28/ebw-animations-series-defining-wisdom/ Defining Wisdom]&quot;.

== Toward Wisdom ==
Increasing maturity along three paths: [http://www.thewisepath.org/cognition.htm thinking], [http://www.thewisepath.org/emotion.htm feeling], and [http://www.thewisepath.org/action.htm doing], moves us toward wisdom.&lt;ref&gt; [http://www.thewisepath.org/papers/wheres%20wisdom.pdf Where's Wisdom], by Leland R. Beaumont.&lt;/ref&gt; We often progress along the paths described below.

=== Emerging from Chaos ===
We are born essentially unaware of the wonderful world we live in. As infants and young children, we learn quickly about our world, but see such a small slice we are almost entirely misinformed about the world. We are born fussy but largely passive, able only to cry and squirm and we must rely on others to feed us, move us, protect us and care for us. Because our emotions are undeveloped we are apathetic toward the world, unless our comfort is at stake. Infants have no empathy for others—they are apathetic.

Considering the three dimensions of doing, feeling, and thinking, we are:

* Unaware
* Passive
* Apathetic

We become more wise as we begin to mature and move beyond this chaos and struggle to survive on our own.

=== Survival ===
Eventually our curiosity is armed with language, reasoning, exploration opportunities, number skills, and reading skills. Now we can ask our own questions and seek our own answers. We begin to become factually informed, at least in those areas where our curiosity takes us and we can find reliable answers to our questions. But this realm is still treacherous. Certain questions are off limits, myths and traditions may present falsehoods as facts, [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/trust.htm trusted] people may disagree on the answers to certain questions, or we may accept the first answer we hear. Formal schooling, self study, adventures, and life experiences combine to increase our information base. Some of that information is factual, and some is false, incomplete, invalid, or misleading.

As we gain control over our muscles, we eventually learn to roll over, crawl, walk, and then run. We can now move, but we travel in small circles, repeat actions endlessly, and our [http://www.thewisepath.org/thrashing.htm thrashing] around does not seem to accomplish anything more than pass time as we entertain ourselves and perhaps our parents and friends.

As our emotions begin to emerge infants soon learn to reflect the smile on their mother’s face, and react simply and predictably to other’s facial expressions, movements, fears, frustration, and pain. While raw and immediate reactions to [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/emotion.htm emotions] represent a growth stage for infants, this reactive behavior is immature, destructive, and unacceptable in adults. Violent tirades, [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/hate.htm hateful] actions, spiteful [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/revenge.htm revenge], [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/humiliation.htm humiliation], and [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/self.htm#Detaching ego rants] have no wise place among responsible adults.

We are struggling to survive with our skills at these nascent levels:

* [http://www.thewisepath.org/misinformed.htm Misinformed] — Believing falsehoods
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/thrashing.htm Thrashing] — Motion without purpose
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/Reactive.htm Reactive] — Impulsive and Destructive Emotional Reactions

Clear and critical thinkers eventually develop their own [http://emotionalcompetency.com/theoryofk.htm theory of knowledge] to help them decide what to believe in the face of incomplete or misleading answers and conflicting information sources. Here the rules of evidence, logic, inference, and critical thinking begin to take shape. The ability to integrate information and “connect the dots” to get a larger and consistent understanding of the world becomes important. Falsehoods and [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/distortions.htm fallacies] become easier to detect and reject. Inconsistencies become apparent and careful investigation begins to reveal larger and more durable truths about our fascinating world. We are better able to assimilate diversity, learn from ambiguity, [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/dialogue.htm#suspending suspend judgment], and become comfortable with complexity. These skills allow us to integrate factual information with our own investigations, knowledge base, and world view as we begin to truly know the world for ourselves.

Eventually we form [http://emotionalcompetency.com/goals.htm goals] and we focus and engage our actions to meet those goals. These goals may be modest and self-centered requiring little action, or we may set bolder goals to learn, gain strength, achieve, and help others.

[http://emotionalcompetency.com/w/Emotional%20Competency.htm Emotionally competent] adults develop the essential social skills to [http://emotionalcompetency.com/recognizing.htm recognize], interpret, and respond constructively to emotions in themselves and others. Understanding and impulse control allows reason to prevail over passion as we regulate and interpret our emotions. With study and practice we can each become [http://www.thewisepath.org/Emotional%20Competency.htm emotionally competent].

We are now surviving by living at the following levels along the three tracks:

* [http://www.thewisepath.org/factually%20informed.htm Factually Informed] — Holding Rigorously Verified Beliefs
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/engagement.htm Engagement] — Activity toward goals
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/Emotional%20Competency.htm Emotionally Competent] — Deliberate and Constructive Emotional Responses

At this level we are doing well, we are certainly surviving, but we may not yet be thriving or successful.

=== Success ===
As we mature we are better able to assimilate diversity, learn from ambiguity, [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/dialogue.htm#suspending suspend judgment], and become comfortable with complexity. These skills allow us to integrate factual information with our own investigations, knowledge base, and world view as we begin to truly know the world for ourselves.

As we begin to explore more of the world, we see opportunities that can only be seized by taking more risks. We can go away to summer camp or stay home. We can go far away to a challenging college ideally suited to us or play it safe and stay near home. We can seek a challenging job or tolerate a boring one. We either decide to yield to temptation and avoid taking risks, or we summon the courage to act on our [http://www.emotionalcompetency.com/values.htm values] and do what we believe is right, despite the temptations of an easier path. Running a marathon, graduating from college, job interviews, serious relationships, and studying for tomorrow’s test all require us to leave comfort behind to attain a greater outcome. Achievement requires courage.

Fortunately some people are [http://emotionalcompetency.com/w/emotionally%20talented.htm emotionally talented]—they are gifted with a special aptitude for interpersonal skills, or they learn emotional competency at an early age and practice it all their lives. They seem to know exactly what to say or do to bring out the best in each of us, comfort us during times of distress, and quickly reach a rapport even with total strangers. These are the warm and charismatic people among us who often excel at counseling professions.

We are now living at the following levels along the three tracks: 

* [http://www.thewisepath.org/knowing.htm Knowing] — Combining Facts, Drawing Conclusions
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/courage.htm Courage] — Value-based action despite temptation
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/emotionally%20talented.htm Emotionally Talented] — Naturally Warm and Constructive Emotional Responses

We are thriving and successful, perhaps even significant, when we are behaving at this level.

=== Transformation ===
When we can reflect on our reliable and broad knowledge, exercise good judgment, and apply it to solve significant problems to enhance human [[w:Quality_of_life|well-being]] we begin to understand the world as it is. Examining knowledge from multiple viewpoints, adopting a global perspective and long-term view, understanding interrelationships, and gaining insight all contribute to our holistic understanding of the world. Being curious about what happened, creative about what can happen, and open to new possibilities allows us to make surprisingly good decisions that benefit all.

Climbing a mountain or completing a marathon are courageous personal achievements that don’t do much to move the world forward. Action must be combined with well-chosen, human-based [http://emotionalcompetency.com/values.htm values] to make a significant difference. Courageous achievements that help others around the globe for all time is wisdom in action. When [[Wikipedia:Rosa Parks|Rosa Parks]] kept her bus seat and Martin Luther King Jr. organized and sustained the Montgomery Bus Boycott their actions created substantial and lasting progress for all people. This is real progress; this is doing good.

A few people have dedicated their lives to achieving [http://www.thewisepath.org/compassionate.htm compassion]. One example is [[w:Matthieu_Ricard|Dr. Matthieu Ricard]] who is a molecular geneticist, Buddhist monk, author, translator, and photographer sometimes described as the happiest person in the world. He was a volunteer subject in studies on happiness performed at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, scoring significantly beyond the average obtained after testing hundreds of other volunteers. He radiates calm and compassion.

We are now living at the following high levels along the three tracks:

* [http://www.thewisepath.org/understanding.htm Holistic Understanding] — Knowing why 
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/doing%20good.htm Doing Good] — Lasting improvement in human well-being, world-wide
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/compassionate.htm Compassionate] — Joyously Radiating Calm and Compassion

This brings us to the threshold of [http://www.thewisepath.org/wisdom.htm wisdom].

===Assignment: ===
'''Part 1:'''

Where are you now along this three-track path toward wisdom? Are you farthest along in the thinking, feeling, or doing dimension? What steps are most important for you to take to progress to the next level toward wisdom?

'''Part 2:'''

Study the text and complete the assignments provided in the [[Virtues/Wisdom|Wisdom topic]] of the [[Virtues]] course.

== Folly brings us problems ==
Perhaps because folly is more common than wisdom, we face [[Grand_Challenges|grand challenges]].
===Assignment===
Complete the Applied Wisdom course on [[Grand_challenges|grand challenges]].

== Can wisdom bring us solutions? ==
If folly has lead us to problems, perhaps wisdom, and its [[Global_Perspective|global perspective]], can lead us to solutions.
===Assignment===
'''Part 1:'''

Complete the Applied Wisdom course on [[Global_Perspective|global perspective]].

'''Part 2:'''

To improve well-being, focus on what matters. Complete the Applied Wisdom course on [[What Matters|what matters]].

'''Part 3:'''

Choose to [[Living Wisely|live wisely]].

==Assessing Wisdom==
Can we determine who is wise, or at least who is more wise?

There are times when you have to choose one person from a pool of candidates to fill an important position in which wisdom is very important. Examples include deciding what candidate to vote for in an election, who to hire for some job or business partnership, who to consult for advice, and even who to choose for a romantic commitment, or an important friendship.

Assessing the relative wisdom of each candidate, using this [[/wisdom assessment form/]], can help. Follow the instructions on the form.
===Assignment===
# Choose an exemplar of wisdom from the [[Wisdom#Exemplars_of_Wisdom|list provided above]], or from your own experience.
# Complete the [[/wisdom assessment form/]] using yourself as &quot;Candidate 1&quot; and the exemplar identified above as &quot;Candidate 2&quot;. It may be best to assign each characteristic the same importance value, e.g. 1.
# What can you learn from analyzing this chosen exemplar that can help you become more wise?
# Optionally, view this video on [https://videos.files.wordpress.com/htvLU91x/ebw-measuring-wisdom-v2_dvd.mp4 Measuring Wisdom].
#Optionally, read this short entry on [[w:Wisdom#Measuring_wisdom | measuring wisdom]].

== Wise Decision Making ==
How can we use wisdom to make better decisions in our lives? Since good judgment and optimal choice are at the core of wisdom, good decisions should be a natural outcome.  Follow each link below to study these tools, tips and guidance for making important decisions:
[[File:Frauenberg 030.jpg|thumb|250px|King Solomon is known for his [[w:Judgment_of_Solomon|wise decision]].]]

The [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/ seven steps to making a wise decision]. 
* Step One – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-one-be-clear-about-what-to-decide/ Be Clear about What to Decide]
* Step Two – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-two-gather-the-facts/ Gather the Facts]
* Step Three – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-three-set-the-criteria/ Set the Criteria for a Successful Decision]
* Step Four – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-four-develop-your-options/ Develop Your Options]
* Step Five – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-five-evaluate-your-options/ Evaluate Your Options]
* Step Six – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-six-assess-risk/ Assess Risk]
* Step Seven – [http://wisedecisions.com/the-seven-steps-to-making-a-wise-decision/step-seven-make-the-decision-and-carry-through/ Make the Decision and Carry Through]

To ensure a wise decision, be certain to include criteria that adequately address each of these questions:
* Are you working to [[Problem Finding|solve the right problem]]? Can the problem be recast with a different point of view or a different scope to be more beneficial? Try to: &quot;take flight to where there is a free view over the whole single great problem.&quot; &lt;ref&gt;[[Wisdom/wise_decisions]]&lt;/ref&gt;
* Identify all of the assumptions you are relying on. Pay particular attention to the assumptions you are making implicitly. (e.g. Housing prices always increase.) Write them down, and check them out.
*Are the short term, midterm, and long term benefits and consequences of this decision each being given appropriate consideration? Have I avoided [[w:Hyperbolic_discounting|''hyperbolic discounting'']] when considering the long term?
*How do I define my own [[Virtues/Good|well-being]]? How will this decision contribute to, or detract from my well-being? Am I adequately [[Global_Perspective#Economics_and_Well-Being|separating economic considerations]] from broader considerations of well-being? 
*How have I defined success for the purposes of this decision? Have I defined success broadly enough? Am I truly pulling the problem out by the roots?
*Am I adopting a [[Global Perspective|global perspective]] in making this decision? Who else is affected by this decision? How will they be affected? Can I involve them to understand their points of view on this issue? What are the [[Global_Perspective#Externality|externalities]] of this decision? How are their costs being met? How does this decision contribute to the greater good?
* Based only on my own [[Virtues/Moral Integration|''moral integration'']], what decision would I make? What is the [[Virtues#Virtuous_Choices|virtuous choice]]? Make that decision.
*Am I accurately [[Evaluating Evidence|evaluating the evidence]] for and against this decision? Am I applying a robust [[Knowing How You Know|Theory of Knowledge]] to evaluate the evidence and arrive at well-founded beliefs? Have I adequately researched reliable sources to understand the situation, the possibilities, the likely outcomes, and consequences? Is my decision based on [[Seeking True Beliefs|true beliefs]]? How do I know?
*Are my heart (emotions, intuition) and my head (rational decision making) pointing me in the same direction or opposite directions? If they are in conflict, can I explain why? Have I spent enough time reflecting on this decision? Have I been creative enough in generating alternatives? Have I sought guidance in making this decision from people I trust, people who care most about me, and from objective people expert in the domain? Who is the wisest person I can consult with to get advice on this decision? When is the best time to make this decision? Can the decision be delayed to gain a better understanding without jeopardizing the outcome?
* Getting beyond [[w:False_dilemma|false dilemmas]] and inventing new [[w:Mutual_Gains_Approach|alternatives for mutual gain]] is often essential to making the wisest decisions. Integrate more considerations to arrive at a surprisingly elegant solution. Get beyond the same old list of options, as [[w:Solomon|King Solomon]] so wisely did in making his most [[w:Judgment_of_Solomon|famous judgement]].   
*What does each of the [[w:Six_Thinking_Hats|Six Thinking Hats]] have to say about this decision?
*Have I adequately acknowledged [[Limits To Growth|limits to growth]] in foreseeing the future consequences of this decision? How will this decision affect people in each of the next seven generations? 

Also, please study these examples of [[/wise decisions/]] to learn to recognize wise decisions and improve your ability to make wise decisions. 
=== Assignment ===
'''Part 1:'''
# Study the materials in this section.
# Identify an important decision you face.
# Apply the techniques in this section to clarifying, analyzing, and making that decision.
'''Part 2:'''
# Watch the movie Thirteen Days.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite video |people=Kevin Costner (Actor), Bruce Greenwood (Actor), Roger Donaldson (Director)|year=2001
|title=[[w:Thirteen_Days_(film)|Thirteen Days]] |trans_title= |medium=Motion Picture |language=English |format=DVD}}&lt;/ref&gt;
# Notice all the thoughts, consultations, actions, and precautions that contributed to the wise decision making portrayed in this film.
'''Part 3:'''
# Complete the [[Wisdom/wise_decisions#Assignment|assignment]] in the section on [[Wisdom/wise_decisions#Examples_of_Wise_Decisions|Examples of Wise decisions]].

===Further Reading===
Students interested in learning more about wise decision making may be interested in the following materials:
*{{cite video |people=Kevin Costner (Actor), Bruce Greenwood (Actor), Roger Donaldson (Director)|year=2001
|title=[[w:Thirteen_Days_(film)|Thirteen Days]] |trans_title= |medium=Motion Picture |language=English |format=DVD}}
* {{cite book
|last=Galtung
|first=Johan
|title=Transcend and Transform: An Introduction to Conflict Work
|year=2004
|publisher=Paradigm Publishers
|isbn=978-1594510632 
|pages=200
}}
* (Evaluate the book: All It Takes: The Three Keys to Making Wise Decisions and not Making Stupid Ones )

== Resources: ==
* The [[Wikipedia:Wisdom|Wikipedia entry for wisdom]].
* [http://www.wisdompage.com/ The Wisdom Page] — a website dedicated to helping us better understand wisdom — that vitally important but poorly understood pinnacle of human functioning.
** [http://wisdompage.com/Wisdom101.html Wisdom 101] — A Course in Practical Wisdom
* [http://www.thewisepath.org/ The Wise Path] — progress toward wisdom.
* [http://www.knowledgetowisdom.org/ Knowledge to Wisdom] — helping humanity acquire more wisdom by rational means.
* [http://www.sophos.uk.com/ Sophos] is a web portal that is all about Wisdom
* [http://www.mcps.umn.edu/documents/RosewoodReport.pdf The Rosewood Report on Practical Wisdom]  summarizing discussions in July, 2010 by a small group of philosophers and psychologists about practical wisdom.
* [http://wisdomresearch.org/ Defining wisdom], a project from the University of Chicago on the nature and benefits of wisdom.
* The [http://www.globalonenessproject.org Global Oneness Project] produces films, media and educational materials that explore how the simple notion of interconnectedness can be lived in today's complex world.
* The [http://quotesaboutwisdom.com/ Quotes About Wisdom] site catalogs nearly 22,000 quotations pertaining to wisdom.
* Suarez, Juan Francisco, &quot;[http://aura.antioch.edu/etds/131 Wise by Design: A Wisdom-Based Framework for Innovation and Organizational Design and its Potential Application in the Future of Higher Education]&quot; (2014). Dissertations &amp; Theses. Paper 131.
* The [https://evidencebasedwisdom.com/ Evidence Based Wisdom] site is making the new science of wisdom research more accessible.

==Further Reading== 
Students interested in learning more about the virtues of wisdom may be interested in the following materials:
* {{cite book
|title=Wisdom: From Philosophy to Neuroscience
|last=Hall
|first=Stephen
|year=2011
|publisher=Vintage
|isbn=978-0307389688 
|pages=352
}}
* {{cite book
|last=Trowbridge
|first=Richard Hawley
|title=The Flourishing Earth
|year=2013
|isbn=978-1300099512
|pages=108
}}
* {{cite book 
|last1=Gilovich 
|first1=Thomas 
|last2=Ross 
|first2=Lee 
|date=December 1, 2015
|title=The Wisest One in the Room: How You Can Benefit from Social Psychology's Most Powerful Insights
|publisher=Free Press
|pages=320
|isbn=978-1451677546
}}
* (Evaluate the book: ''Wisdom, Consciousness, and the Future: Collected Essays'' by Thomas Lombardo )
* (Evaluate the book: ''A Handbook of Wisdom: Psychological Perspectives'', by Robert Sternberg PhD )

==Discussion questions and essay ideas==
* Is intentionally seeking wisdom an effective way to actually become more wise?

==References==
&lt;references/&gt;

[[Category:Philosophy]]
[[Category:Peace studies]]
[[Category:Applied Wisdom]]
[[Category:Humanities courses]]</text>
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    <title>JavaScript/Basic JavaScript</title>
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      <comment>/* Assignment Operators */</comment>
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==Basics==
*JavaScript is a popular web-page scripting language, and is supported by almost every [[Browse|browser]].&lt;ref&gt;http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_web_browsers#JavaScript_support&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Flanagan, David JavaScript:The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly Media, 2006 , p. 1.&lt;/ref&gt;
*It adds interactivity to [[w:Internet technologies|web-technology]] pages.&lt;ref&gt;Flanagan, David JavaScript:The Definitive Guide. O'Reilly Media, 2006 , p. 236.&lt;/ref&gt; 
*You can use editing tools on your device or within supporting software.
*JavaScript can work with the user's (client) resources or server resources.
*It is easy to learn the basics.

===Step One: HTML &amp; Scripts===

{{Activity
| Open up your text editor of choice and create a basic page (a basic note pad works great). Now I am going to teach you how to write on your webpage using JavaScript. Type the following into your text editor:
| &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
        &lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Hello World!&lt;/title&gt;&lt;/head&gt;
 	&lt;body&gt;
 		&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
 			&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;document.write('Hello World!');&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
 		&lt;/script&gt;
       &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

As you can see, our JavaScript instruction (&lt;code&gt;document.write('Hello World!');&lt;/code&gt;) is added directly into your HTML by adding the &lt;code&gt;&lt;script&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag. 
Now save the text file with an HTML file extension. Use the &quot;save as&quot; function for your text editor and change the filename from something like &quot;&lt;code&gt;New Text Document.txt&lt;/code&gt;&quot; to &quot;&lt;code&gt;Hello World.html&lt;/code&gt;&quot;. Use the .html in place of the .txt, .doc, .rtf, etc... Open your newly saved file in a browser. If all went well &quot;Hello World!&quot; will display in your browser as HTML content. If not, perhaps set your computers folder options to show filename extensions. Javascript and 'filename changes' are not always available (by default).
}}
Video Resources: [http://thenewboston.org/watch.php?cat=10&amp;number=1 Javascript 1 ]
 
To start off with, the &lt;code&gt;&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag tells the browser that whatever comes between that tag and the coming &lt;code&gt;&lt;/script&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is script, and the &lt;code&gt;type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&lt;/code&gt; tells it that it is JavaScript. Similarly, to use [[w:VBScript | VBScript]], you might use &lt;code&gt;type=&quot;text/vbscript&quot;&lt;/code&gt; instead of &lt;code&gt;&quot;text/javascript&quot;&lt;/code&gt;. For the purposes of this course, though, you should only ever need to use the JavaScript tag.

It is also important to note that the &lt;code&gt;&lt;script&gt;&lt;/code&gt; tag is case sensitive. What this means is if you use lowercase letters in the tag, all the letters in the tag must be lowercase, and uppercase if you use any uppercase. For example, if you wrote 
 &lt;ScRiPt TyPe=&quot;TeXt/JaVaScRiPt&quot;&gt;
Not only would you waste a lot of time typing, but you would also confuse your browser.

You are probably wondering when I'm going to explain the rest of what you did. Well, &lt;code&gt;document.write()&lt;/code&gt; is the JavaScript standard for writing text to the browser window. The 'document' clause refers to the HTML webpage (termed a document) as a whole; what follows ('&lt;code&gt;.write()&lt;/code&gt;') is a command for the document object to carry out.  In this case, you told the page to write the classic &quot;&lt;code&gt;Hello World&lt;/code&gt;&quot; to the screen.

====Comments====
&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;//(Brian Crowder) A 'Hello source-reader' contribution.&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt; 
.

===Step Two: Variables===

One of the things JavaScript is used for is the manipulation of data. In JavaScript, pieces of data can be stored either in variables or arrays.

Variables are declared using the ''var'' keyword:
 var numValue;
 var textValue;
 var binaryValue;
and can be given values when they are created:
 var numValue = 3;
 var textValue = &quot;This is text.&quot;;
 var binaryValue = true;
Multiple variables can even be declared at the same time:
 var numValue = 3, textValue = &quot;This is text.&quot;, binaryValue = true;
Variables in JavaScript are weakly typed, meaning that the types of individual variables are not determined by the programmer. Unlike many languages, JavaScript only provides a generic ''var'' rather than separate types for integers, floating point numbers, characters, and strings. For example, in the statement
 var x = 0;
it is fairly obvious to any individual reading the code that &lt;code&gt;x&lt;/code&gt; is a number. However, if the statement
 x = x + &quot;This is text that is probably not a number&quot;;
were to appear later in the code, JavaScript would change the variable to a text variable. This is one of the reasons that JavaScript is referred to as weakly typed; at any particular point in time, it is impossible to tell exactly what type a particular variable is.

===Step Three: Operators===
===== Arithmetic Operators =====
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Operator'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Example'''
| '''Result'''
|- 
| +
| Addition
| x = 2
y = 2

x + y
| 4
|-
| -
| Subtraction
| x = 5
y = 2

x - y
| 3
|-
| *
| Multiplication
| x = 5
y = 4

x * y
| 20
|-
| /
| Division
| 15 / 5
5 / 2
| 3
2.5
|-
|%
| Modulus (division remainder)
| 5 % 2
10 % 4

10 % 2 
| 1
2

0
|-
| ++
| Increment
| x = 5
x++
| 6
|-
| --
''(two adjacent [[w:Hyphen|hyphens]])''
| Decrement
| x = 5
x--
| 4
|}

===== Assignment Operators =====
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Operator'''
| '''Example'''
| '''Is The Same As'''
|- 
| =
| x = y
| x = y
|-
| +=
| x += y
| x = x + y
|-
| -=
| x -= y
| x = x - y
|-
| *=
| x *= y
| x = x * y
|-
| /=
| x /= y
| x = x / y
|-
| %=
| x %= y
| x = x % y

===== Comparison Operators =====
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Operator'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Example'''
|- 
| ==
| is equal to
| 5 == 8 returns false
|-
| ===
| is equal to (checks for both value and type)
| x = 5 
y = &quot;5&quot;

x == y returns true

x === y returns false
|-
| !=
| is not equal
| 5 != 8 returns true
|-
| &gt;
| is greater than
| 5 &gt; 8 returns false
|-
| &lt;
| is less than
| 5 &lt; 8 returns true
|-
| &gt;=
| is greater than or equal to 
| 5 &gt;= 8 returns false
|-
| &lt;=
| is less than or equal to
| 5 &lt;= 8 returns true
|}

===== Logical Operators =====
{| border=1 cellspacing=0 cellpadding=5
| '''Operator'''
| '''Description'''
| '''Example'''
|-
| &amp;&amp;
| and
| x = 6
y = 3

(x &lt; 10 &amp;&amp; y &gt; 1) returns true
|-
| &lt;nowiki&gt;||&lt;/nowiki&gt;&lt;!-- Fixed --&gt;
| or
| x = 6
y = 3

(x == 5 || y == 5) returns false
|-
| !
| not
| x = 6
y = 3

&lt;nowiki&gt;!(x == y) returns true&lt;/nowiki&gt; &lt;!-- Fixed. --&gt;
|}

===== String Operator =====
The string operator is used to [[w:Concatenate|concatenate]] two strings together. For example:

&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;code&gt; var x = &quot;Hello &quot; + &quot;world!&quot; &lt;/code&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

{{Activity
| Repeat our first activity with a variable and operator as shown below:
| &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
        &lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Hello World, Again!&lt;/title&gt;&lt;/head&gt;
 	&lt;body&gt;
 		&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
 			&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
                        var x = &quot;Hello &quot; + &quot;world!&quot; 
                        document.write(x);&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
                &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
 		&lt;/script&gt;
       &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;

The above example results in the variable x equaling &quot;Hello world!&quot;. 
*Save the document as helloAgain.html and open it in a browser.
}}

===== Conditional Operator =====
JavaScript also contains a conditional operator that assigns a value to a variable based on some condition.

The syntax would be:HTML

&lt;pre&gt; variablename = ( condition ) ? value1 : value2 &lt;/pre&gt;
''value1'' is the value of the expression if &quot;''condition''&quot; is fulfilled. ''value2'' is its value in the case &quot;''condition''&quot; is not fulfilled. 
For example:
&lt;blockquote&gt;&lt;code&gt; var x = &quot;Hello &quot; + &quot;world!&quot; &lt;/code&gt;&lt;/blockquote&gt;

{{Activity
| Repeat our activity with a conditional operator that assigns a value to a variable as shown below:

| &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
&lt;!DOCTYPE html&gt;
&lt;html&gt;
        &lt;head&gt;&lt;title&gt;Hello World, Again!&lt;/title&gt;&lt;/head&gt;
 	&lt;body&gt;
 		&lt;script type=&quot;text/javascript&quot;&gt;&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
 			&lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;javascript&quot;&gt;
                        var x = &quot;hello&quot;; 
                        var towrite = ( x == &quot;hello&quot;)? &quot;Hello world, again!&quot; : &quot;Look at the state of that!&quot; 
                        document.write(towrite);

//The example results in &quot;Hello world, again!&quot; because x is &quot;hello&quot; and condition &quot;Hello world, again!&quot; is logically true. 
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
                &lt;syntaxhighlight lang=&quot;html4strict&quot;&gt;
 		&lt;/script&gt;


&lt;p&gt;
Save the document as helloToo.html and open it in a browser. 
Change the line var x = &quot;hello&quot; to var x = &quot;punk&quot; and use CRTL + S to save. 
Run it in your browser.
&lt;/p&gt;
       &lt;/body&gt;
&lt;/html&gt;
&lt;/syntaxhighlight&gt;
}}

== Semicolons ==
When you forget to add semicolon between commands, JavaScript adds it automatically so that it knows, where to start the next command.

==References==
{{reflist}}

&lt;noinclude&gt;
{{CourseCat}}
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        <id>426084</id>
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      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/200.84.115.76|200.84.115.76]] ([[User_talk:200.84.115.76|talk]]) to last version by [[User:Chongkian|Chongkian]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
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{{TOCright}}
The aim of this [[learning project]] (or set of projects) is to study the [[Social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] of human beings in the context of '''genocide''', including its causes, consequences, and what can be done to prevent or minimise mass killing of human ethnic groups by other human groups.
{{RoundBoxRight}}[[Image:Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpg|210px|thumb|center|Nyamata Memorial Site, skulls. Nyamata, [[Rwanda]].]]
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{|
|-
| {{:Social psychology (psychology)/Stub}}
| {{0%done}}
|}
==What is genocide?==
{{sectstub}}
''Have a go at defining genocide and consider the issues involved in coming up with a definition. Did you know that the term only came into existence in 1944?''

==Socio-psychological factors==
[[Image:Falun Dafa, stop the persecution parade New York 2007.jpg|170px|right]]
''Add more socio-psychological factors which are involved in and particularly which contribute to genocide. If one interests you, then write some more here (or on the linked pages) about it and how it connects with genocide'':
* [[Conflict]]
* [[Conformity]]
* [[Crisis]] / [[Catalyst]]
* [[Culture]]
* [[Dehumanisation]]
* [[Deindividuation]]
* [[Disenfranchisement]]
* [[Ethnicity]]
* [[History]]
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Group polarisation]]
* [[Nationalism]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Social categorisation]]
* [[Weapons effect]]

==Stages of genocide==
''One way of understanding how and why genocide occurs is to view it as evolving through a series of socio-cultural stages. Add a table of these here for further discussion and consideration (the table can be copied from the Wikipedia link below).''
{{sectstub}}
* [[w:Genocide#Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it|Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it]] (Wikipedia)

==See also==
* [[Rwandan Genocide]]
* [[w:Genocide|Genocide]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
# Baum, S. K. (2004). A bell curve of hate? ''Journal of Genocide Research'', ''6'', 567-577.
# Staub, E. (2006). Reconciliation after genocide, mass killing, or intractable conflict: Understanding the roots of violence, psychological recovery, and steps toward a general theory. ''Political Psychology'', ''27'', 867-894.
# Woolf, L. M. &amp; Hulsizer, M. R. (2005). Psychosocial roots of genocide: Risk, prevention, and intervention. ''Journal of Genocide Research'', ''7'', 101-128. 

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      <comment>Protected &quot;[[Genocide]]&quot;: Excessive vandalism ([Edit=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 12:41, 9 August 2023 (UTC)) [Move=Allow only autoconfirmed users] (expires 12:41, 9 August 2023 (UTC)))</comment>
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The aim of this [[learning project]] (or set of projects) is to study the [[Social psychology (psychology)|social psychology]] of human beings in the context of '''genocide''', including its causes, consequences, and what can be done to prevent or minimise mass killing of human ethnic groups by other human groups.
{{RoundBoxRight}}[[Image:Nyamata Memorial Site 13.jpg|210px|thumb|center|Nyamata Memorial Site, skulls. Nyamata, [[Rwanda]].]]
{{LeftRightBoxClose}}
{|
|-
| {{:Social psychology (psychology)/Stub}}
| {{0%done}}
|}
==What is genocide?==
{{sectstub}}
''Have a go at defining genocide and consider the issues involved in coming up with a definition. Did you know that the term only came into existence in 1944?''

==Socio-psychological factors==
[[Image:Falun Dafa, stop the persecution parade New York 2007.jpg|170px|right]]
''Add more socio-psychological factors which are involved in and particularly which contribute to genocide. If one interests you, then write some more here (or on the linked pages) about it and how it connects with genocide'':
* [[Conflict]]
* [[Conformity]]
* [[Crisis]] / [[Catalyst]]
* [[Culture]]
* [[Dehumanisation]]
* [[Deindividuation]]
* [[Disenfranchisement]]
* [[Ethnicity]]
* [[History]]
* [[Leadership]]
* [[Group polarisation]]
* [[Nationalism]]
* [[Propaganda]]
* [[Social categorisation]]
* [[Weapons effect]]

==Stages of genocide==
''One way of understanding how and why genocide occurs is to view it as evolving through a series of socio-cultural stages. Add a table of these here for further discussion and consideration (the table can be copied from the Wikipedia link below).''
{{sectstub}}
* [[w:Genocide#Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it|Stages of genocide and efforts to prevent it]] (Wikipedia)

==See also==
* [[Rwandan Genocide]]
* [[w:Genocide|Genocide]] (Wikipedia)

==References==
# Baum, S. K. (2004). A bell curve of hate? ''Journal of Genocide Research'', ''6'', 567-577.
# Staub, E. (2006). Reconciliation after genocide, mass killing, or intractable conflict: Understanding the roots of violence, psychological recovery, and steps toward a general theory. ''Political Psychology'', ''27'', 867-894.
# Woolf, L. M. &amp; Hulsizer, M. R. (2005). Psychosocial roots of genocide: Risk, prevention, and intervention. ''Journal of Genocide Research'', ''7'', 101-128. 

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The '''Rwandan Genocide''' (1994) involved the mass killing of hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[w:Tutsi|Tutsi]]s and moderate '''[[w:Hutu|Hutu]]''' sympathizers in [[Rwanda]] and was the largest atrocity during the [[w:Rwandan Civil War|Rwandan Civil War]] and was one of the most significant human atrocities of the twentieth century. 

==Overview==
[[Image:Kigali Memorial Centre 5.jpg|275px|thumb|right|Kigali Memorial Centre, Gisozi, Rwanda.]]
* The Rwandan [[genocide]] was mostly carried out by two extremist [[w:Hutu|Hutu]] militia groups, the [[w:Interahamwe|Interahamwe]] and the [[w:Impuzamugambi|Impuzamugambi]], during about 100 days from April 6 through mid-July, 1994.
* Somewhere between half a million and one million people were systematically slaughtered in three months (~100 days).
* Approx. 14% of the [[Rwanda|Rwandan]] population died, including approximately 77% of [[w:Tutsi|Tutsis]] living in Rwanda.
* This is numerically equivalent to approximately three [[w:September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]] incidents occurring every day for three months.
* At least 500,000 [[w:Tutsi|Tutsis]] and thousands of moderate [[w:Hutus|Hutus]] died. Note that several estimates put the death toll between 700,000 and 1,000,000, depending on the source.

==See also==
* [[w:Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide|Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide]]
* [[w:Gacaca|Gacaca courts]] - the community justice system used after the 1994 genocide
* [[Ghosts of Rwanda]] (a documentary)

{{wikipedia}}
{{commons}}

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3580247.stm Timeline: 100 days of genocide] (BBC News, 6 April, 2004)
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/ The triumph of evil] (pbs.org, interviews, time line, further readings) 

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      <minor />
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The '''Rwandan Genocide''' (1994) involved the mass killing of hundreds of thousands of ethnic [[w:Tutsi|Tutsi]]s and moderate '''[[w:Hutu|Hutu]]''' sympathizers in [[Rwanda]] and was the largest atrocity during the [[w:Rwandan Civil War|Rwandan Civil War]] and was one of the most significant human atrocities of the twentieth century. 

==Overview==
[[Image:Kigali Memorial Centre 5.jpg|275px|thumb|right|Kigali Memorial Centre, Gisozi, Rwanda.]]
* The Rwandan [[genocide]] was mostly carried out by two extremist [[w:Hutu|Hutu]] militia groups, the [[w:Interahamwe|Interahamwe]] and the [[w:Impuzamugambi|Impuzamugambi]], during about 100 days from April 6 through mid-July, 1994.
* Somewhere between half a million and one million people were systematically slaughtered in three months (~100 days).
* Approx. 14% of the [[Rwanda|Rwandan]] population died, including approximately 77% of [[w:Tutsi|Tutsis]] living in Rwanda.
* This is numerically equivalent to approximately three [[w:September 11, 2001 attacks|September 11]] incidents occurring every day for three months.
* At least 500,000 [[w:Tutsi|Tutsis]] and thousands of moderate [[w:Hutus|Hutus]] died. Note that several estimates put the death toll between 700,000 and 1,000,000, depending on the source.

==See also==
* [[w:Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide|Bibliography of the Rwandan genocide]]
* [[w:Gacaca|Gacaca courts]] - the community justice system used after the 1994 genocide
* [[Ghosts of Rwanda]] (a documentary)

{{wikipedia}}
{{commons}}

==External links==
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3580247.stm Timeline: 100 days of genocide] (BBC News, 6 April, 2004)
* [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/evil/ The triumph of evil] (pbs.org, interviews, time line, further readings) 

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    <title>Comparative law and justice/Rwanda (draft)</title>
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      <contributor>
        <ip>41.40.64.244</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>fix code:* the power to prosecute people responsible for serious violations in rwanda's territory * also can prosecute Rwandan citizens who committ serious crimes in neighboring countries * power to prosecute people who committ genocide, crimes against humanity, (murder, torture, rape, hostages, terrorism) as was with Talaat Pasha in Armenian Genocide[https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/final-justice-soghomon-tehlirian-assassination-talaat-chris-wilkinson].</comment>
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      <text bytes="35326" xml:space="preserve">Part of the [[Comparative law and justice]] Wikiversity Project
{{Comparative law and justice project|region=Africa}}
[[User:Mlindenberg 3589|Mlindenberg 3589]] 23:21, 7 February 2011 (UTC)

== Basic Information ==
[[File:Flag-map of Rwanda.svg]]
==='''Geographical Characteristics'''===
Rwanda is located in Central Africa bordered by the four countries, Burundi, Democratic Republic of Congo, Tanzania, 
and Uganda. It's total area is 26,338 sq. km., which is a little bit smaller than the state of Maryland with 24,668 sq. km. being land while 1,670 sq. km. being water. This puts Rwanda's coordinates at 2.00 South and 30.00 East. With no coastline present, their climate is considered temperate with two annual rainy seasons for most of the country. But in the mountainous parts the climate is mild with frost and snow. The terrain is mainly grassy uplands and hills with some high altitude mountains. It's levels of elevation range from 950 meters at its lowest point, it being the Rusizi River and its highest point being the Volcan Karisimbi at 4,519 meters.
The Main Mountains are:
* Mt. Gahinga
* Mt. Huye
* Mt. Karsimbi
* Mt. Sabyinyo
* Mt. Muhabara
[[File:Mount Kigali.jpg]]
The Main Rivers are:
* River Kagera
* River Razizi
The three biggest cities found in Rwanda are Kigali with 745,261 people, Butare with 89,600 people, and Gitarama with 87,613 people.Some of Rwanda's natural resources are gold, cassiterite, wolframite, methane, hydropower, and arable land. As well as having natural resources they also have natural hazards such as periodic droughts and volcanism.Some common environmental issues are deforestation, overgrazing, soil exhaustion, soil erosion,and widespread poaching.&lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

==='''Demographic Characteristics'''===
Rwanda's population consists of 11,055,976 people with three defined age groups, 0-14 years, 15-64 years, and 65 and older. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
  &lt;/ref&gt;
* 0-14 years    42.7%
* 15-64 years   54.8%
* 65- older     2.5%
The median age is 18.6 years with females being 18.9 years and males being 18.4 years. 
* Population growth rate is 2.818%
* Birth rate is 37.26/1,000
* Death rate is 10.19/1,000

==='''Religious Characteristics'''===
The most popular religion present within Rwanda is Roman Catholic. There are also 5 others present within the country. For the most part all Rwandans believe in spirits after death, which is why they show respect for dead ancestors. The Catholic Church is one of the most dominant institutes in Rwanda. Besides Catholic the following are other religions present: &lt;ref&gt; &quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;
* Roman Catholic- 56.5%
* Protestant- 26%
* Adventist- 11.1%
* Muslim- 4.6%
* Indigenous Beliefs- 0.1%
* None- 1.7%

==='''Ethnic Characteristics'''===
There are three main Ethnic groups, the Hutu's (Bantu), the Tutsi's (Hamitic), and the Twa's (Pygmy)with the Hutu's being the most populated.
* Hutu- 84%
* Tutsi- 15%
* Twa- 1%
To see how each ethnic group ended up in Rwanda, please see the Brief History Section. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
  &lt;/ref&gt;

==='''Linguistic Characteristics:'''===
There are a total of five known languages with three being indigenous and two being immigrant.
* Kinyarwanda- this is and official language 
* French- this is an official language
* English- this is an official language 
* Universal Bantu Vernacular 
* Kiswahili (Swahjli)
&lt;ref&gt; Lewis, Paul M. &quot;Ethnologue, Web Version.&quot; Ethnologue, Languages of the World. SIL International, 2009. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.ethnologue.com/web.asp&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

==='''Economic Characteristics'''===
* GDP (purchasing power)- 11.86 billion
* GDP (official exchange rate)- 5.693 billion
* GDP (real growth rate)- 6%
* GDP (per capital)- $1,100
* GDP (by sectors)-   agriculture is 42.1%, industry is 14.3%, services is 43.6% 
The Labor Force consists of 4.446 million people while 90% is Agriculturally based the other 10% is Industry/Services. 
Some Agricultural Products are coffee, tea, pyrethrum, bananas, beans, sorghum, potatoes, and livestock. Some Industries found in Rwanda are cement, agricultural products, small scale beverages, soap, furniture, shoes, plastic goods, textiles, and cigarettes. Exports such as Kenya, Thailand, China, USA, Swaziland, Belgium, and Democratic Republic of Congo bring in 226 million dollars in exchange for coffee, tea, hides, and tin ore. Imports cost us 1.047 billion dollars, brought from Kenya, Uganda, China, UAE, Belgium, Germany, Tanzania, and Sweden, including products such as foodstuff, machinery, equipment, steel, petroleum products, and cement/construction material. &lt;ref&gt; &quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

==='''Communication/Transportation'''===
Rwanda's forms of communication are telephone, internet, and radio. There is a broadcast media which the government owns as well as the one TV station and nine private radio stations. &lt;ref&gt; &quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt; When it comes to transportation there are:
* Airports- 9
* Roadways- 14,008 km.
* Waterways- only Lac Kivu River is navigable by barge/craft
* Ports/Terminals- Cyangugu, Gi senyi, Kibuye

[[File:SETAF HISTORY 0004.JPEG]]

==Brief History==
At one point Rwanda did not have independance from Belgium but in 1959 the majority group, the Hutu's overthrew the Tutsi King. This led to thousands of deaths of the Tutsi's and another 150,000 of them exiled to other countries. Later on the Rwandan Patriotic front (RPF) rebelled in what started the Civil War in 1990. This started in 1994 a genocide of 800,000 Tutsi's and Hutu's. The Tutsi's rebelled and the war ended in July of 1994. Two million Hutu's fled to Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, and Zaire. Rwanda's first local elections were held in 1999 and the first presidential/legislative elections were held in 2003. In 2009 Rwanda started a joint military operation with the Congolese Army to get rid of the Hutu's. Another improving factor was that Rwanda joined the commonwealth in late 2009. &lt;ref&gt; &quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

==Health &amp; Education Information==

The total population of citizens that can read or write is 70.4%, while 76.3% of males and 64.7% of females can read and write. The expectancy of education stops at 11 years for males and 9 years for females. Expenditures spent on education total to 4.1% of GDP.Rwandan government provides free schooling for six years in primary school and three years in secondary school. &lt;ref&gt; &quot;CIA Site Redirect — Central Intelligence Agency.&quot; Welcome to the CIA Web Site — Central Intelligence Agency. Central Intelligence Agency, 30 Nov. 2010. Web. 11 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

[[File:Children in Virunga National Park.jpg]]

When it comes to health, health care provided is low and 1 out of every 5 children younger than five dies. With a shortage of medical staff and not enough supply of medicines. There is a new government program called Vision 2020 which will improve the healthcare budget. The following statistics represent a low healthcare field: 
* Infant Mortality rate is 65/1,000 births
* Fertility rate is 4.99 children/woman
The life expectancy for males are 56.06 years and for females is 58.91 years.Some major infectious diseases which impact Rwanda are found within three categories:
* Food/waterborne- bacterial diarrhea, hepatitis A, typhoid fever
* Vectorborne- malaria
* Animal Contact- rabies

==Legal System==

Rwanda's government is considered a presidential republic based on a multi-party system. The present Constitution was adopted in 2003, which replaced an old set of documents, called the Fundamental Laws. The legal system is based on German and Belgium civil law systems and customary law. Rwanda has very low corruption levels and ranks the 66th cleanest country out of 178 countries in the world. Due to the current government Rwanda has benefited through economic growth and improvements  in international investment and tourism. They are also a member of the United Nations, the African Union, La Franco
phonie, and East African Community, and Commonwealth of Nations. 

The Constitution Outline:
* Preamble
* Article 1-11 The Republic
* Article 12-33 Public Liberties
* Article 34-38 Powers
* Article 39-49 President of Republic
* Article 50-57 Government
* Article 58-68 National Assembly
* Article 69-79 Elaboration of Laws
* Article 80-85 National Assembly &amp; Government
* Article 86-95 Judicial Power
* Article 96 Revision of Constitution 
* Article 97 General &amp; Transitional Provisions

President Kagame's part in the Rwandan Patriotic Front was the most dominant political party in the country since 1994. It helped to maintain control of the Presidency and Parliament in natural elections. It is also known for being a tutsi dominated party. 

Structure of Government/Heiarchy:
* Cheif of State-President
* Legislature- Chamber of Deputies/Senate
* Executive
* Judiciary
* Supreme Courts
* High Courts
* Provincial Courts
* District Courts
* Specialized Courts
* Military Courts

President of Rwanda, Paul Kagame also considered the head of state has unilateral powers in order to:
* to create policy
* administer government agencies
* command armed force
* negotiate &amp; ratify treaties
* sign presidential orders
* declare war
The president is usually elected by popular vote and serves a 7 year term. The following was a list of the candidates in the 2011 Presidential Race:
* Paul Kagame
* Prosper Kigiro
* Jean Damascene Ntawukuriryayo
* Alvera Mukabaramba

===Courts===

The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda was established in 1994 by the United Nations Security Counsel Resolution 955. It was responsible for the following:
* the power to prosecute people responsible for serious violations in rwanda's territory
* also can prosecute Rwandan citizens who committ serious crimes in neighboring countries
* power to prosecute people who committ genocide, crimes against humanity, (murder, torture, rape, hostages, terrorism) as was with Talaat Pasha in Armenian Genocide[https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/final-justice-soghomon-tehlirian-assassination-talaat-chris-wilkinson].
The ICTR contains 3 trials chambers and 1 appeals chamber. In trial chambers there are 3 permanent judges and 4 ad litem judges. When it comes to appeals chambers there are 7 permanent judges. The working languages found within the court system are English and French. 

Parliament(Legislature) is bicameral and responsible for making legislation and has limited powers over the executive branch. It consists of two chambers, The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate.
#1. The Chamber of Deputies- consists of 80 members (serves a 5 year term)
* 24 seats are reserved for women (only country with a female majority parliament-45)
* 3 seats are reserved for the youth or disabled 
* 53 seats are for universal suffrage
#2. The Senate- consists of 26 members (30% include women), servesan 8 year term 

Executive Branch consists of the prime ministers, ministers, ministers of state and the President.

Judiciary system is responsible for establishing new courts, procedures, structures, standards in academic/professional qualifications, regulatory/administrative frameworks. Its heiarchy goes as follows; supreme court,high courts, provincial courts, district courts, and mediation committees.

There are two types of courts; ordinary and specialised
#1. Ordinary Courts- Supreme Court, High Courts, Regional Courts
#2. Specialised Courts- military Courts, Gacca Courts

Courts of 1st Instance-
#1. Provincial Courts
#2. Courts of Appeal
#3. Courts of Cassation

Courts of Constitution-
#1. Court of Cassation
#2. Council of State
#3. Court of Accounts
#4. Court of State Senority

Supreme Court is the highest court in the countryand its decisions are for judicial review (decisions are binding on parties of the state, public officials, civilians, military, judicial officers, and private individuals).

High Court has jurisdiction in 1st offense serious crimes in Rwanda as well as 1st offense serious crimes held outside the juridisdiction of Rwanda. 

Provincial Court is established in each province of county and the city of Kigali.

District Courts are in each district of each county.

Specialized Courts are specified to Gacca Courts which deal with Genocide crimes.

Military Courts consists of the Military Tribunal and Military High Court. Offenses committed by military personnel are dealth within the Military Tribunal. Offenses with threats to national security or involving the murder of soldiers are dealth with in Military High Court. 

Sources of Legislation: Official Gazette of Republic of Rwanda
* legal texts
* presidential orders
* prime ministers orders
* ministerial orders
* official rules/regulations

Basic Documents:
* Security Council Resolutions
* Statute of the Tribunal
* Rules of Procedure &amp; Evidence
* Practice Directions
* Directives
* Code of Professional Conduct for Defense Counsel
* Rules covering Detention of Persons Awaiting Trail/Appeal
* Prosecutors Regulation
* Bilateral Agreements 

===Elections/Voting Education===

The National Electora Management Body conucts information on campaigns for nationa elections. The voting age within Rwanda is 18 years old as well as citizenship is also another requirement. Voting polls are at specified designated polling stations. Voting is possible for all people abroad, all diplomatic staff, students, armed forces, and tourists. The one difference between voting in Rwanda and the US is that in Rwanda you must manually mark ballots in stead of electronic polling stations. The polling stations are the ones responsible for sorting and counting the ballots. One negatie aspect though is the fact there are not televised databases of candidates or party representatives.

In order to become part of a political party or a candidate their are registation requirements such as a signature requirement. There is aso an age requirement as well. Independent candidates can also compete in both presidential and legislative elections. 


===Electoral System/Management===

* President is elected by popular vote and serves a 7 year term
* National Assembly consists of 53 members by a direct vote 
* Chamber of Deputies members elected by direct universal suffrage (serve 5 year term)
* Senate Members are elected through indirect elections (serve 8 year term)
* Head of Government (President) can nominate, appoint or remove a prime ministers status

Framework:

* EMB issues the electoral law which governs national elections
* electoral law covers national elections
* Voting type consists of compulsory and regulated in electoral law 
* Judiciary/Supreme Court is responsble for 1st level electoral disputes 

Management:

* National Electoral Body is responsible for all elections at national, regional, local levels
* National Eletoral Management body serves a 3 year term 
* Electoral Management Model is considered independent
* There are 7 members part of the EMB
* Membership is based on partisanship
* Selected by political parties/civil society

===Judicial Review===

When it comes to Judicial Review, the Supreme Court disposes of the constitutional issue and labels it as an interlocutory matter before trying the main point of the case. When constitutional issues do come about within sobordinate courts, the proceedings stay within the court while the constitutional issues are discussed by the Supreme Court for a ruling. Untill the Supreme Court has discussed to the lower subordinate court with the decisions, both the court procedures and the allotted time of them are determine by the Supreme Court.

If the case being tried in the subordinate courts seems to be inadmissable on the ground not related to the unconstitutional issue or if the judge of the subordinate court thinks he decision of the Supreme Court will not affect the outcome of the main case, than it is not necessary to bring the unconstitutional issue to the Supreme Court at all. The decision to not stay proceedings may only be appealed against with an appeal against judgment in regards to the main  case.

=='''Crime'''==
When it comes to crimes in Rwanda, pick pocketing is the most common usually in crowded places. As well as petty theft from cars and hotel rooms, is a very common crime. The most violent crimes found are carjacking, robbery, rape, and home invasion. The crimes which have increased the most over the years are assault/robbery of pedestrians, and residential burglary. &lt;ref&gt; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. UNODC, 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.unodc.org/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt; 


Basic Crime Stats:

* Executions: 24/year
* Prisoners: 112,000/population
* Female Prisoners: 2.6% of population
* Foreign Prisoners: 0.3% of population
* Prisoners/Capita: 109/ per 100,000 people

The following list are some statistics of Household and Individual Crimes with their percentages and frequencies found within Rwanda.

Type/Frequency/Percentage

Household Crimes:
* Car Theft/0/0.0%
* Car hijacking/0/0.0%
* Theft from cars/1/2.2%
* Car Vandalism/1/2.2%
* Motorcycle Theft/0/0.0%
* Bike Theft/22/4.7%
* Livestock Theft/53/5.3%
* Burglary/121/5.8%
* Attempted Burglary/52/2.5%
* Destruction of Goods/43/2.0%
* Witnessing Homicide/9/0.4%

Individual Crimes:
* Robbery/5/0.2%
* Personal Property Theft/108/5.1%
* Sexual Offences/11/0.8%
* Assault or Threat/9/0.4%

When it comes to household crimes the highest crimes are burglary, livestock theft, and bike theft. Out of the individual crimes the highest rate comes from personal property theft.

According to a 1994 survey all women/girls that survived the Rwandan Genocide was raped, leaving both psychologically and emotionally damaging aspects. It has caused 2,000-5,000 pregnancies. (Women risk their lives to speak of their offenders.)

In 1948 the Genocide Convention caused genocide to become a crime under the international law. This definition includes; a cime committed with the intent to destroy whole or part of a national, ethical, radical, or religious group; that also includes killing members of the group.
(The genocide of the Tutsi's was estimated at half a million in 1994 total.)


===Punishment===

People who violate Rwandan laws can be expelled, arrested or imprisoned. Penaties for posession, use of, trafficking in illegal drugs are severe. Long jail sentences and heavy fines are expected.

Stats for the sentencing of recidivist offenders are the following:
*44.2% say the sentencing should be imprisonment 
*24.7% say the sentencing should be a fine 
*23% say the sentencing should be for the general interest

The following stats are the opinions of the term in which imprisonment should last for:
* 17.8%  2-6 months
* 16%   1 year
* 13.8%   5 years
* 11.4%   2 years
* 5.8%   life in prison

The National Police Prosecution Authority (NPPA) acts between executive and judiciary branches as a role in helping the criminal procedure and ensuring the protection of victims and witnesses in Rwanda. &lt;ref&gt; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. UNODC, 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.unodc.org/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

===Law Enforcement===

A new style of policing founded was community policing which is a worldwide concept which developed in the 1980's. It takes a multi agency approach where the police, th public, the elecd officials, the government, and other agencies work together to deal with crime and community safety. &lt;ref&gt;  &quot;US Department of Justice.&quot; Office of Justice Programs. US Department of Justice, 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov&gt;.
&lt;/ref&gt;

Rwanda National Police  conform to the National Constitution and the Police Act with a basis on community policing and th 7C Principles:
#1. Communicating with the
#2. Community to
#3. Create
#4. Cooperation
#5. Collaboration
#6. Coordination and
#7. Change

Community Policing helps to reduce neighborhood crime, reduce the fear of crime, and enhances the quality of life in the community. These three concepts are accomplished by the establishment f Community Policing Committees and the Community Policing Strategy.

How CPA's Operate:
* They are managed by community representatives while consultation happens with the community and a designated police officer is in charge of the whole committee. When it comes to the Village Committee their committee meets once every two weeks while the Cell Committee meets monthly. Committees must submit reports to the higher level no later than 24 hours after they have met. Each committee submits a monthly, quarterly, and annually report to the higher level. The chairman provides the information to the pocing unit nearest to them. At the District level  there is a District Police Commander responsible for coordinating the community policing committees in that district. At the Provincial/Kigalia City level, a Regional Police Commander represents all committees in that province or Kigali City. Each Regional Police Commander collects information from all committees under there area and than submits it to the Commissioner General of Politics. 

The structure of  CPA's:
#1. At the Village Level- ths committee contains 
* Village leader or chairman
* In Charge Security (Secretary)
* Village Advisory Committee (3 other individuals) 

#2. At the Cell Level- this committee contains
* Cell Executive Secretary (Chairman)
* Head of CPC's for whole village
* Person responsible for youth
* Person responsible for gender issues
* People responsible for security in villages
* Leader of local defense unit

The Role of Rwanda National Police is:
* to advise the committees
* to train members of CPC's
* to find rapid solutions to poblems of committees
  
When it comes to victims experience with the police 1/3 or 30% of victims reported crimes to the police. The three top reasons for reporting was to recover personal property, wanting the offender to be caught/punished, and to stop the crime from occurring again. Some reasons for victims to be dissatisfied with the police were that the police didnt do enough. This accounted for 75% of citizens mostly regarding corruption and sexual crimes. While some victims also stated that police did not seem interested in crimes what so ever. Last of all usually found within crimes like car theft and sexual offences the offenders could not be found. 

Victims tend to not report to the police due to the law enforcements inability to do anything or their lack of evidence. The crimes with the lowest reporting stats are sexual offences, assault cases,  and corruption cases.
* Sexual Offences were not reported due to fear of reprisal- 23%
* Assault Cases were usually reported to public/private agencies instead of law enforcement- 27%
* Corruption Cases were not reported due to it being unnecessary or inappropriate- 26%

When it comes to police work their are three categories which they participate in; crime prevention, assisting citizens, and private security in crime prevention. The following stats are the efficiency of their law enforcement:
* Crime Prevention- 54.6% very efficient 
* Assisting Citizens- 55.8% very efficient 
* Private security in Crime Prevention- 24.3% efficient 

Security/Safety Precautions:

* Contact local police or the nearest US Embassy
* Investigation/Prosecution of a crime is taken over by local authorities
* Consular offices help to explain local criminal justice processes and help to fund you and attorney (Local police is 311 not 911)

[[File:Ugandan civil police board BDF Air Wing C-130 in Kigali 2006-09-26.jpg]]

===Crime Rates and Public Opinion===

Criminaliy in neighborhoods of Rwanda's citizens state that they feel safe for the most the part in their area. 
* 94.8% are not afraid to walk alone at night
* 93.8% are not afraid to stay home alone at night
* 97.5% are sure no one would disrupt them at home 

Grassroot authorities and national police have organized patrols to protect both urban and rural areas (92%say their household is protected by both or one of these organizations.

===Survey Information on Crimes===

National Police and Administration of criminal justice provide crime related information which usually is not sufficient enough. (The Household National Crime Victim Survey was the first survey in Rwanda.) &lt;ref&gt; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. UNODC, 2011. Web. 18 Feb. 2011. &lt;http://www.unodc.org/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

The Household National Crime Victim Survey consists of the following pieces:
#1.It covers the entire territory of Rwanda including rural and urban areas
#2.It divides the population into 3 groups; Kigali City, Urban Centers, Rural Areas
#3.It is accomplished at 2 levels; Cluster/Village, Household 
#4.Survey contained 2,100 households on the National Level
*Kigali City- 8%
*Cities- 17%
*Rural Areas- 75%

Socio-Economic Characteristics of the Respondants-
* Male- 67%
* Female- 33
* Under 34- 48%
* Ages 35 to 64- 38%
* Older than 65- 14%

==Rights==

===Family Law===

The Rwandan Family Code was adopted in 1988 and was put into effect in order to end the concept of legal dualism from Belgian control. This code is broken down into two parts:
#1. Legislation- governs law of persons and family
#2. Custom- applies to matrimonial property and succession 


When it comes to citizenship in Rwanda laws are based on the Code of Rwandese Nationality which came about in September 28, 1963. Being born in Rwandan territory doesnt make automatic citizenship. The only exception is if they are born within the territory and the parents are unknown. Citizenship by descent is a different situation. If the father of the child is a Rwandan citizen the child is automatically a citizen regardless of it's birth country. Also if a child's mother a is a citizen of Rwanda and the father is unknown they are considered a citizen. By naturalization citizenship is attained by residency in Rwanda for atleast ten years with no hostility towards democratic or republican ideals. When a non citizen marrys a Rwandan citizen they are also eligible for citizenship by naturalization. &lt;ref&gt;&quot;Directory of Citizenship Requirements Worldwide.&quot; US Office of Personnel Management. US Office of Personnel Management, Apr. 2011. Web. 08 Apr. 2011. &lt;http://www.opm.gov&gt;. &lt;/ref&gt;  


The idea of Dual citizenship is not recognized in the Rwandan culture. The only exception is if a rwandese child is born abroad but obtains citizenship of their birth country. When the child reaches the age of eighteen they must choose between the two countries. 


Citizenship can be lost either voluntary or involuntary. Voluntarily renunciation of citizenship is permitted under rwandese law causing passports to be turned into a Rwandan Embassy. Involuntarily loss of citizenship happens when voluntary acquisition of foreign citizenship occurs.

Family Law in Traditional Law:

This regards family as a subject of law and defines family by a group of blood related people who share a common ancestor. The three main ideas are that family is patrilineal, it does not include wives of male members, and does not include descendants of female members. The civil code introduces and establishes a nuclear family of a man, woman, and children; This is the only form of family which is protected by law. The organization of a family unit can be found within two types: &lt;ref&gt; &quot;Human Rights.&quot; U.S. Department of State. 2011. Web. 15 Apr. 2011. &lt;http://www.state.gov/g/drl/hr/&gt;. &lt;/ref&gt;

#1. Vertical units- Generations are subject to those who remain above them; the idea of senority enables older generations to be responsible for younger generations 
#2. Horizontal units- Those who are equals such as binding members of the same generation; the oldest male takes responsbility as the elder, is closest to the ancestors, and hold paternal authority 

There are five functions which help in describing Family Law, Function of Education, Judicial Function, Administrative Function, Economic Function, and Religious Function. Function of Education tells us that the child belongs to the family and that its genetic parents and paternal uncles hold responsibility for the children. When it comes to Judicial Function the head of the family acts as a judge and advocate. He is the one responsible for settling disputes with the assistant of an internal council of elders with no distinction between penal and civil matters. Administrative Function ensures the head of the family will equally share all assets and will determine the disposal  of assets and integration of outsiders. They also will arrange all  marriages. Economic Function states that each household has to produce enough for his own needs and can contribute to the group as a whole. Each household is provided with farming land, land for proper dwelling, and a common section of land. Lastly Religious Function deals with a cult of ancestral spirits arranged to ward off misfortune by the family elder. Patriarch is the only one capable of passing on desires of other members. 

The 3 most important aspects of Family Law are the recognition of the individual  as a subject of law, marriage as a conjugal union, and equality between parents and children. 

#1. Recognition of the individual as a subject of law- The Rwandan Constitution shows the human being  a possessor of rights and duties. None may infringe an individuals freedom except in cases of law. Each citizen has equal protection of law except for minors or people not legally capable who have restrictions. Law also protects their identity when it comes to nationality, name, and domicile/residence. 

#2. Mariage as a Conjugal Union- Both the man and women pick to live in a partnership and assume their own reciprocal duties. Monagamous civil marriage is the only form legally recognized. The Civil code states that 21 years of age for both spouses, the consent of both spouses, a difference in sex, and an agreed upon waiting time for widowhood are all terms for marriage. There is a Penal code which provdes sanctions for and against bigamy. Under new civil codes women now have the option to open new bank accounts, appear in court, witness legal acts, and use their own name in administrative acts. Civil Code also states that grounds for divorce  are fault on a spouse, mutual consent, 3 years of seperation or dessertion of 12 monthes. 

#3. Equality between Parents &amp; Children- When it comes to equality between a mother and father, filiation is considered patrilineal where children belong to father's family. The maternal family takes no responsibility for children recognized by their father. The new civil code establishes equality between both the rights, duties, and equalities between both parents and children. The child owes respect and authority to both the mother and the father. When it comes to equality between children the code distinguishes between legitimate and natural children as having the same rights  and duties to both parents. Legitimate children are children born and concieed in wedlock (allowed to exist outside civil marriage. This includes children of monagamous and polygamous customary unions. Natural children are recognized and legitimated under customary law such as children born in religious marriages. The code tends to distinguish between materal and paternal filiation and can arise by voluntary acts or a court date. It tends to take place in front of a registration officer. 

Gaps in the Civil Code of Family Law:

#1. The civil code tends to be incomplete- Legislation only covers law of family relations and not property, succession or matrimonial regimes.
#2. Precarious state of some children- Civil code is not yet up to par with the science aspect; children concieved in vitro or artificial insemination are not protected under the civil code at all
#3. Binding effect of judgments on status- Former code provided that the rules were binding in the effect of judgments applied to decisions on status; the question now though is, is it still considered to apply presently and for the future
#4. Total Failure to coordinate legislative texts- Reform of the civil code should include other legislative texts such as in the following example; (The Banking Code, Social Legislation, Code of Nationality, Social Security Code). 
lack of coordination  produces injustice and contradiction in Rwandan courts. &lt;ref&gt; Grand Slacs.com &lt;/ref&gt; 

Unconstitutional Provisions-
*judge as law maker 
*interference with privacy 
*inequality between spouses

===Human Rights===

Rwandan Households are dependant on the protection and assistance of UNHCR:
* lack of land
* limited access to education
* low skill levels
* harsh living conditions
* poor soil, eroded hillside, inclement weather
* crowded shelters

#1. Favorable Protection Environment- government officials are trained in international refugee and human rights law
#2. Fair Protection Processes- national institutions are assisted in the issue of civil documentation and travel documents 
#3. Security from Violence/Exploitation- early childhood development centers are set up; theirs is training on childrens rights, and than child protection committees are instituted
#4. Basic Needs/Services- 95% of dwellings are adequate, access to 20 liters of water a day per person, camp-based refugees have adequate sanitation, 15,000 kids age 6 to 11 have primary education

Durable Solutions to these problems-

* information campaigns conducted in and out of Rwanda
* government provides favorable reception conditions for 30,000 refugees
* reintegration assistance is provided and monitoring activities are undertaken through the country
* 3,500 individuals are submitted for resettlement
* suitable solutions are found for the remaining 360Burundians in Rwanda
&lt;ref&gt; UNHCR Welcome. Web. 02 May 2011. &lt;http://www.unhcr.org/&gt;.
 &lt;/ref&gt;

===Works Cited===

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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills</title>
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      <text bytes="5520" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures|Lecture 02: Historical development and assessment skills|second}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/In development}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Complete}} --&gt;
[[File:Forestay-Eye-Round-seizings-Bulls-eye.jpg|250px|right]]
==Overview==
This lecture: 
* Discusses the historical context and development of psychological motivation and emotion knowledge.
* Explains the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|assessment]], including how to:
** use [[Wikiversity]] for the [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] and [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]] assessment exercises and
** develop a [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Assessment/Multimedia|multimedia]] recording
** complete the [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|1}}/Assessment/Quizzes|quizzes]]
** access additional support for completing the assessment exercises

Take-home messages:
* What we don't know about motivation and emotion exceeds what we do know
* A wiki is the simplest collaborative platform - anyone can edit to share knowledge

==Major project examples==
Examples of high quality major project submissions for:
# [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Examples|Topic development]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Examples|Book chapter]] + [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions#Socialcontributionexamples|Social contributions]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia#Examples|Multimedia presentation]]

==Multimedia==
* [https://www.youtube.com/embed/9hdSLiHaJz8?start=90&amp;end=219 The power of motivation] (CrashCourse Psychology #17, YouTube; 2:09 mins): Introduces motivation by explaining instinct and drive theory.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGCJ46vyR9o A vision of students today] (YouTube; 4:44 mins): Explores some of the reasons behind why are approaching the assessment this way.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-dnL00TdmLY Wikis in plain English] (Commoncraft; 3:53 mins) explains the concept of a wiki and how it works.
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WghdsOz9KwA Wikipedia - An investment for your future; your children's future] (YouTube; 4:10 mins) explains the purpose of Wikipedia.

==Readings==
# Chapter 02: Motivation in historical perspective ([[Motivation and emotion/Readings/Textbooks/Reeve/2018|Reeve, 2018]])
# [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment|Assessment]]
## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|Book chapter]]
## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Multimedia|Multimedia]]
## [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Quizzes|Quizzes]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|Wikiversity skills]]

==Slides==
* Lecture slides
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1E1iEIUhiFJ4ecCVZgxnC5uGYOfK3t8Uq4_FKUW06Eyg/edit?usp=sharing Historical development] (Google Slides)
** [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/157gL4ep4QJ9CuIqEV5t6PsDFCGtXO2N8AeIFodXUqK8/edit?usp=sharing Assessment skills] (Google Slides)
&lt;!--
* [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivation-in-historical-perspective Lecture slides - Part A - Historical development] (Slideshare)
* [http://www.slideshare.net/jtneill/motivation-and-emotion-assessment-task-skills Lecture slides - Part B - Assessment skills] (Slideshare) --&gt;
* Handouts
** [[Media:Historical development and assessment skills 3 slides per page.pdf|Download 3 slides per page]]: [[File:Historical development and assessment skills 3 slides per page.pdf|100px|3 slides per page]]
** [[Media:Historical development and assessment skills 6 slides per page.pdf|Download 6 slides per page]]: [[File:Historical development and assessment skills 6 slides per page.pdf|100px|6 slides per page]]

==See also==
* [[/Images/]]

;Lectures
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Introduction|Introduction]] (Previous lecture)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Brain and physiological needs|Brain and physiological needs]] (Next lecture)

;Tutorials
* [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing]]

;Wikipedia
* [[w:Drive reduction theory (learning theory)|Drive reduction theory]]
* [[w:Instinct|Instinct]]
* [[w:Will (philosophy)|Will]]
&lt;!-- * [[w:The Structure of Scientific Revolutions|The Structure of Scientific Revolutions]] --&gt;

;Book chapters
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2017/Drive reduction theory of motivation|Drive-reduction theory of motivation]] (Book chapter, 2017)
&lt;!-- * [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2015/Willpower|Willpower: What is it and how can it be strengthened?]] (Book chapter, 2015) --&gt;

==Recording==
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/e7fa41feb77c43eab6580a9f338e13c8 Lecture 02 recording] (2022)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/3951859be633471f9544ac5084837075 Lecture 02 recording] (2021)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/51afc864-1492-460c-afd2-45f6f9956d4e/public Lecture 02 recording] (2019)
* [https://echo360.org.au/media/3d3dc69a-6bcc-4aad-b6eb-b7615ac45c4d/public Lecture 02 recording] (2018)
--&gt;

==External links==
* [https://www.verywellmind.com/drive-reduction-theory-2795381 Drive-reduction theory and human behavior: Biological need motivates behavior] (verywellmind)
&lt;!-- [http://study.com/academy/lesson/drive-reduction-theory-of-motivation-definition-examples-quiz.html Drive reduction theory of motivation: Definition &amp; examples] --&gt;
{{Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Navigation}}
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    <title>Strength training</title>
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      <text bytes="7557" xml:space="preserve">{{Template:Weight training}}
{{sports}}
'''Strength training''' is the use of resistance to muscular contraction to build the ''physical strength'' and ''endurance''. There are many different methods of strength training, the most common being the weight/[[gravity]] training and the training with the help of resistive equipment.[[File:Philadelphia Eagles cheerleaders visit Camp Taqaddum DVIDS94366.jpg|thumb|left|240px|Strength training with the help of [[gravity|gravity force]] and Philadelphia Eagles Cheerleaders, Iraq.]]

When properly performed, strength training can provide significant functional benefits and improvement in overall health and well-being, including increased bone, muscle, tendon and ligament strength, improved joint function, reduced potential for injury, increased bone density, a temporary increase in metabolism, improved cardiac function.

Training commonly uses the technique of progressively increasing the force output of the muscle through incremental increases of weight, elastic tension or other resistance, and uses a variety of exercises and types of training equipment to target specific muscle groups. Strength training is primarily an anaerobic activity.
[[File:Kagan Yalaman-2.JPG|thumb|170px|Weight training in a gym.]]
Strength training differs from [[bodybuilding]] and [[weightlifting]],  which are sports rather than forms of exercise, although training for them depends on strength training. 

== Basic principles ==
The basic principles of strength training involve a number of repetitions (reps), sets, tempo, exercises and force to cause desired changes in strength, endurance, size or shape by overloading of a group of muscles. Specific combination of reps, sets, exercises, resistance and force depend on the purpose of the individual performing the exercise: sets with fewer reps can be performed using more force, but have a reduced impact on endurance.&lt;ref name=De2004&gt;{{cite journal | format = pdf | author = De Mello Meirelles, C. | coauthors = Gomes, P.S.C. | year = 2004 | title = Acute effects of resistance exercise on energy expenditure: revisiting the impact of the training variables | journal = Rev Bras Med Esporte | volume = 10 | pages = 131–8 | url = http://www.scielo.br/pdf/rbme/v10n2/en_a06v10n2.pdf  | accessdate = 2008-02-06}}&lt;/ref&gt;
== Strength Training ==
With proper technique, strength training is not dangerous for growing bodies. Strength training for these growing bodies is not the same thing as powerlifting, weightlifting, or bodybuilding. However, these children wanting to participate in a strength training program must have the emotional maturity to accept and follow directions, which is why it is generally accepted that children should stay out of the weight room and focus on exercises that they can do with their own body weight until they are mature enough to grasp how important it is to have proper technique and safety in the weight room. Once they have matured these adolescents should not be focused on high intensity weightlifting, rather strength training for them refers to “a systematic program of exercises designed to increase an individual’s ability to exert or resist force” (ACSM). It is recommended by the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) that, 
“Although there are no scientific reports that define the optimal combinations of sets and repetitions for children and adolescents, one to three sets of six to fifteen repetitions performed two to three times per week on nonconsecutive days have been found to be reasonable. Beginning with one set of several upper and lower body exercises that focus on the major muscle groups will allow room for progress to be made. The program can be made more challenging by gradually increasing the weight or the number of sets and repetitions. Strength training with maximal weights is not recommended because of the potential for possible injuries related to the long bones, growth plates, and back. It must be underscored that the overriding emphasis should be on proper technique and safety — not on how much weight can be lifted” (ACSM). 

==Some more samples==
Some samples of strength training exercises in a gym are presented in the picture gallery below.
&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Weighted, wide-grip pullup video.gif
File:Work-out on a ball.gif
&lt;/gallery&gt;

As we mature into adulthood it is still very important to continue strength training. The Mayo Clinic states that “Muscle mass naturally diminishes with age. &quot;If you don't do anything to replace the lean muscle you lose, you'll increase the percentage of fat in your body,&quot; says Edward Laskowski, M.D., a physical medicine and rehabilitation specialist at Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn., and co-director of the Mayo Clinic Sports Medicine Center. &quot;But strength training can help you preserve and enhance your muscle mass — at any age””(Mayo Clinic). Strength training is especially important in reducing your risk of osteoperosis by developing strong bones, controlling your weight, reducing your risk of energy, boosting your stamina, and managing chronic conditions. Strength training is even more essential as we grow elder.

Strength training with the elders can also help to maintain the integrity of the bones, improve balance, improve coordination, improve mobility, and can even help to reduce the signs and symptoms of many chronic diseases, including arthritis. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention states, “Scientific research has shown that exercise can slow the physiological aging clock. While aerobic exercise, such as walking, jogging, or swimming, has many excellent health benefits—it maintains the heart and lungs and increases cardiovascular fitness and endurance—it does not make your muscles strong. Strength training does. Studies have shown that lifting weights two or three times a week increases strength by building muscle mass and bone density” (CDC). It is very essential for older adults and the elderly to strength train. The CDC states that, “There are numerous benefits to strength training regularly, particularly as you grow older. It can be very powerful in reducing the signs and symptoms of numerous diseases and chronic conditions, among them: arthritis, diabetes, osteoporosis, obesity, back pain, and depression” (CDC). As people age, poor balance and flexibility are a major contributor to broken bones. This can result in disability and complications. Strength training is especially helpful in restoring balance which can lead to the reduction of falls. The CDC mentions that, “Strengthening exercises, when done properly and through the full range of motion, increase a person's flexibility and balance, which decrease the likelihood and severity of falls. [[File:Older adult exercise with tin can..jpg|thumb|An older adult doing a simple at home strength exercise.]] One study in New Zealand in women 80 years of age and older showed a 40% reduction in falls with simple strength and balance training” (CDC). Also, another health concern for elderly women is that post-menopausal women can lose 1-2% of their bone mass annually. The Journal of American Medical Association in 1994 showed that strength training increases bone density and reduces the risk for fractures among women aged 50-70. (CDC). Strength training is also important to maintain a healthy state of mind, to improve sleep quality, and for better cardiac health.
{{commonscat|Physical exercises}}
===References===
{{reflist}}
{{Physical exercising}}
[[Category:Physical exercising]]</text>
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    <title>Sources/First cyan source in Caelum</title>
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      <text bytes="24256" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:NGC-1679-in-Caelum-constellation.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of NGC 1679 in Caelum. It is a spiral galaxy located two degrees south of Zeta Caeli. Credit: NASA/ESA (Wikisky).{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
The '''first cyan source in Caelum''' is unknown.

This is a lesson in map reading, coordinate matching, and searching. It is also a project in the history of [[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|cyan astronomy]] looking for the first astronomical cyan source discovered in the constellation of Caelum.

Nearly all the background you need to participate and learn by doing you've probably already been introduced to at a secondary level.

Some of the material and information is at the college or university level, and as you progress in finding cyan sources, you'll run into concepts and experimental tests that are an actual search.

To succeed in finding a cyan source in Caelum is the first step. Next, you'll need to determine the time stamp of its discovery and compare it with any that have already been found. Over the history of cyan astronomy a number of sources have been found, many as point sources in the night sky. These points are located on the celestial sphere using coordinate systems. Familiarity with these coordinate systems is not a prerequisite. Here the challenge is geometrical, astrophysical, and historical.

NGC 1679 in the image at left appears to contain some cyan, probably as a result of a mixture of light blue and yellow.
{{clear}}

==First step==

The first step is to succeed in finding a cyan source in Caelum.

Next, you'll need to determine the time stamp of its discovery and compare it with any that have already been discovered.

Over the history of [[cyan astronomy]] a number of sources have been found, many as point sources in the night sky. These points are located on the celestial sphere using coordinate systems. Familiarity with these coordinate systems is not a prerequisite. Here the challenge is geometrical, astrophysical, and historical. The coordinates are usually supplied by the cyan source observers.

==Control groups==

A control group for this experiment may be a cyan source observed by ancient hominins in their version of the constellation Caelum.
{{clear}}

==Astronomical cyan sources==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Cyans}}
The electric blue glow of electricity results from the spectral emission of the excited ionized atoms (or excited molecules) of air (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) falling back to unexcited states, which happens to produce an abundance of electric blue light. This is the reason electrical sparks in air, including lightning, appear electric blue. It is a coincidence that the color of Cherenkov radiation and light emitted by ionized air are a very similar blue despite their very different methods of production.

==Traveling cyan sources==
{{main|Sources/Astronomy}}
[[Image:Visual Sun image.png|thumb|left|200px|This is the appearance of the Sun in visual radiation centered in the yellow-green. Credit: Jim E. Brau, Pearson Prentice Hall, Inc.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
Many cyan sources do not remain in a constellation for lengthy periods. Some of these are the Sun and sources apparently in orbit around the Sun. The Sun travels through the 13 constellations along the ecliptic (the plane of the Earth's orbit around the Sun): the 12 of the Zodiac and the constellation Ophiuchus. These are described in [[source astronomy]]. Caelum is not one of the constellations of the Zodiac.
{{clear}}

==First sources==
{{main|First astronomical sources}}
The &quot;earliest known astronomy anywhere in the world [is] that of the Australian Aborigines, whose culture has existed for some 40,000 years&quot;.&lt;ref name=Haynes/&gt;

&quot;The Aranda tribes of Central Australia, for example, distinguish red stars from white, blue and yellow stars.&quot;&lt;ref name=Haynes&gt;{{ cite book
|author=R Haynes
|title=Explorers of the southern sky: a history of Australian astronomy
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|location=Cambridge, England, UK
|date=June 27, 1996
|editor=Raymond Haynes
|editor2=Roslynn Haynes
|editor3=David Malin &amp; Richard McGee
|pages=527
|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=XoeiJxMmXZ8C&amp;lr=&amp;source=gbs_navlinks_s
|arxiv=
|bibcode=
|doi=
|pmid=
|isbn=0521365759
|accessdate=2013-08-02 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Backgrounds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Backgrounds}}
To introduce yourself to some aspects of the challenge may I suggest reading the highlighted links mentioned above, and if you're curious, those listed under the section &quot;See also&quot; below.

Cyan rays are a form of radiation that is currently part of the electromagnetic radiation intersecting the Earth. More information about [[radiation]] is in [[Radiation/Astronomy|radiation astronomy]].

==Constellations==
[[Image:Caelum IAU.svg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of the International Astronomical Union (IAU) sky map of the constellation Caelum. Credit: IAU and Roger Sinnott &amp; Rick Fienberg, Sky &amp; Telescope magazine.{{tlx|free media}}]]
The Wikipedia article about the constellation [[w:Caelum (constellation)|Caelum]] contains a high school level description. The figure at right shows the sky map of Caelum. Around the edges of the map are coordinates related to longitude and latitude, but with the Earth rotating on its axis every 24 hours the celestial coordinates must remain fixed. How has this been accomplished?

Also, in the Wikipedia article is a [[w:List of stars in Caelum|list of stars in Caelum]]. What's the difference between a star and an astronomical cyan source?

From the Wikipedia article on the [[w:Zodiac|Zodiac]], is Caelum a zodiacal constellation?

Caelum is a faint constellation in the southern sky, introduced in the 1750s by Nicolas Louis de Lacaille.

&quot;Caelum is depicted as a sculptor’s chisel. It first appeared in Lacaille’s map of the southern stars published in 1756, as “les Burins,” a pair of crossed burins connected by a ribbon. (Burins are sharp engraving tools.)&quot;&lt;ref name=ConstellationGuide&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Constellation-Guide
|title=Caelum Constellation
|publisher=Constellation-Guide
|location=
|date=18 July 2014
|url=http://www.constellation-guide.com/constellation-list/caelum-constellation/
|accessdate=2014-07-18 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;In Johann Bode’s star atlas Uranographia, the constellation still had the longer name, Caela Scalptoris.&quot;&lt;ref name=ConstellationGuide/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Star classification by color==

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
! Class
! Temperature&lt;ref name=calib /&gt;&lt;br&gt;K
! abbr=&quot;color&quot; | Conventional color
! abbr=&quot;color&quot; | Apparent color&lt;ref name=&quot;möre&quot;&gt;The Guinness book of astronomy facts &amp; feats, Patrick Moore, 1992, 0-900424-76-1&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;{{ cite book
| date = 2004-12-21
| url = http://outreach.atnf.csiro.au/education/senior/astrophysics/photometry_colour.html
| title = The Colour of Stars
| publisher = Australia Telescope Outreach and Education
| accessdate = 2007-09-26
}}&amp;nbsp;— Explains the reason for the difference in color perception.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;[http://www.vendian.org/mncharity/dir3/starcolor/ What color are the stars?], Mitchell Charity. Accessed online March 19, 2008.&lt;/ref&gt;
! Mass&lt;ref name=calib&gt;Tables VII, VIII, Empirical bolometric corrections for the main-sequence, G. M. H. J. Habets and J. R. W. Heinze, ''Astronomy and Astrophysics Supplement Series'' '''46''' (November 1981), pp. 193–237, bibcode=1981A&amp;AS...46..193H. Luminosities are derived from M&lt;sub&gt;bol&lt;/sub&gt; figures, using M&lt;sub&gt;bol&lt;/sub&gt;(ʘ)=4.75.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;br&gt;(solar masses, M&lt;sub&gt;ʘ&lt;/sub&gt;)
! Radius&lt;ref name=calib /&gt;&lt;br&gt;(solar radii, R&lt;sub&gt;ʘ&lt;/sub&gt;)
! Luminosity&lt;ref name=calib /&gt;&lt;br&gt;(bolometric, L&lt;sub&gt;ʘ&lt;/sub&gt;)
! Hydrogen&lt;br&gt;lines
! Fraction of all&lt;br&gt;[[w:main sequence star|main sequence star]]s&lt;ref name=&quot;LeDrew2001&quot;&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Glenn LeDrew
|url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001JRASC..95...32L
|title=The Real Starry Sky
|journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada
|month=February
|year=2001
|volume=95
|issue=1 (whole No. 686, February 2001), pp. 32–33. ''Note:'' Table 2 has an error and so this article will use 824 as the assumed correct total of main-sequence stars }}&lt;/ref&gt;
|- style=&quot;background:#9bb0ff;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#9bb0ff;&quot;| [[#Class O|O]]
| ≥&amp;nbsp;33,000&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#9aafff;&quot; | blue
| style=&quot;background:#9bb0ff;&quot; | blue
| ≥&amp;nbsp;16 
| ≥&amp;nbsp;6.6 
| ≥&amp;nbsp;30,000 
| Weak
| ~0.00003%
|- style=&quot;background:#aabfff;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#abbfff;&quot;| [[#Class B|B]]
| 10,000–33,000&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#cad7ff;&quot; | blue to blue white
| style=&quot;background:#aabfff;&quot; | blue white
| 2.1–16 
| 1.8–6.6 
| 25–30,000 
| Medium
| 0.13%
|- style=&quot;background:#cad7ff;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#cad7ff;&quot;| [[#Class A|A]]
| 7,500–10,000&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#f8f7ff;&quot; | white
| style=&quot;background:#cad7ff;&quot; | white to blue white
| 1.4–2.1 
| 1.4–1.8 
| 5–25 
| [[w:Strong (relative detectability)|Strong]]
| 0.6%
|- style=&quot;background:#f8f7ff;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#f8f7ff;&quot;| [[#Class F|F]]
| 6,000–7,500&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#FCFFD3;&quot; | yellowish white
| style=&quot;background:#f8f7ff;&quot; | white
| 1.04–1.4 
| 1.15–1.4 
| 1.5–5 
| Medium
| 3%
|- style=&quot;background:#fff4ea;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#fff4ea;&quot;| [[#Class G|G]]
| 5,200–6,000&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#fff2a1;&quot; | yellow
| style=&quot;background:#Fff4ea;&quot; | yellowish white
| 0.8–1.04 
| 0.96–1.15 
| 0.6–1.5 
| Weak
| 7.6%
|- style=&quot;background:#ffd2a1;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffd2a1;&quot;| [[#Class K|K]]
| 3,700–5,200&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#FFA351;&quot; | orange
| style=&quot;background:#Ffd2a1;&quot; | yellow orange
| 0.45–0.8 
| 0.7–0.96 
| 0.08–0.6 
| Very weak
| 12.1%
|- style=&quot;background:#ffcc6f;&quot;
!style=&quot;background:#ffcc6f;&quot;| [[#Class M|M]]
| ≤&amp;nbsp;3,700&amp;nbsp;K
| style=&quot;background:#FF6151; color:#FFFFFF&quot; | red
| style=&quot;background:#ffcc6f;&quot; | orange red
| ≤&amp;nbsp;0.45 
| ≤&amp;nbsp;0.7 
| ≤&amp;nbsp;0.08 
| Very weak
| 76.45%.
|}

==Testing a source==

There are many web sites that may have a cyan source listed for the constellation Caelum.

===Wikipedia sources===

'''A. Constellation article'''

Under &quot;Notable features&quot; in the Wikipedia article on the constellation Caelum is the [[w:List of stars in Caelum|list of stars in Caelum]]. Click on this link. In the table of this Wikipedia article is [[w:Alpha Caeli|α Cae]]. To the right are coordinates:
# Right ascension (RA): 04&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 40&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 32.62&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; and
# Declination (Dec): -41° 51' 48.9&quot;.

Find these coordinates on the Caelum map at the right. Is alpha Caeli really inside the boundaries of the constellation?

To evaluate the star as a cyan source, skip ahead to the section &quot;Cyan source&quot;.

'''B. Wikipedia search'''

Another way to look for cyan sources in the constellation is to perform a search on Wikipedia. Try &quot;Caelum cyan&quot; without the quotes. This yields no possible astronomical cyan source candidates. &quot;Caelum blue-green&quot; yields only [[w:Eridanus (constellation)|Eridanus (constellation)]] where a blue-green star is described. This may be a good candidate for the first cyan source in Eridanus.

To evaluate a cyan source, skip ahead to section &quot;Cyan source&quot;.

===SIMBAD sources===

Another way to find possible cyan sources in Caelum is to use search queries on SIMBAD.

Click on the SIMBAD link under &quot;External links&quot; below, then click on &quot;Criteria query&quot; or &quot;by criteria&quot;.

In the tan box, type in &quot;region(04 40 32.62 -41 51 48.9, 10m)&quot;, without the quotes. This tells the SIMBAD computer you are interested in a circular region of the celestial sphere centered on the coordinates for alpha Caeli, with a radius of 10 arcminutes (m).

Notice on the page over at the right from the tan colored box: &quot;'''Return'''&quot;. The default is &quot;object count&quot;. Click on &quot;submit query&quot;. In a few moments a result something like &quot;'''Number of objects:'''	    	 9&quot; should appear. Click &quot;Back&quot; to see the tan box again.

To see if you have found at least one object, change &quot;'''Return'''&quot; to &quot;display&quot; by clicking on the circle to its left, then &quot;submit query&quot;.

SIMBAD should display a list of objects. Read through the resource [[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|cyan astronomy]] for clues that may indicate whether a particular spectral type (Sp type) is a cyan source. If none of the objects listed seems to be described as a cyan source, try going &quot;Back&quot; and increasing the arcminutes from &quot;10m&quot; to &quot;20m&quot;, and repeat until a cyan source is found.

Once you believe you have discovered a cyan source, proceed to the section &quot;Cyan source&quot;.

==Cyan source==

There are several ways to evaluate a cyan source for the constellation Caelum.

===Wikipedia source===

Click on the link to the Wikipedia article. After you've enjoyed reading about the source, use the 'find' command of your browser to see if this Wikipedia page mentions anything about &quot;cyan&quot;, &quot;blue-green&quot;, &quot;green-blue&quot;, or &quot;cyan rays&quot;. Does the article mention whether or not the source is a cyan source?

What is the current time stamp for the Wikipedia article on the source? [Hint]: look for something like &quot;This page was last modified on 12 January 2012 at 06:47.&quot; very near the bottom of the page. For now this is an adequate time stamp.

From reading the Wikipedia article on the source, if you believe the text demonstrates that the source is not a cyan source in Caelum edit the &quot;Non-cyan source in Caelum&quot; section near the bottom of the page with an entry similar to &quot;# Alpha Caeli 12 January 2012 at 06:47 Wikipedia article &quot;Alpha Caeli&quot;.&quot;, without the outer quotes, and finish the entry with four &quot;~&quot;s without the quotes after the period. The date included with your designation or username is a time stamp for the entry. The last portion of the entry is the source of your information.

On the other hand, if there are one or more sentences in the article that you believe demonstrates that the source is a cyan source in Caelum edit the section below &quot;Cyan source in Caelum&quot; with a similar entry.

Go to the section entitle, &quot;Challenging an entry&quot;.

===SIMBAD source===

To check any source (even one from Wikipedia) on SIMBAD, click of the &quot;External link&quot; to the &quot;SIMBAD Astronomical Database&quot;.

At the lower right side of the SIMBAD Astronomical Database page is a &quot;Basic search&quot; box. There are several ways to try your target:
# source name: without the quotes or
# source coordinates: without the quotes, for example, &quot;04 40 32.62 -41 51 48.9&quot;.

If you are looking at a SIMBAD generated table which lists possible targets, click on one.

On its SIMBAD page move over to the right side until you see an Aladin visual photograph of the object. Is it a cyan source?

Even if the source does not look cyan, look down the left hand side of the page for &quot;Spectral type:&quot;. From your reading of [[Radiation astronomy/Cyans|cyan astronomy]], do you believe the source is a cyan source, or not? Noting that SIMBAD does, or does not consider the source to be a cyan source is important, so skip down to the &quot;SIMBAD time stamp&quot; section.

If you have already found a cyan source (or a table of them) using SIMBAD, click on the blue link identifier for the first.

===SIMBAD time stamp===

Peruse the SIMBAD page for a time stamp or date of last revision.
[Hint: it may look something like &quot;2012.01.09CET20:10:02&quot; and be in the upper right.]

If the entry at SIMBAD convinces you that the source is not a cyan source, edit the &quot;Non-cyan source in Caelum&quot; section near the bottom of this page and type in an entry similar to &quot;# Source Name 2012.01.09CET20:10:02 SIMBAD article &quot;SIMBAD source name&quot;.&quot;, without the first set of quotes, followed by four ~s.

If your SIMBAD analysis convinces you that you have found a cyan source in Caelum (did you check the coordinates vs. the map of Caelum?), make an entry something like the ones in the section &quot;Cyan source in Caelum&quot;.

==Challenging an entry==

Any entry in either the section &quot;Cyan source in Caelum&quot; or &quot;Non-cyan source in Caelum&quot; can be challenged. The time stamp may be challenged to see if there is an earlier one. The source may be challenged by an earlier source.

===Wikipedia challenge===

Is Wikipedia a 'primary source', or does the Wikipedia article cite a source?

Even though Wikipedia has an article on the source, is it a good place to stop in testing whether the source has been detected as an astronomical cyan source?

If the Wikipedia article cites a primary source, skip down to the section on &quot;Primary sources&quot;.

===SIMBAD challenge===

Is SIMBAD a 'primary source'?

SIMBAD is an astronomical database provided by the Centre de Données astronomiques de Strasbourg. It is an authoritative source, but they do occasionally make a mistake.

If you find a cyan source within the constellation on SIMBAD, the next step is to find the earliest time stamp of discovery.

==Primary sources==

Primary sources may be searched for possible additional information perhaps not yet evaluated by SIMBAD or not presented in a Wikipedia article about a source.

===Wikipedia test source===

For a Wikipedia article that cites a primary source, scroll down to the reference and open the reference. Read through the article looking for where the source mentioned in the Wikipedia article occurs. Some primary source authors may use source designations that are not mentioned in the Wikipedia article. To look for other designations, click on the link to SIMBAD in the &quot;External links&quot; on this page, enter the source name from the Wikipedia article, and see if other names are mentioned in the article.

When none of the names are mentioned, click on the link for &quot;Google Advanced Search&quot; in the list of &quot;External links&quot;, enter the source name or designation(s) such as &quot;Gliese 866&quot;, with &quot;cyan&quot; to see if the source has a reference indicating it is a cyan source. And, look for the earliest one. Compose an entry using the primary source.

===SIMBAD test source===

Further down the SIMBAD page is a list of &quot;Identifiers&quot;. Click on the blue bold portion.

On the page that appears, there should be a primary source listed after '''Ref:'''. Click on the blue link with the oldest year. This yields an earlier time stamp and entry citation like the current one in the section &quot;Cyan source in Caelum&quot;. If you find another source or an earlier time stamp, compose a similar entry and edit the section. Additional information to add into the reference can be found by clicking on &quot;ADS services&quot; from the SIMBAD page.

==Changing an entry==

From your analysis of the source so far, is it a cyan source?

If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below &quot;Non-cyan source in Caelum&quot; and the answer to the above question is &quot;no&quot;, you can edit the section with your result. Or, you can leave the entries as is and try another star or object.

If you have found an earlier time stamp for the source than the one listed in the section below &quot;Cyan source in Caelum&quot;, edit the section with your result. Or, if you found another cyan source with a comparable or earlier time stamp, edit the section with your result.

==Cyan sources in Caelum==

# The [[w:List of stars in Caelum|list of stars in Caelum]] contains the entry &quot;3 G. Cae&quot; at right ascension (RA) 04&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 27&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 05.92&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; declination (Dec) -46° 56' 49.6&quot;, spectral type F8V. Inputting the RA and Dec into SIMBAD using &quot;region(04 27 05.92 -46 56 49.6,10m)&quot;, clicking on &quot;display&quot;, then &quot;submit query&quot; yields a list of objects containing LTT 1989 approximately at the coordinates for &quot;3 G. Cae&quot; but with a visual spectral type of F5.5V. Using 40m, yields HD 28079 an F9V and HD 28155 an F7V. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 10:59, 15 August 2012 (UTC)
# The [[w:List of stars in Caelum|list of stars in Caelum]] contains the entry &quot;27 G. Cae&quot; at RA 05&lt;sup&gt;h&lt;/sup&gt; 03&lt;sup&gt;m&lt;/sup&gt; 53.94&lt;sup&gt;s&lt;/sup&gt; Dec -41° 44' 43.2&quot;, F8V. Using a &quot;Query by criteria&quot; on SIMBAD with region(05 03 53.94 -41 44 43.2,10m) yields HR 1651 an F8V. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 11:45, 15 August 2012 (UTC)

==Non-cyan sources in Caelum==

# Alpha Caeli A is an F-type main sequence star with a visual stellar classification of F2V. Temperature 6,991 K.&lt;ref name=Gray&gt;{{ cite journal
  | author=R. O. Gray, ''et al''.
  | title=Contributions to the Nearby Stars (NStars) Project: Spectroscopy of Stars Earlier than M0 within 40 pc-The Southern Sample
| month=July
| year=2006
  | journal=The Astronomical Journal
| volume=132
  | issue=1
| pages=161–70
| doi=10.1086/504637
| bibcode=2006AJ....132..161G
|arxiv = astro-ph/0603770 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Cyan stellar sources are likely between stellar classifications F7V and F9V. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 10:40, 15 August 2012 (UTC)
# [[w:Beta Caeli|Beta Caeli]] &quot;is categorized as an F-type main sequence star ... F2V&quot;&lt;ref name=Elgarøy&gt;{{ cite journal
| author=Øystein Elgarøy, Oddbjørn Engvold, Niels Lund
| title=The Wilson-Bappu effect of the MgII K line - dependence on stellar temperature, activity and metallicity
| journal=Astronomy and Astrophysics
| volume=343
| pages=222–228
| month=March
| year=1999
| bibcode=1999A&amp;A...343..222E }}&lt;/ref&gt;. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 10:40, 15 August 2012 (UTC)
# [[w:Gamma Caeli|Gamma Caeli]], according to SIMBAD, is a K3III. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 10:40, 15 August 2012 (UTC)
# [[w:Delra Caeli|Delta Caeli]], according to SIMBAD, is a B2IV-V. --[[User:Marshallsumter|Marshallsumter]] ([[User talk:Marshallsumter|talk]]) 10:40, 15 August 2012 (UTC)

==Oldest records==


==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# The first cyan source in Caelum may have been observed some 42,000 b2k.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[First X-ray source in Andromeda]]
* [[First X-ray source in Antlia]]
* [[First X-ray source in Apus]]
* [[First X-ray source in Aquarius]]
* [[First yellow source in Aquila]]
* [[Stars/Sun/X-ray sources|Sun as an X-ray source]]
* [[Astronomy/Theory|Theoretical astronomy]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&amp;go=&amp;qs=n&amp;sk=&amp;sc=8-15&amp;qb=1&amp;FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&amp;lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery NCBI All Databases Search]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/ncbisearch/ NCBI Site Search]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pccompound PubChem Public Chemical Database]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor &amp; Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Reasoning resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Cyan astronomy}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:History of Sciences/Lessons]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Lessons]]
[[Category:Semantics/Lessons]]
[[Category:Sources/Lessons]]</text>
      <sha1>31gahbdas9ek8grfnct08l2mh4ri2a2</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Understanding Arithmetic Circuits</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>139384</id>
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      <id>2412830</id>
      <parentid>2412612</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T13:39:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Adder */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2883" xml:space="preserve">{{nocat}}
== Adder ==

* Binary Adder Architecture Exploration ( [[Media:adder.20131113.pdf  |pdf]]  )
 
{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
!  Adder type      !! Overview !! Analysis !! VHDL Level Design  !! CMOS Level Design  
|-
| '''1. Ripple Carry Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1A.RCA.20211108.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.rca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1D.RCA.CMOS.20211108.pdf |pdf]] 
|-
| '''2. Carry Lookahead Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CLA.20211106.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|| [[Media:adder.cla.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|-
| '''3. Carry Save Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSave.20151209.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| ||
|-
|| '''4. Carry Select Adder''' 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.CSelA.20191002.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''5. Carry Skip Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5A.CSkip.20211111.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.5D.CSkip.CMOS.20211108.pdf  |pdf]]
|- 
|| '''6. Carry Chain Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6A.CCA.20211109.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6C.CCA.VHDL.20211109.pdf |pdf]],  [[Media:adder.cca.20140313.pdf  |pdf]] 
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.6D.CCA.CMOS.20211109.pdf |pdf]] 
|- 
|| '''7. Kogge-Stone Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.KSA.20140315.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| [[Media:adder.ksa.20140409.pdf  |pdf]] || 
|-
|| '''8. Prefix Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.PFA.20140314.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|-
|| '''9. Variable Block Adder'''
|| [[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.VBA.20220809.pdf  |pdf]] ||
|| || 
|}
&lt;/br&gt;
 
=== Adder Architectures Suitable for FPGA === 
* FPGA Carry-Chain Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.FPGA-CCA.20210421.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Select Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.B.FPGA-CarrySelect.20210522.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Variable Block Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.C.FPGA-VariableBlock.20220125.pdf |pdf]])
* FPGA Carry Lookahead Adder ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.D.FPGA-CLookahead.20210304.pdf |pdf]])
* Carry-Skip Adder
&lt;/br&gt;

== Barrel Shifter ==
* Barrel Shifter Architecture Exploration ([[Media:bshift.20131105.pdf  |bshfit.vhdl]], [[Media:bshift.makefile.20131109.pdf  |bshfit.makefile]])
&lt;/br&gt;

'''Mux Based Barrel Shifter'''
* Analysis  ([[Media:Arith.BShfiter.20151207.pdf  |pdf]]) 
* Implementation 
&lt;/br&gt;

== Multiplier == 
=== Array Multipliers ===
* Analysis  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Mult.20151209.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Tree Mulltipliers ===
* Lattice Multiplication  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.LatticeMult.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Wallace Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.WallaceTree.20170204.pdf  |pdf]])
* Dadda Tree  ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.DaddaTree.20170701.pdf  |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Booth Multipliers ===
* [[Media:RNS4.BoothEncode.20161005.pdf  |Booth Encoding Note]]
* Booth Multiplier Note ([[Media:BoothMult.20160929.pdf |H1.pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

== Divider == 
* Binary Divider ([[Media:VLSI.Arith.1.A.Divider.20131217.pdf  |pdf]])&lt;/br&gt;

&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

[[Category:Computer architecture]]</text>
      <sha1>fme6aegqqmhppma1fwhj2g7gp8xgut7</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>Furlongs per fortnight</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412858</id>
      <parentid>2146391</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:12:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="15728" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Measuring Tape Inch+CM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|It's about the chains. Credit: [[c:user:Stilfehler|Stilfehler]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Furlongs per fortnight''' is a problem set with a contained quiz that focuses on the fundamentals of observational and deductive astronomy. In the activity [[Energy phantoms]] you learned about the value of distance, or displacement, and motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration. Here, you can practice and test yourself on converting from units that may or have occurred in the literature to units popular today.

==Astronomical units==
{{main|Units/Astronomy}}
'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_\oplus&lt;/math&gt; indicate the Earth's radius.

'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_J&lt;/math&gt; indicate the radius of Jupiter.

'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt; indicate the solar radius.

==Physical units==

Both physics and astronomy use units and dimensions to describe observations.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:center&quot;
|+ Units of Physics and Astronomy
|-
! Dimension !! Astronomy !! Symbol !! Physics !! Symbol !! Conversion 
|-
| time || 1 day || d || 1 second || s || 1 d = 86,400 s&lt;ref name=Seidelmann&gt;{{ cite book
|author=P. K. Seidelmann
|title=Measuring the Universe The IAU and astronomical units
|publisher=International Astronomical Union
|date= 1976
|url=http://www.iau.org/public/measuring/
|accessdate=2011-11-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
|-
| time || 1 &quot;Julian year&quot;&lt;ref name=Wilkins&gt;International Astronomical Union &quot;[http://www.iau.org/science/publications/proceedings_rules/units/ SI units]&quot; accessed February 18, 2010. (See Table 5 and section 5.15.) Reprinted from George A. Wilkins &amp; IAU Commission 5, [http://www.iau.org/static/publications/stylemanual1989.pdf &quot;The IAU Style Manual (1989)&quot;] (PDF file) in ''IAU Transactions'' Vol. XXB&lt;/ref&gt; || J || 1 second || s || 1 J = 31,557,600 s 
|-
| distance || 1 astronomical unit || AU || 1 meter || m || 1 AU = 149,597,870.691 km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann/&gt; 
|-
| angular distance || 1 parsec || pc || 1 meter || m || 1 pc ~ 30.857 x 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann/&gt;
|-
|}

==Theoretical units==

Perhaps the first step in deciphering ancient presumably astronomical records is determining what the unit is.

'''Def.'''
# a series of interconnected rings or links usually made of metal,
# a series of interconnected links of known length, used as a measuring device,
# a long measuring tape,
# a unit of length equal to 22 yards. The length of a Gunter's surveying chain. The length of a cricket pitch. Equal to 20.12 metres. Equal to 4 rods. Equal to 100 links.
# a totally ordered set, especially a totally ordered subset of a poset,
# iron links bolted to the side of a vessel to bold the dead-eyes connected with the shrouds; also, the channels, or
# the warp threads of a web

is called a '''chain'''.

'''Def.''' a period of fourteen nights; two weeks is called a '''fortnight'''.

'''Def.''' a unit of length equal to 220 yards or exactly 201.168 meters, now only used in measuring distances in horse racing is called a '''furlong'''.

'''Def.'''
# a trench cut in the soil, as when plowed in order to plant a crop or
# any trench, channel, or groove, as in wood or metal

is called a '''furrow'''.

'''Def.''' the distance that a person can walk in one hour, commonly taken to be approximately three English miles (about five kilometers) is called a '''league'''.

'''Def.''' a period of seven nights; a week is called a '''sennight'''.

'''Def.'''
# any period of seven consecutive days,
# a period of seven days beginning with Sunday or Monday,
# a subdivision of the month into longer periods of work days punctuated by shorter weekend periods of days for markets, rest, or religious observation such as a sabbath, or
# seven days after (''sometimes'' before) a specified date

is called a '''week'''.

==Problem 1==

A local farmer has spotted what she believes is an astronomical object moving in the sky at night.

As the ox-plow travels using the apparently fixed points of light in the night sky, the object has covered 0.214 furlongs in her field over 1.631 fortnights.

Her field is 16.421 furlongs from horizon to horizon in the direction the object is traveling. The amount of the total sky (360° if the Earth were not in the way) her field actually views in 10.123°.

How many arcseconds has the astronomical object traversed in the night sky?

How fast is the object traveling in degrees/hour?

If after the first night of travel, the object appears to cover about 0.250 less distance, is the object accelerating or decelerating and by how much in kilometers/sec&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;?

If the object turns out to be 0.313 of the mean distance to the Moon away, what are its actual speed and acceleration in km and sec?

==Problem 2==

Like the farmer in problem 1, a sailor aboard an oil tanker heading northeast across the mid-Atlantic has noticed an apparent astronomical entity traveling north against the fixed stars. Using another nearby ship, the sailor estimates that relative to those stars the entity has traveled 20,000 leagues due north along the surface of the ocean.

Using the radius of the Earth to the North Pole, how many arcseconds has the entity traversed, if the period of movement is a tunti?

What is the entity's speed in km/sec?

What is its speed in arcsecs per minute?

At the end of the observing period, the sailor notices the entity make a 22° change in direction to the east in about four diba'igaans.

If after the change in direction the entity is observed to be traveling at the same speed, what acceleration has been applied to the entity?

==Problem 3==

An astronaut on the surface of the Moon is observing the Earth at night. While watching the Earth she notices a source of visible white light traveling perpendicular to the direction of the Earth's rotation.

In the time it takes North America to rotate into view from just before it's visible the source travels a linear arc approximately equivalent to the arc from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn.

About how many arcminutes has the source traveled?

If it is as far away as the Earth from the Moon, what is its speed in km/hr?

Relative to the Earth's rotational axes, is the object traveling northward or southward?

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Yes or No, The furlong is a unit of time.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Yes
+ No

{Which of the following are units of distance?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ meter
- acre
+ chain
- acorn
- tympan
- гектар
+ reach

{True or False, A hectare is a unit of weight.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the type of phenomenon with each of the possibilities below:
visible tracks such as a star trail - A
a cloud - B
bubbles - C
a grid of uninsulated electric wires - D
octagon - E
circumpolar trail - F
quadrangles { D (i) }.
hectare { B (i) }.
rotational pole { F (i) }.
diameters { C (i) }.
polyhedron { E (i) }
an arc { A (i) }.

{True or False, If a creature comes from 20,000 leagues under the sea it is actually a football player.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Four scores in time is eighty
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ years (i) }.

{True or False, A level grade is a slope of 12°.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
The 0.6m Tortugas Mountain Observatory is used to monitor the temporal changes in the { Jovian|Jupiter (i) } cloud deck and equatorial activity on { Saturn (i) }.

{Yes or No, An event that occurred 2280 b2k actually happened at 80 BC.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Yes
+ No

{An astronomical event occurred during the Cambrian, what does that mean?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- students in the India must use Greenwich mean time
+ about 5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; years ago
- a high-powered robotic telescope was lost on the shuttle Cambrian
- a student in Xinjiang has an abacus configured to the geologic time scale
- on-site use of two high-powered telescopes is available
- trilobites tried to communicate with Earth

{True or False, A theoretical observatory decides which systems, for example, among virtual stellar systems, should be recognizable, and which not.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Various blue radiation observatories occur at different altitudes and geographic locations due to what effect?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- the presence of oceans on the Earth
- locally available carving tools
+ light pollution
- most astronomical objects are observed at night
- currently dormant volcanoes seldom erupt
- human habitation increases near an astronomical observatory

{True or False, The U.S. Virtual Astronomical Observatory (VAO) goal is to enable new science through efficient integration of distributed multi-temporal data.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Which of the following are temporal observatories in orbit around the Earth?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ Chandra X-ray Observatory
- Big Bear
+ TRACE
- Kodaikanal
+ the Hubble
- Lomnický štít
- McMath-Pierce
- SOFIA
+ Rosetta

{True or False, A canton is used to keep track of femtoseconds.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Pressure is a measure of force per unit
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ area (i) }.

{True or False, The US Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) base at Diego Garcia is located 412 decameters off the coast of southern California.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Which of the following are characteristic of a volume?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ polyhedra
+ globes
- hectares
+ pyramid 
- pathway 
- furloughs

{True or False, There is a 101-cm telescope at Bisei Astronomical Observatory.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which phenomenon are associated with acceleration?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ a region of space where the interstellar medium is blown away by a supernova
-  a bubble
+ decreasing time
- displacement
+ orbiting
+ rotation

{True or False, The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2 km below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the distance-time phenomena with the image:
line of sight - A
an origin - B
a displacement - C
one billion light years - D
measuring - E
acceleration - F
[[Image:Superclusters atlasoftheuniverse.gif|thumb|left|100px|Celestial swiss cheese.]] { D (i) }.
[[Image:Sig07-009.jpg|thumb|left|100px|A beautiful galaxy.]] { A (i) }.
[[Image:Classical Kepler orbit e0.6.gif|thumb|left|100px|An elliptical orbit.]] { F (i) }.
[[Image:Distancedisplacement.svg|thumb|left|100px|Closer than a route.]] { C (i) }.
[[Image:Measuring Tape Inch+CM.jpg|thumb|left|100px|It's about the chains.]] { E (i) }
[[Image:Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg|thumb|left|100px|Getting the numbers.]] { B (i) }.
{{clear}}

{Yes or No, The Sphinx Observatory is at a location.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{Acceleration is directly involved in which of the following astronomies?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ cosmic-ray astronomy
- infrared astronomy
- neutrino astronomy
+ proton astronomy
- ultraviolet astronomy
+ electron astronomy

{True or False, An observatory is a place.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are associated with mas?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
- under ice
+ parallax
+ proper motion
- radial velocity
- spectral type
+ Hipparcos

{True or False, Historically, observatories were as simple as having some alignments on astronomical phenomena.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with velocity?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
- emitting neutrinos
+ red shift
- &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al
- undetectable with balloon-borne detectors
+ temporal spectroscopy
+ steady enough emission to be used as a standard for X-ray emission
- magnitude
+ direction

{True or False, Free-fall is associated with acceleration.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Using the speed of light a standard length is now used for the?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ meter (i) }

{Various radiation observatories occur at different altitudes and geographic locations due to what effect?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ the atmosphere of the Earth
- the presence of oceans on the Earth
- locally available carving tools
- human habitation increases near an astronomical observatory
- most astronomical objects are observed at night
- currently dormant volcanoes seldom erupt

{True or False, The NuSTAR observatory has a 10.14 m instrument focal length for its Wolter I telescopes.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are phenomena associated with grid systems?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ geographic coordinates
+ the Royal Observatory in Greenwich
+ French Institut Géographique National (IGN) maps
+ a longitude meridian passing through Paris
+ a local center of civilization
+ altitude

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the item letter with each of the X-ray angular resolution possibilities below:
Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer - A
XMM-Newton - B
Chandra X-ray Observatory - C
Swift - D
Astro-rivelatore Gamma ad Imagini Leggero (AGILE) - E
Solar Heliospheric Observatory - F
Suzaku - G
Koronas-Foton - H
2&quot; { D (i) }
3&quot; { H (i) }.
~2' { G (i) }.
1&quot; { B|F (i) }.
5.9' { E (i) }.
7' { A (i) }.
1&quot; { B|F (i) }.
0.5&quot; { C (i) }.

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# A speed requires a standardized distance (not necessarily a meter) divided by a standardized time (not necessarily an hour).

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Unusual units]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ajol.info/ African Journals Online]
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&amp;go=&amp;qs=n&amp;sk=&amp;sc=8-15&amp;qb=1&amp;FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&amp;lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor &amp; Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|Mathematics resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Reasoning resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Acceleration}}{{Sisterlinks|Direction}}{{Sisterlinks|Displacement}}{{Sisterlinks|Distance}}{{Sisterlinks|Speed}}{{Sisterlinks|Velocity}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Abstractions/Problems]]
[[Category:Abstractions quizzes]]
[[Category:Astrophysics/Problems]]
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Distances/Problems]]
[[Category:Distances quizzes]]
[[Category:Geophysics/Problems]]
[[Category:Geophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Logic/Problems]]
[[Category:Logic quizzes]]
[[Category:Mathematics/Problems]]
[[Category:Mathematics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Problems]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]</text>
      <sha1>ny4fb17kdqoiyiqt0jq9307zcpqhbrg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413088</id>
      <parentid>2412858</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T06:35:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="16213" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Measuring Tape Inch+CM.jpg|thumb|right|250px|It's about the chains. Credit: [[c:user:Stilfehler|Stilfehler]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Furlongs per fortnight''' is a problem set with a contained quiz that focuses on the fundamentals of observational and deductive astronomy. In the activity [[Energy phantoms]] you learned about the value of distance, or displacement, and motion, speed, velocity, and acceleration. Here, you can practice and test yourself on converting from units that may or have occurred in the literature to units popular today.

==Astronomical units==
{{main|Units/Astronomy}}
'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_\oplus&lt;/math&gt; indicate the Earth's radius.

'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_J&lt;/math&gt; indicate the radius of Jupiter.

'''Notation''': let the symbol &lt;math&gt;R_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt; indicate the solar radius.

==Physical units==

Both physics and astronomy use units and dimensions to describe observations.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot; style=&quot;float:center&quot;
|+ Units of Physics and Astronomy
|-
! Dimension !! Astronomy !! Symbol !! Physics !! Symbol !! Conversion 
|-
| time || 1 day || d || 1 second || s || 1 d = 86,400 s&lt;ref name=Seidelmann&gt;{{ cite book
|author=P. K. Seidelmann
|title=Measuring the Universe The IAU and astronomical units
|publisher=International Astronomical Union
|date= 1976
|url=http://www.iau.org/public/measuring/
|accessdate=2011-11-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 
|-
| time || 1 &quot;Julian year&quot;&lt;ref name=Wilkins&gt;International Astronomical Union &quot;[http://www.iau.org/science/publications/proceedings_rules/units/ SI units]&quot; accessed February 18, 2010. (See Table 5 and section 5.15.) Reprinted from George A. Wilkins &amp; IAU Commission 5, [http://www.iau.org/static/publications/stylemanual1989.pdf &quot;The IAU Style Manual (1989)&quot;] (PDF file) in ''IAU Transactions'' Vol. XXB&lt;/ref&gt; || J || 1 second || s || 1 J = 31,557,600 s 
|-
| distance || 1 astronomical unit || AU || 1 meter || m || 1 AU = 149,597,870.691 km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann/&gt; 
|-
| angular distance || 1 parsec || pc || 1 meter || m || 1 pc ~ 30.857 x 10&lt;sup&gt;12&lt;/sup&gt; km&lt;ref name=Seidelmann/&gt;
|-
|}

==Theoretical units==

Perhaps the first step in deciphering ancient presumably astronomical records is determining what the unit is.

'''Def.'''
# a series of interconnected rings or links usually made of metal,
# a series of interconnected links of known length, used as a measuring device,
# a long measuring tape,
# a unit of length equal to 22 yards. The length of a Gunter's surveying chain. The length of a cricket pitch. Equal to 20.12 metres. Equal to 4 rods. Equal to 100 links.
# a totally ordered set, especially a totally ordered subset of a poset,
# iron links bolted to the side of a vessel to bold the dead-eyes connected with the shrouds; also, the channels, or
# the warp threads of a web

is called a '''chain'''.

'''Def.''' a period of fourteen nights; two weeks is called a '''fortnight'''.

'''Def.''' a unit of length equal to 220 yards or exactly 201.168 meters, now only used in measuring distances in horse racing is called a '''furlong'''.

'''Def.'''
# a trench cut in the soil, as when plowed in order to plant a crop or
# any trench, channel, or groove, as in wood or metal

is called a '''furrow'''.

'''Def.''' the distance that a person can walk in one hour, commonly taken to be approximately three English miles (about five kilometers) is called a '''league'''.

'''Def.''' a period of seven nights; a week is called a '''sennight'''.

'''Def.'''
# any period of seven consecutive days,
# a period of seven days beginning with Sunday or Monday,
# a subdivision of the month into longer periods of work days punctuated by shorter weekend periods of days for markets, rest, or religious observation such as a sabbath, or
# seven days after (''sometimes'' before) a specified date

is called a '''week'''.

==Problem 1==

A local farmer has spotted what she believes is an astronomical object moving in the sky at night.

As the ox-plow travels using the apparently fixed points of light in the night sky, the object has covered 0.214 furlongs in her field over 1.631 fortnights.

Her field is 16.421 furlongs from horizon to horizon in the direction the object is traveling. The amount of the total sky (360° if the Earth were not in the way) her field actually views in 10.123°.

How many arcseconds has the astronomical object traversed in the night sky?

How fast is the object traveling in degrees/hour?

If after the first night of travel, the object appears to cover about 0.250 less distance, is the object accelerating or decelerating and by how much in kilometers/sec&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;?

If the object turns out to be 0.313 of the mean distance to the Moon away, what are its actual speed and acceleration in km and sec?

==Problem 2==

Like the farmer in problem 1, a sailor aboard an oil tanker heading northeast across the mid-Atlantic has noticed an apparent astronomical entity traveling north against the fixed stars. Using another nearby ship, the sailor estimates that relative to those stars the entity has traveled 20,000 leagues due north along the surface of the ocean.

Using the radius of the Earth to the North Pole, how many arcseconds has the entity traversed, if the period of movement is a tunti?

What is the entity's speed in km/sec?

What is its speed in arcsecs per minute?

At the end of the observing period, the sailor notices the entity make a 22° change in direction to the east in about four diba'igaans.

If after the change in direction the entity is observed to be traveling at the same speed, what acceleration has been applied to the entity?

==Problem 3==

An astronaut on the surface of the Moon is observing the Earth at night. While watching the Earth she notices a source of visible white light traveling perpendicular to the direction of the Earth's rotation.

In the time it takes North America to rotate into view from just before it's visible the source travels a linear arc approximately equivalent to the arc from the Tropic of Cancer to the Tropic of Capricorn.

About how many arcminutes has the source traveled?

If it is as far away as the Earth from the Moon, what is its speed in km/hr?

Relative to the Earth's rotational axes, is the object traveling northward or southward?

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Yes or No, The furlong is a unit of time.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Yes
+ No

{Which of the following are units of distance?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ meter
- acre
+ chain
- acorn
- tympan
- гектар
+ reach

{True or False, A hectare is a unit of weight.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the type of phenomenon with each of the possibilities below:
visible tracks such as a star trail - A
a cloud - B
bubbles - C
a grid of uninsulated electric wires - D
octagon - E
circumpolar trail - F
quadrangles { D (i) }.
hectare { B (i) }.
rotational pole { F (i) }.
diameters { C (i) }.
polyhedron { E (i) }
an arc { A (i) }.

{True or False, If a creature comes from 20,000 leagues under the sea it is actually a football player.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Four scores in time is eighty
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ years (i) }.

{True or False, A level grade is a slope of 12°.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
The 0.6m Tortugas Mountain Observatory is used to monitor the temporal changes in the { Jovian|Jupiter (i) } cloud deck and equatorial activity on { Saturn (i) }.

{Yes or No, An event that occurred 2280 b2k actually happened at 80 BC.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Yes
+ No

{An astronomical event occurred during the Cambrian, what does that mean?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- students in the India must use Greenwich mean time
+ about 5 x 10&lt;sup&gt;8&lt;/sup&gt; years ago
- a high-powered robotic telescope was lost on the shuttle Cambrian
- a student in Xinjiang has an abacus configured to the geologic time scale
- on-site use of two high-powered telescopes is available
- trilobites tried to communicate with Earth

{True or False, A theoretical observatory decides which systems, for example, among virtual stellar systems, should be recognizable, and which not.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Various blue radiation observatories occur at different altitudes and geographic locations due to what effect?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- the presence of oceans on the Earth
- locally available carving tools
+ light pollution
- most astronomical objects are observed at night
- currently dormant volcanoes seldom erupt
- human habitation increases near an astronomical observatory

{True or False, The U.S. Virtual Astronomical Observatory (VAO) goal is to enable new science through efficient integration of distributed multi-temporal data.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Which of the following are temporal observatories in orbit around the Earth?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ Chandra X-ray Observatory
- Big Bear
+ TRACE
- Kodaikanal
+ the Hubble
- Lomnický štít
- McMath-Pierce
- SOFIA
+ Rosetta

{True or False, A canton is used to keep track of femtoseconds.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Pressure is a measure of force per unit
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ area (i) }.

{True or False, The US Ground-based Electro-Optical Deep Space Surveillance (GEODSS) base at Diego Garcia is located 412 decameters off the coast of southern California.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Which of the following are characteristic of a volume?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ polyhedra
+ globes
- hectares
+ pyramid 
- pathway 
- furloughs

{True or False, There is a 101-cm telescope at Bisei Astronomical Observatory.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which phenomenon are associated with acceleration?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ a region of space where the interstellar medium is blown away by a supernova
-  a bubble
+ decreasing time
- displacement
+ orbiting
+ rotation

{True or False, The Sudbury Neutrino Observatory is a 12-meter sphere filled with heavy water surrounded by light detectors located 2 km below the ground in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the distance-time phenomena with the image:
line of sight - A
an origin - B
a displacement - C
one billion light years - D
measuring - E
acceleration - F
[[Image:Superclusters atlasoftheuniverse.gif|thumb|left|100px|Celestial swiss cheese.]] { D (i) }.
[[Image:Sig07-009.jpg|thumb|left|100px|A beautiful galaxy.]] { A (i) }.
[[Image:Classical Kepler orbit e0.6.gif|thumb|left|100px|An elliptical orbit.]] { F (i) }.
[[Image:Distancedisplacement.svg|thumb|left|100px|Closer than a route.]] { C (i) }.
[[Image:Measuring Tape Inch+CM.jpg|thumb|left|100px|It's about the chains.]] { E (i) }
[[Image:Cartesian-coordinate-system-with-circle.svg|thumb|left|100px|Getting the numbers.]] { B (i) }.
{{clear}}

{Yes or No, The Sphinx Observatory is at a location.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{Acceleration is directly involved in which of the following astronomies?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ cosmic-ray astronomy
- infrared astronomy
- neutrino astronomy
+ proton astronomy
- ultraviolet astronomy
+ electron astronomy

{True or False, An observatory is a place.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are associated with mas?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
- under ice
+ parallax
+ proper motion
- radial velocity
- spectral type
+ Hipparcos

{True or False, Historically, observatories were as simple as having some alignments on astronomical phenomena.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are radiation astronomy phenomena associated with velocity?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
- emitting neutrinos
+ red shift
- &lt;sup&gt;26&lt;/sup&gt;Al
- undetectable with balloon-borne detectors
+ temporal spectroscopy
+ steady enough emission to be used as a standard for X-ray emission
- magnitude
+ direction

{True or False, Free-fall is associated with acceleration.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Using the speed of light a standard length is now used for the?
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ meter (i) }

{Various radiation observatories occur at different altitudes and geographic locations due to what effect?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ the atmosphere of the Earth
- the presence of oceans on the Earth
- locally available carving tools
- human habitation increases near an astronomical observatory
- most astronomical objects are observed at night
- currently dormant volcanoes seldom erupt

{True or False, The NuSTAR observatory has a 10.14 m instrument focal length for its Wolter I telescopes.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Which of the following are phenomena associated with grid systems?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ geographic coordinates
+ the Royal Observatory in Greenwich
+ French Institut Géographique National (IGN) maps
+ a longitude meridian passing through Paris
+ a local center of civilization
+ altitude

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the item letter with each of the X-ray angular resolution possibilities below:
Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer - A
XMM-Newton - B
Chandra X-ray Observatory - C
Swift - D
Astro-rivelatore Gamma ad Imagini Leggero (AGILE) - E
Solar Heliospheric Observatory - F
Suzaku - G
Koronas-Foton - H
2&quot; { D (i) }
3&quot; { H (i) }.
~2' { G (i) }.
1&quot; { B|F (i) }.
5.9' { E (i) }.
7' { A (i) }.
1&quot; { B|F (i) }.
0.5&quot; { C (i) }.

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# A speed requires a standardized distance (not necessarily a meter) divided by a standardized time (not necessarily an hour).

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Angular momentum and energy]]
* [[Column densities]]
* [[Cosmic circuits]]
* [[Energy phantoms]]
* [[Planck's equation]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Problem set|Radiation astronomy problem set]]
* [[Radiation dosage]]
* [[Radiation mathematics/Problem set|Radiation mathematics problem set]]
* [[Spectrographs]]
* [[Star jumping]]
* [[Synchrotron radiation/Problem set|Synchrotron radiation]]
* [[Telescopes and cameras]]
* [[Unknown coordinate systems]]
* [[Unusual units]]
* [[Vectors and coordinates]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.ajol.info/ African Journals Online]
* [http://www.bing.com/search?q=&amp;go=&amp;qs=n&amp;sk=&amp;sc=8-15&amp;qb=1&amp;FORM=AXRE Bing Advanced search]
* [http://books.google.com/ Google Books]
* [http://scholar.google.com/advanced_scholar_search?hl=en&amp;lr= Google scholar Advanced Scholar Search]
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://www.jstor.org/ JSTOR]
* [http://www.lycos.com/ Lycos search]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.osti.gov/ Office of Scientific &amp; Technical Information]
* [http://www.questia.com/ Questia - The Online Library of Books and Journals]
* [http://online.sagepub.com/ SAGE journals online]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://www.scirus.com/srsapp/advanced/index.jsp?q1= Scirus for scientific information only advanced search]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA.]
* [http://www.springerlink.com/ SpringerLink]
* [http://www.tandfonline.com/ Taylor &amp; Francis Online]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]
* [http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/advanced/search Wiley Online Library Advanced Search]
* [http://search.yahoo.com/web/advanced Yahoo Advanced Web Search]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|Mathematics resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{tlx|Reasoning resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Acceleration}}{{Sisterlinks|Direction}}{{Sisterlinks|Displacement}}{{Sisterlinks|Distance}}{{Sisterlinks|Speed}}{{Sisterlinks|Velocity}}

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[[Category:Abstractions/Problems]]
[[Category:Abstractions quizzes]]
[[Category:Astrophysics/Problems]]
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Distances/Problems]]
[[Category:Distances quizzes]]
[[Category:Geophysics/Problems]]
[[Category:Geophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Logic/Problems]]
[[Category:Logic quizzes]]
[[Category:Mathematics/Problems]]
[[Category:Mathematics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy/Problems]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]</text>
      <sha1>0v7y91n2r49q8nliy5fh0cvba4h7hi9</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Luminosity function for globular clusters.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>159045</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413103</id>
      <parentid>1412169</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:36:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="628" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
The image is a graph of absolute magnitude versus frequency for globular clusters.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = This image is a graph of the absolute magnitude versus frequancy for globular clusters.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;Method&quot; at url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby4_2.html.
|Date = August 1992
|Author = William E. Harris
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a graph of the absolute magnitude versus frequancy for globular clusters.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
      <sha1>d105wo2qopntlr8dlpy747hilgf908q</sha1>
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  </page>
  <page>
    <title>File:Maximum magnitude-rate of decline for novae.gif</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
    <id>159047</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413111</id>
      <parentid>1412152</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:41:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* Licensing */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="606" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
This is a graph of the maximum magnitude-rate of decline for Galactic novae.
[[Category:Astronomy images]]
== Licensing ==
{{Information1
|Description = This is a graph of the maximum magnitude-rate of decline for Galactic novae.
|Source = The image appears on a website entitled, &quot;Calibration&quot; at url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby5_3.html.
|Date = August 1992
|Author = Cohen (1985)
|Rationale = No free licensed or public domain alternatives known to exist to show a graph of the maximum magnitude-rate of decline for Galactic novae.
|Permission = Fair Use
}}
{{Fairuse}}</text>
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  <page>
    <title>High intensity training</title>
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        <username>Buidhe</username>
        <id>785054</id>
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      <comment>([[c:GR|GR]]) [[c:COM:FR|File renamed]]: [[File:WPS.gif]] → [[File:Weighted, wide-grip pullup video.gif]] [[c:COM:FR#FR2|Criterion 2]]</comment>
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      <text bytes="2553" xml:space="preserve">{{sports}}
'''High Intensity Training''' ('''HIT''') is a form of [[strength training]] popularized since 1970s by Arthur Jones. HIT focuses on performing quality weight training repetitions to the point of momentary muscular failure. [[File:Kagan Yalaman demo.gif|thumb|185px|Kagan Yalaman demo, 2014.]] The training takes into account the number of repetitions, the amount of weight, and the amount of time the muscle is exposed to muscle tension in order to maximize the amount of muscle fiber recruitment.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite book|last=Philbin|first=John|authorlink=John Philbin|title=High-Intensity Training: more strength and power in less time|publisher=Human Kinetics|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7360-4820-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; One of the possible examples of HIT is illustrated in the animation below.
&lt;gallery widths=&quot;105px&quot; heights=&quot;108px&quot;&gt;
File:Weighted, wide-grip pullup video.gif
File:Kagan Yalaman-2.JPG
&lt;/gallery&gt;

==Main principles==
The fundamental principles of High Intensity Training (HIT) are that exercise should be brief, infrequent, and intense. [[Physical exercises|Exercises]] are performed with a high level of effort, or intensity, where it is thought that it will stimulate the body to produce an increase in muscular strength and size.Advocates of HIT believe that this method is superior for strength and size building to most other methods which, for example, may stress lower weights with larger volume (sets x reps).
As strength increases, HIT techniques will have the weight/resistance increased progressively where it is thought that it will provide the muscles with adequate overload to stimulate further improvements. There is an inverse relationship between how intensely and how long one can exercise. As a result, high intensity workouts are generally kept brief as shown in the following animation: 

After a High Intensity workout is done, as with any other workout, the body requires time to recover and produce the responses stimulated during the workout, so there should be more emphasis on rest and recovery in the HIT philosophy than in most of the other weight training methods. 

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Other websites==
* [http://www.arthurjonesexercise.com/Bulletin1/Bulletin1.html Arthur Jones's Nautilus Bulletin #1]
* [http://www.arthurjonesexercise.com/Bulletin2/Bulletin2.html Arthur Jones's Nautilus Bulletin #2]
* [http://baye.com/what-is-high-intensity-training/ What is High Intensity Training?]

{{Weight training}}
{{Physical exercising}}

[[Category:Training]]
[[Category:Fitness]]
[[Category:Weight training]]</text>
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  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Standard candles</title>
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      <text bytes="113196" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Galactic.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is a Hubble Space Telescope Image of NGC 4414. Credit: Hubble Heritage Team (AURA/STScI/NASA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Pic iroberts1.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This is an image of Messier 31, the Andromeda galaxy from 1899. Credit: Isaac Roberts.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;In 1995, the majestic spiral galaxy NGC 4414 was imaged by the Hubble Space Telescope as part of the HST Key Project on the Extragalactic Distance Scale. [The galaxy was] observed ... on 13 different occasions over the course of two months.&quot;&lt;ref name=Freedman&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Wendy Freedman
|title=MAGNIFICENT DETAILS IN A DUSTY SPIRAL GALAXY
|publisher=NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
|location=Greenbelt, Maryland USA
|date=1999
|url=http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/photo_gallery/caption/hst_ngc4414_9925.txt
|accessdate=2014-10-28 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Images were obtained with Hubble's Wide Field Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) through three different color filters.&quot;&lt;ref name=Freedman/&gt;

&quot;Based on [...] careful brightness measurements of variable stars in NGC 4414, [...] an accurate determination of the distance to the galaxy [was made].&quot;&lt;ref name=Freedman/&gt;

&quot;The resulting distance to NGC 4414, 19.1 megaparsecs or about 60 million light-years, along with similarly determined distances to other nearby galaxies, contributes to astronomers' overall knowledge of the rate of expansion of the universe. The Hubble constant (H0) is the ratio of how fast galaxies are moving away from us to their distance from us. This astronomical value is used to determine distances, sizes, and the intrinsic luminosities for many objects in our universe, and the age of the universe itself.&quot;&lt;ref name=Freedman/&gt;

&quot;Due to the large size of the galaxy compared to the WFPC2 detectors, only half of the galaxy observed was visible in the datasets collected by the Key Project astronomers in 1995. In 1999, the Hubble Heritage Team revisited NGC 4414 and completed its portrait by observing the other half with the same filters as were used in 1995. The end result is a stunning full-color look at the entire dusty spiral galaxy. The new Hubble picture shows that the central regions of this galaxy, as is typical of most spirals, contain primarily older, yellow and red stars. The outer spiral arms are considerably bluer due to ongoing formation of young, blue stars, the brightest of which can be seen individually at the high resolution provided by the Hubble camera. The arms are also very rich in clouds of interstellar dust, seen as dark patches and streaks silhouetted against the starlight.&quot;&lt;ref name=Freedman/&gt;

'''Standard-candles astronomy''' is the astronomical effort to find, study and develop standard-candle candidates for use as standard candles.

'''Standard candles''' are stars in [[Radiation astronomy/Visuals|visual astronomy]] that may be used to calculate distances because their characteristics are, or appear to be, distance independent.
{{clear}}

==Colors==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Colors}}
[[Image:B-, R-, I-, and H-band Tully-Fisher relations.gif|thumb|right|250px|These graphs show ''B''-, ''R''-, ''I''-, and ''H''-band Tully-Fisher relations. Credit: Michael J. Pierce.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The empirical relationship between the luminosity of a spiral/irregular galaxy and its rotational velocity, known as the luminosity-line-width or Tully-Fisher relation (Tully and Fisher 1977, TF), has become one of the most widely used extragalactic distance indicators.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Spiral and irregular galaxies are common in both the field and in all but the richest clusters. Consequently, the TF relation is an extremely valuable technique for extensive mapping of local large scale structure, the Hubble flow, and any associated peculiar velocities. In addition, since the local population is dominated by spirals and irregulars, the TF relations can, at least in principle, be calibrated directly by Cepheids. The TF relations provide an opportunity to go from local calibrating galaxies to the &quot;smooth&quot; Hubble flow in a single step.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce/&gt;

Differences &quot;in samples, extinction, and particularly line-width corrections can lead to quite different results.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce/&gt;

&quot;The necessary data consist of apparent magnitudes, usually corrected for Galactic and internal extinction, and some measure of rotation velocities, corrected for projection effects, for a sample of galaxies. Usually, the rotational velocity is obtained via the doppler broadening of the HI 21-cm line, although Fabry-Perot imaging and long slit rotation curves (both obtained via H) are useful as well.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce/&gt;

&quot;As originally proposed by [TF], the observational parameters of the TF relation are: (1) the photographic magnitude corrected for extinction, used as a measure of the luminosity of a galaxy, and (2) the global HI 21-cm line-width corrected for projection, used as a measure of the galaxy's rotational velocity. The raw measurements must be corrected for inclination effects, with the corrections for extinction and projection going in the opposite sense; when extinction corrections to the magnitudes are small (i.e., the galaxy is nearly face-on) the projection corrections for the rotational velocity are large, and vice versa. Consequently, considerable care must be taken to determine the proper corrections to the fundamental observables, and [there are] several different prescriptions for these corrections [...]. Nevertheless, any systematics introduced by the use of different correction schemes should in principle scale out, provided that the &quot;local calibrators&quot; and the sample galaxies are treated in the same way.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce11&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_1_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The publication of the ''Second Reference Catalog of Bright Galaxies'' by de Vaucouleurs et al. (1976) greatly increased the size of the existing data base of total magnitudes for a wide variety of galaxies. In addition, the completion of extensive HI 21-cm surveys [...] significantly improved the status of the line-width data. These data were subsequently used by several groups to examine both the utility of the TF relation as a distance indicator and the character of the local Hubble flow [...]. Similar photoelectric data were obtained [...] in the ''V'', ''r'', and ''IV'' (λ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; ~ 1 µm) bands.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce11/&gt;

&quot;A significant improvement in the application of the TF relations occurred with the introduction of infrared H-band magnitudes (λ&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; = 1.6 µm) [... The] infrared offered two distinct advantages over visible wavelengths: first, that the extinction at H is only 10% that in ''B'', and second, that the infrared light is dominated by late-type giants. Thus, over the entire range of morphological types, the infrared is presumably a better tracer of the stellar mass than the B luminosity. Subsequent observations proved that the infrared Tully-Fisher relation (hereafter IRTF relation) has a significantly smaller dispersion than does the ''B''-band relation, implying that uncertainties in the extinction corrections for the blue light (which were still rather crude [...]), and/or variations in mean stellar population, were significant. [Restricting] the sample of bright spirals to those with inclinations greater than 45° and with no morphological peculiarities, following [TF produced] a distance modulus for the Virgo Cluster of 30.98 ± 0.09 mag (internal errors only), with the updated Hyades distance.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce12&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_1_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;For luminosity, the choices are: (i) the total magnitude for the galaxy, or (ii) a suitably defined aperture magnitude. The former offers the advantage of having a relatively simple definition, while the latter has been a necessity for infrared photometry where until recently single element detectors were state of the art. For the rotational velocity parameter the choices are: (i) the maximum of the rotation curve (V&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt;), or (ii) the rotational velocity at a suitably chosen radius, perhaps corresponding to a particular aperture magnitude definition [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce2&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Total magnitudes have been the choice for the luminosity parameter over visible wavelengths, even when derived through multiaperture photometry and template growth curves [...]. The use of total magnitudes was motivated by the availability of the data, the desire for a uniform magnitude system, and the expectation that the mass-to-light ratio of galaxies is constant, or at least a smooth function of mass. The latter is of particular concern at optical wavelengths where the large color difference between the bulge and disk components of spiral galaxies suggests differences in the mass-to-light ratio. This results in a significant morphological type dependence for the TF relations at bluer wavelengths. Consequently, a TF relation based on blue photometry through small apertures is of limited use [...]. [There are] numerous problems associated with multi-aperture photometry (e.g., centering errors, contaminating stars, the use of circular apertures and mean growth curves, etc.) [...]. With the introduction of CCDs, full growth curves using elliptical annuli can be easily constructed with contaminating regions (e.g., stars, cosmetic defects) suitably dealt with. The sky level for each image can also be easily estimated, provided the field of view is sufficiently large. Together, these advantages of CCD photometry can result in total magnitudes with a precision of ~ 5% [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce2/&gt;

Dispersions occur &quot;for the TF relations of 0.37, 0.31, and 0.28 mag for the ''B'', ''R'' and ''I'' bands, respectively, from CCD photometry of a complete sample of galaxies in the Ursa Major Cluster. There is likely significant line-of-sight depth for this sample, since it spans about 8° on the sky, suggesting an intrinsic dispersion for the longer wavelength TF relations of ≤ 0.25 mag, or 12% in distance. Much of the improvement over previous work (typically with  ~ 0.5 mag) was attributed to an increased accuracy of inclination estimates obtained via ellipses fitted to galaxy isophotes. For example, they found a significant improvement in the dispersion for the IRTF relation using photometry from the literature, provided that the line-widths were corrected with the improved inclinations. Apparently, the redder wavelengths are preferable, though the ''B''-band is still useful for comparative purposes.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce2/&gt;

&quot;Although the infrared aperture magnitudes have been very successful, they are not free of problems. The ''H''-band magnitude (''H''&lt;sub&gt;-0.5&lt;/sub&gt;) is defined to be the apparent H magnitude through an aperture size (A) given by log(''A'' / D&lt;sub&gt;25&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b,i&lt;/sup&gt;) = -0.5, where D&lt;sub&gt;25&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b,i&lt;/sup&gt; is the ''B''-band diameter of the galaxy at the 25 mag arcsec&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; isophote, corrected for internal and Galactic extinction, as well as projection. This definition allows the use of small apertures that are more tractable with traditional infrared photometers, and also reduces the effect of the sky signal to a manageable level. (The ''H''-band sky is very bright: µ&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt; ~ 13.4 mag arcsec&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;. Compare this with a mean H-band surface brightness, over D&lt;sub&gt;25&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;b,i&lt;/sup&gt; of µ&lt;sub&gt;''H''&lt;/sub&gt; ~ 18 mag arcsec&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; for a moderate luminosity spiral and ~ 21 mag arcsec&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; for a typical dwarf irregular galaxy.) There are well-known observational techniques used in infrared astronomy to combat these high background levels. Nevertheless, nearby systems having low surface brightness and large angular size pose a special problem due to uncertainties in the sky level. In addition to the general problems associated with aperture photometry mentioned above, there is an additional difficulty in tying the infrared aperture size to the optical diameter [...]. Significant systematic errors have been introduced into some of the IRTF distance estimates from biased ''B''-band isophotal diameters, a consequence of using different catalogs of ''B''-band diameters for different distance ranges [...]. CCD photometry is almost a necessity to provide a uniform and unbiased aperture definition, at which point aperture photometry itself becomes of limited value. The application of infrared imaging technology over the next few years should alleviate most of these concerns, provided the data reach a sufficiently faint surface brightness level for total magnitudes to be estimated.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce2/&gt;

&quot;For the TF relations to be successfully applied, the galaxies must have detectable gas in essentially circular motion; otherwise, the estimate of V&lt;sub&gt;max&lt;/sub&gt; will be inaccurate. Although there is occasionally detectable HI in lenticular systems [...], defining a TF relation for E/S0 galaxies involves several complications: the origin of the gas is uncertain, the gas is usually patchy, its detection is difficult, and its motion may not be circular. Because of these difficulties (and the potential for significant M/L variations among early-type galaxies [...], it is best to limit samples of galaxies to types Sb - Irr having no signs of peculiar morphology, due, for example, to recent interactions. In addition, the galaxies must have enough gas in their exterior regions such that the observable rotation curve reaches a peak and Vmax can be adequately sampled. It is now clear that disk galaxies within the cores of even moderately poor clusters like Virgo suffer significant stripping of their outer envelope of HI gas [...]. Fortunately, only a few systems in Virgo are gas-stripped to radii within the turn-over in their rotation curves. The most serious cases also have morphological peculiarities and would likely have been excluded on this basis alone (e.g., NGC 4438). However, this remains an uncertainty for galaxies in the cores of more distant clusters; for these galaxies a full rotation curve may be necessary to assure that the rotation curves do indeed turn over.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce25&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_2_5.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The modest morphological type dependence mentioned [...] (i.e., earlier types having low luminosities for their line-widths [...]) is a consequence of late-type galaxies being systematically bluer than those of earlier type, coupled with the historical use of the ''B''-band TF relation. Because the effect decreases dramatically toward longer wavelengths, a likely cause is the smaller bulge-to-disk ratio and the larger fraction of young stars in the low mass, gas-rich systems. Some of the effect may also be the result of a decrease in dust content for the later morphological types [...]. If so, the assumption of a mean optical depth for all morphological types could contribute to a morphological type dependence, especially at the shorter wavelengths where extinction estimates would be significantly overestimated.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce25/&gt;

&quot;As mentioned above, the kinematics of lower luminosity irregular galaxies become progressively more dominated by turbulence and less by rotational motion. Consequently, the TF relations must progressively break down below some luminosity. [... The] TF relations for systems fainter than ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; ~ -15.0 become rather poorly defined as the corrections to the line-widths become large and the inclinations become more uncertain. With these factors in mind it is recommended that samples be limited to galaxies brighter than ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; ~ -16.0 for which the kinematics are dominated by rotation.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce25/&gt;

Disk &quot;galaxies have flat rotation curves over a broad range of luminosity and mass, with dark matter dominating at moderately large radii. At the same time, it is clear that the TF relation implies a &quot;disk-halo conspiracy&quot;, such that the mass within some characteristic optical radius is coupled with the mass [...]. [Gravitational] interplay between the luminous and non-luminous matter in luminous disk galaxies is sufficient to redistribute the total mass in such a way as to produce the flat rotation curves which are observed. [... Low] mass galaxies are more susceptible to significant sweeping of gas via supernovae-driven winds during protogalactic collapse than are more massive systems due to a lower binding energy. In such a situation, star formation can be radically slowed and, in some cases, essentially quenched. As a result, these systems today would have a larger dark-to-luminous matter ratio than more massive systems since the dark matter (assumed to be non-baryonic) would be unaffected by radiation and gas dynamics.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce3&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_3.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;''B''-, ''R''-, ''I''-, and ''H''-band Tully-Fisher relations for the Local Calibrators [in the set of graphs at the right] (top), Ursa Major cluster members (middle), and Virgo cluster members (bottom). It is apparent from the figures that the slope of the relations increases going to longer wavelengths and the dispersion decreases. The variation in slope is thought to arise from the differing contributions to the observed bandpass made by greater fraction of young stars found in the lower-luminosity systems. The smaller dispersion at longer wavelengths is likely due to a reduction in the sensitivity of these effects, as well as those expected from extinction variations. Nothe the much larger dispersion found for the Virgo cluster data.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;

&quot;There are now reliable distance estimates to three systems in or near the Local Group (M31, M33, NGC 3109), two systems in the M81 Group (M81 and NGC 2403), and one galaxy in the Sculptor Group (NGC 300). If, in addition to these systems, we could make use of the other members of the M81 and Sculptor groups with ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; ≤ -16.0, the total number of calibrators would be 15.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Michael J. Pierce
|title=Tully-Fisher Relations Absolute Calibration
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby7_4.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

The &quot;absolute calibration of the TF relations [...] are shown as the upper sequence of panels in [the set of graphs at the right].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;

&quot;The solid points represent those systems with individual distance estimates provided by Cepheids and/or RR Lyrae variables, while the open symbols represent additional members of the M81 and Sculptor groups (square and triangles, respectively). These are assumed to be at a mean distance given by those systems with individual distance estimates. The distribution of the additional members of the M81 Group is consistent with a small dispersion, implying a small line-of-sight depth for the group. The large dispersion for members of the Sculptor Group is consistent with previous suggestions of significant line-of-sight depth for the group [...]. The dispersions are ~ 0.20 mag for the systems with individual distance estimates, implying a precision in distance estimates from the TF relations of ~ 10% for an individual galaxy.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;

&quot;From the six local calibrating galaxies currently with individual distances the zero point of the calibration is established to an uncertainty of 0.08 mag [...]. The distances assumed for the local calibrators are all estimated relative to the distance of the LMC, which is tied to the Galactic calibration of Cepheids and RR Lyraes. The distance of the LMC is uncertain to ~ 7% [...] and so the primary source of error in the TF calibration lies with the Galactic calibration of the Cepheid ''P-L'' and ''P-L-C'' relations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;

A &quot;significant systematic color difference between field (i.e., the &quot;local calibrators&quot;) and cluster galaxies [...]. This results in a systematic variation in the estimated distances with bandpass. A small (~ 0.25 mag) correction is necessary in the ''B''-band in order to produce consistent distance estimates over all bandpasses and environments. The resulting calibration is given by:&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M^{b,i}_B = -7.48(log(W^i_R) - 2.50) -19.55 + \Delta_B,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the &lt;math&gt;\Delta_B&lt;/math&gt; of ± 0.14,

:&lt;math&gt;M^{b,i}_R = -8.23(log(W^i_R) - 2.50) - 20.46 + \Delta_R,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the &lt;math&gt;\Delta_R&lt;/math&gt; of ± 0.10,

:&lt;math&gt;M^{b,i}_I = -8.72(log(W^i_R) - 2.50) - 20.94,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the last term of ± 0.10,

:&lt;math&gt;M^{b,i}_H = -9.50(log(W^i_R) - 2.50) - 21.67,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the last term of ± 0.08,

&quot;where the correction factors δ&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.25 and δ&lt;sub&gt;''R''&lt;/sub&gt; = 0.06 are required for statistically consistent distances between the different bands for &quot;cluster galaxies&quot;. The corrections for &quot;field-galaxies&quot; should be zero. The existence of a &quot;color correction&quot; diminishes the utility of the ''B''-band relation and implies that longer wavelength bandpasses produce more reliable distance estimates. Note that these calibrations apply only to the [...] prescriptions for extinction and line-width corrections.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pierce4/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Minerals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Minerals}}
[[Image:A further away schematic galaxy.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is a schematic galaxy to show brightness fluctuations. Credit: John L. Tonry.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
[[Image:A schematic galaxy.gif|thumb|left|250px|This diagram shows a schematic galaxy up close. Credit: John L. Tonry.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;An image of an elliptical galaxy with milli-arcsec resolution would look like an enormous globular cluster, but even when the resolution is a thousand times worse, the discreteness of the stars causes measurable bumpiness in its surface brightness. This phenomenon, dubbed &quot;surface brightness fluctuations&quot;, has been recognized for many years and is sometimes referred to as &quot;incipient resolution&quot;. (When there are only a few stars per seeing resolution element, the eye perceives this characteristic mottling as barely resolved stars.)&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry&gt;{{ cite book
|author=John L. Tonry
|title=Surface Brightness Fluctuations
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby9_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Observations of external galaxies from which fluxes could be determined for individual stars, drawn from a significant part of the stellar luminosity function, would provide us a wealth of information about the distances of galaxies, their stellar populations, and their formation history. The first steps in this direction [involved resolving] individual Pop II stars in Local Group galaxies, and [observing] the top of the luminosity function in the bulge of M31 and NGC 205. [The] resolution required to observe any but the most luminous stars in galaxies significantly beyond the Local Group will not be achieved in the near future.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;Although we cannot determine the fluxes of individual stars without resolving them, we can nevertheless measure a very useful flux that is characteristic of the stellar population. [The] average profiles of globular clusters could best be determined at the bluest wavelengths where these fluctuations are minimized.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;The first measurement of surface brightness fluctuations [used] a method by which the fluctuations could be quantified. [A] completely empirical [approach used] calibration of fluctuation absolute magnitudes, observations of four galaxy clusters, and the application of fluctuations to the distance scale.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;The schematic galaxy at the right-hand side is twice as distant as the one on the left-hand side. Large dots symbolize giant stars, small ones main-sequence stars, and the grid represents the pixels of a CCD. Although the mean surface brightness collected in a CCD pixel is the same for the two galaxies, since ''f'' ∝ ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; and n ∝ ''d''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, the rms fluctuation from pixel to pixel relative to the mean varies as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;. The image at the left is about as mottled as an ''I''-band image of a real galaxy would be at its effective radius if the galaxy were 200 kpc distant and the scale of CCD pixels were 1&quot;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;Surface brightness fluctuations are fundamentally a very simple effect, and [as each schematic galaxy] illustrates this with a cartoon of two galaxies, one twice as distant as the other. A grid representing a CCD's pixels is superposed on the images, and we must imagine that we can only measure the total flux within each pixel. We do not resolve individual stars in this case, but we can measure both the mean flux per pixel and the rms variation in flux from pixel to pixel. The two galaxies cannot be distinguished on the basis of mean flux per pixel (surface brightness) because the number of stars projected into a pixel of fixed angular size increases as distance squared (''d''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;) and the flux per star decreases as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;. If ''N'' is the mean number of stars, the mean flux is &lt;math&gt;N \bar{f}&lt;/math&gt;, and the variance in flux is &lt;math&gt;N \bar{f}^2&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;\bar{f}&lt;/math&gt; is a mean flux per star. In schematic galaxies, ''N'' scales as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;, &lt;math&gt;\bar{f}&lt;/math&gt; scales as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt;, and so the variance scales as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-2&lt;/sup&gt; and the rms scales as ''d''&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;. The galaxy which is twice as distant appears twice as smooth as the nearer galaxy. We can now determine the mean flux &lt;math&gt;\bar{f}&lt;/math&gt; as the ratio of the variance and the mean.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;The mean luminosity, &lt;math&gt;\bar{L}&lt;/math&gt;is simply related to the moments of the luminosity function of the stellar population we are sampling. If ''n''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt; is the expectation of the number of stars of luminosity ''L''&lt;sub&gt;i&lt;/sub&gt;, the average luminosity is the ratio of the second and first moments of the luminosity function:&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\bar{L} = \Sigma n_i L^2_i/ \Sigma n_iL_i.&lt;/math&gt;

&quot;This luminosity is roughly that of a giant star, and it is the first ratio of moments which has the dimensions of luminosity and is not dominated by the poorly known faint end of the luminosity function.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry/&gt;

&quot;There are two aspects to determining a distance from surface brightness fluctuations: (1) measurement of a fluctuation flux, and (2) conversion to a distance by assumption of a fluctuation luminosity. The two are coupled, but it is worth discussing them separately because they involve very different problems. It is useful to bear in mind that for typical old, metal rich stellar populations the absolute fluctuation magnitudes are roughly &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_B&lt;/math&gt; = +2.5, &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_V&lt;/math&gt; = +1.0, &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_R&lt;/math&gt; = +0.0, and &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_I&lt;/math&gt; = -1.5, with sensitivity to metallicity and age ranging from very high in ''B'' to fairly low in ''I''. [To summarize]:&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2&gt;{{ cite book
|author=John L. Tonry
|title=Surface Brightness Fluctuations Method
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby9_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

(1) &quot;This method is applicable to relatively dust-free systems such as E and S0 galaxies, spiral bulges, or globular clusters.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2/&gt;

(2) &quot;Observation times must be long enough to collect more than 5-10 photons per source of apparent magnitude barm, and the point spread function must be well sampled and uniform. The formal measurement errors in barm can be as small as 3% times the square of the product of psf FWHM (in arcsec) and distance (in 1000 km s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;).&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2/&gt;

(3) &quot;The ''I'' band is preferred for distance measurement because &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}&lt;/math&gt; is so bright at redder wavelengths that it overcomes the disadvantages of brighter sky background. Use of the ''I'' band also minimizes dust absorption. Observations of cluster galaxies shows us how barMI depends on mean color: redder populations have brighter &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_I&lt;/math&gt;. The intrinsic scatter of &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_I&lt;/math&gt; about this relation appears to be smaller than 0.08 magnitude.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2/&gt;

(4) &quot;Calibration of the zero point of &lt;math&gt;\bar{M}_I&lt;/math&gt; can be based on theoretical stellar populations, galactic globular clusters, or Local Group galaxies. The latter calibration has been made, and preliminary indications are that the first two will be consistent at the 0.10 magnitude level.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2/&gt;

&quot;The basic procedure in measuring a fluctuation flux is to perform the usual observations and reductions so as to obtain an image which is as flat and uniform as possible and for which a photometric calibration is known.&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry2/&gt;

&quot;Fluctuation fluxes are subject to the usual photometric calibration errors. Fundamentally, we need to transfer the known magnitude of a standard star to the power spectrum of the psf that we fit to a data power spectrum, since zero-wavenumber of a power spectrum is just the squared integral of the flux of the psf. Applying the same photometric reduction to the standard star and the psf star accomplishes this transfer with an accuracy of roughly 1-2%. Uncertainties in atmospheric extinction, galactic extinction, and extinction within the galaxy vary, but can also contribute an error of 1-2% (or more if there is considerable intervening dust).&quot;&lt;ref name=Tonry3&gt;{{ cite web
|author=John L. Tonry
|title=Surface Brightness Fluctuations Uncertainties
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby9_3.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Theoretical radiation standards==
[[Image:65Cyb-LB3-apmag.jpg|250px|thumb|right|Asteroid 65 Cybele and 2 stars with their '''apparent magnitudes''' are labeled. Credit: [[c:user:Kheider|Kevin Heider]].{{tlx|free media}}]]
[[Image:Artist's impression of vampire star.ogv|thumb|right|250px|This movie is an artist's impression of a Type Ia supernova. Credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''Def.''' any &quot;astronomical object of known diameter whose distance can then be calculated from the angle it subtends&quot;&lt;ref name=StandardRulerWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=standard ruler
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=3 October 2007
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/standard_ruler
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''standard ruler'''.

'''Def.''' &quot;a numerical measure of the brightness of a star, planet etc.; a decrease of 1 unit represents an increase in the light received by a factor of 2.512&quot;&lt;ref name=ApparentMagnitudeWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=apparent magnitude
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 August 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/apparent_magnitude
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''apparent magnitude''' (&lt;math&gt;m\!\,&lt;/math&gt;).

'''Def.''' &quot;the apparent magnitude [intrinsic luminosity]&lt;ref name=AbsoluteMagnitudeWikt1&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:Speednat|Speednat]]
|title=absolute magnitude
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 July 2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absolute_magnitude
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; that a star etc. [celestial body]&lt;ref name=AbsoluteMagnitudeWikt1/&gt; would have if viewed from a distance of 10 parsecs [or about 32.6 light years]&lt;ref name=AbsoluteMagnitudeWikt2&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:Speednat|Speednat]]
|title=absolute magnitude
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=24 December 2012
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absolute_magnitude
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&quot;&lt;ref name=AbsoluteMagnitudeWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=absolute magnitude
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=15 August 2005
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/absolute_magnitude
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called an '''absolute magnitude''' (&lt;math&gt;M\!\,&lt;/math&gt;).

'''Def.''' the &quot;magnitude of a star in terms of the total amount of radiation received at all wavelengths&quot;&lt;ref name=BolometricMagnitudeWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=bolometric magnitude
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=11 December 2008
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bolometric_magnitude
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''bolometric magnitude'''.

'''Def.''' a &quot;difference between the bolometric magnitude [&lt;math&gt;M_{bol}&lt;/math&gt;] and and visual magnitude [&lt;math&gt;M_V&lt;/math&gt;] of a star&quot;&lt;ref name=BolometricCorrectionWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:SemperBlotto|SemperBlotto]]
|title=bolometric correction
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=22 January 2008
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/bolometric_correction
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''bolometric correction'''.

:&lt;math&gt;M_{bol}=M_V+BC.&lt;/math&gt;

'''Def.''' any &quot;astronomical object of known absolute magnitude&quot;&lt;ref name=StandardCandleWikt&gt;{{ cite web
|author=[[wikt:User:Prim Ethics|Prim Ethics]]
|title=standard candle
|publisher=Wikimedia Foundation, Inc
|location=San Francisco, California
|date=12 March 2010
|url=https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/standard_candle
|accessdate=11 June 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt; is called a '''standard candle'''.

Its luminosity distance [&lt;math&gt;D_L\!\,&lt;/math&gt; in parsecs] can then be calculated from its apparent magnitude.

:&lt;math&gt; M = m - 5 ((\log_{10}{D_L}) - 1)\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

An object's absolute magnitude may be calculated from its distance modulus (&lt;math&gt;\mu\!\,&lt;/math&gt;) and apparent magnitude using

:&lt;math&gt; M = m - {\mu}.\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; m = M + {\mu}.\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

Using the Sun (&lt;math&gt;\odot&lt;/math&gt;) as a standard candle:

:&lt;math&gt;M_{bol_{\rm star}} - M_{bol_{\rm Sun}} = -2.5 \log_{10} {\frac{L_{\rm star}}{L_{\odot}}},&lt;/math&gt;

Or,

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{L_{\rm star}}{L_{\odot}} = 10^{((M_{bol_{\rm Sun}} - M_{bol_{\rm star}})/2.5)},&lt;/math&gt;

where
:&lt;math&gt;L_{\odot}&lt;/math&gt; is the Sun's (sol) luminosity (bolometric luminosity)
:&lt;math&gt;L_{\rm star}&lt;/math&gt; is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)
:&lt;math&gt;M_{bol_{\rm Sun}}&lt;/math&gt; is the bolometric magnitude of the Sun
:&lt;math&gt;M_{bol_{\rm star}}&lt;/math&gt; is the bolometric magnitude of the star.

:&lt;math&gt;m = H + 2.5 \log_{10}{\left(\frac{d_{OS}^2 d_{OOb}^2}{p(\chi) d_0^4}\right)}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;H&lt;/math&gt; is the absolute magnitude for a solar system object, the observer is Ob, the Sun (S), and the object is O.

:&lt;math&gt;d_0\!\, = 1AU&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\chi\!\, = phaseangle&lt;/math&gt;

The phase angle lies between the Sun-object and object-observer lines.

:&lt;math&gt;\cos{\chi} = \frac{ d_{OOb}^2 + d_{OS}^2 - d_{ObS}^2 } {2 d_{OOb} d_{OS}}.\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;p(\chi)\!\,&lt;/math&gt; is between 0 and 1 for the integration of reflected light.

:&lt;math&gt;p(\chi) = \frac{2}{3} \left( \left(1 - \frac{\chi}{\pi}\right) \cos{\chi} + \frac{1}{\pi} \sin{\chi} \right).\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;d_{OOb}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where the distance (d) is between the observer (O) and the object (O).

:&lt;math&gt;d_{OS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where S is the Sun.

:&lt;math&gt;d_{ObS}\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

&quot;A supernova [in the movie at right] is one way that a star can end its life, exploding in a display of grandiose fireworks. One family of supernovae, called Type Ia supernovae, are of particular interest in cosmology as they can be used as standard candles to measure distances in the Universe and so can be used to calibrate the accelerating expansion that is driven by dark energy. One defining characteristic of Type Ia supernovae is the lack of hydrogen in their spectrum. Yet hydrogen is the most common chemical element in the Universe. Such supernovae most likely arise in systems composed of two stars, one of them being the end product of the life of sun-like stars, or white dwarfs. When such white dwarfs, acting as stellar vampires that suck matter from their companion, become heavier than a given limit, they become unstable and explode.&quot;&lt;ref name=Kornmesser&gt;{{ cite book
|author=M. Kornmesser
|title=Artist's impression of vampire star
|publisher=ESO
|location=
|date=November 17, 2009
|url=http://www.eso.org/public/videos/eso0943b/
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
{{clear}}

==Entities==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Entities}}
[[Image:Luminosity function for globular clusters.gif|thumb|right|250px|The image is a graph of absolute magnitude versus frequency for globular clusters. Credit: William E. Harris.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;The basic ideas [of using globular cluster luminosity functions (or GCLFs)] are illustrated in [the image at the right], which is a plot of the GCLF (the relative number ''Φ'' (m) of globular clusters as a function of magnitude m) for the Virgo giant ellipticals. The functional shape of ''Φ'' (m) is characterized by two simple parameters: the magnitude level or turnover point (m&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) where the population of clusters reaches a maximum; and the ''dispersion'' (''σ'' (m) or standard deviation of the distribution. As an empirical curve, the observations show that a Gaussian or log-normal function&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris&gt;{{ cite web
|author=William E. Harris
|title=Method
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby4_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\Phi(m) = A \times e^{-(m-m_0)^2/2{\sigma}^2},&lt;/math&gt;

&quot;(where ''A'' is a normalization factor representing the peak population of globular clusters in the galaxy) does an excellent job of describing the GCLF in all galaxies studied to date. The log-normal fitting function gives a convenient way to parameterize the data and to intercompare the GCLFs from different galaxies. For the nearest ''rich'' systems of galaxies containing giant ellipticals (the Virgo and Fornax clusters) the deepest limits achieved at present reach to just about 1 σ fainter than the turnover (Harris et al. 1991).&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

&quot;The actual use of the GCLF method, in its simplest form, goes as follows. The 'standard candle' is essentially the magnitude of the turnover, m&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;. The goal in observing any distant galaxy is then to obtain photometry of its halo clusters which reaches sufficiently faint to estimate ''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; accurately. In practice, the GCLF is normally found as the residual excess of starlike objects [...], after a background [luminosity function] LF for the field has been subtracted and photometric detection incompleteness at the faintest levels has been accounted for. By fitting an analytic interpolation function (such as the Gaussian model above) to the observed data, or else by using a maximum-likelihood fit to the total observed LF (GCLF plus background), the curve parameters (''A'', ''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;, σ) and their internal uncertainties can be estimated [...]. Adopting an absolute magnitude ''M''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;(turnover), and any necessary correction for foreground reddening, immediately yields the distance modulus.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

&quot;If the limiting magnitude of the photometry goes clearly past the turnover as in the example of [the image at right], both ''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and σ can be solved for simultaneously. Ideally, the uncertainty e (''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;) would be equal to σ / √''N'', which for a sample size ''N'' of several hundred or more clusters should be ± 0.1 mag or smaller. In practice, the extra noise introduced by the background LF subtraction and completeness corrections, and the uncertainty in σ itself, lead to best-case results near e (''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;)  ≃ ± 0.2 mag for a ''single galaxy''. However, if the limit of the data falls at or a bit short of the turnover, then the fitted solutions for ''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; and σ become strongly correlated (Hanes and Whittaker 1987). It is still possible to estimate ''m''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; to a typical precision of ± 0.3 mag, but only by performing a restricted function fit with an assumed, externally-known value of σ (hence the importance of the basic premise that the GCLF parameters are the same for galaxies of the same type [...]). An alternative is to adopt the well-defined Virgo GCLF ([shown in the image at the right]) as a fiducial function and to match any other galaxy to it by adjusting its distance relative to Virgo until a best fit is achieved.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

&quot;The range of applicability of the GCLF method, and its basic strengths, are readily summarized.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

(1) &quot;The GCLF works by far the best in giant E galaxies, which contain the largest globular cluster populations (''N'' ≥ 1000 is observationally feasible in such galaxies). On the other hand, the GCLF method is immensely more difficult to employ in late-type galaxies (Sc, Sd, Irr), and so in most cases it is difficult to match the GCLF distance scale ''directly'' with any of the Population I techniques.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

(2) &quot;Because the clusters are nonvariable objects, they do not require repeated or carefully scheduled time-series observations. Telescope time is thus employed efficiently.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

(3) &quot;Because it applies to objects in the halos of large galaxies, the method is free of a host of observational problems that affect all Population I standard candles, such as internal reddening differences, crowding and source confusion, and inclination-angle corrections.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

(4) &quot;The distance range of the primary GCLF method is set by the limiting magnitude at which the turnover ''M''&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt; is still detectable. With current ground-based capabilities, the limit should be near ''d'' ≃ 50 Mpc (Harris 1988a).&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

&quot;So far, the motivation for the GCLF as a standard candle is almost totally empirical rather than theoretical. The astrophysical basis for its similarity from one galaxy to another is a challenging problem, and is probably less well understood than for any other standard candle currently in use. Because globular clusters are old-halo objects that probably predate the formation of most of the other stellar populations in galaxies [...], to first order it is not surprising that they look far more similar from place to place than their parent galaxies do. Methods for allowing clusters to form with average masses that are nearly independent of galaxy size or type [...]. Other constraints arising from cluster metallicity distributions and the early chemical evolution of the galaxies [may occur]. None of these yet serve as more than general guidelines for understanding why the early cluster formation process should be so nearly invariant in the early universe.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;

&quot;After the initial formation epoch, dynamical effects on the clusters including tidal shocking and dynamical friction, and evaporation of stars driven by internal relaxation and the surrounding tidal field, must also affect the GCLF within a galaxy over many Gyr, and these mechanisms might well behave rather similarly in large galaxies of many different types. [...] their importance decreases dramatically for distances ≳ 2-3 kpc from the galaxy nucleus, and for the more massive, compact clusters like present-day globulars. [...] close to the centers of the Virgo ellipticals has shown no detectable GCLF differences with radius. The implication is therefore that today's GCLF resembles the original mass formation spectrum of at least the brighter clusters, perhaps only slightly modified by dynamical processes. Many qualitative arguments can be constructed as to why the GCLFs should, or should not, resemble each other in different galaxies, but at the present time these must take a distant second place to the actual data.&quot;&lt;ref name=Harris/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Emissions==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Emissions}}
[[Image:1-agnsasanewst.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This graph depicts using AGNs to estimate distances. Credit: Darach Watson (''et al'').{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
“Accurate distances to celestial objects are key to establishing the age and energy density of the Universe and the nature of dark energy.”&lt;ref name=Watson&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Darach Watson
|title=AGNs as a new standard candle?
|publisher=Physics Organization
|location=
|date=September 27, 2011
|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-09-agns-standard-candle.html
|accessdate=2014-03-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

“A distance measure using active galactic nuclei (AGN) has been sought for more than forty years, as they are extremely luminous and can be observed at very large distances.”&lt;ref name=Watson/&gt;

Active &quot;galactic nuclei are home to supermassive black holes which unleash powerful radiation. When this radiation ionizes nearby gas clouds, they also emit their own light signature. With both emissions in range of data gathering telescopes, all that’s needed is a way to measure the time it takes between the radiation signal and the ionization point. The process is called reverberation mapping.&quot;&lt;ref name=Plotner&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Tammy Plotner
|title=AGNs as a new standard candle?
|publisher=Physics Organization
|location=
|date=September 27, 2011
|url=http://phys.org/news/2011-09-agns-standard-candle.html
|accessdate=2014-03-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

“We use the tight relationship between the luminosity of an AGN and the radius of its broad line region established via reverberation mapping to determine the luminosity distances to a sample of 38 AGN.”&lt;ref name=Watson/&gt;

“All reliable distance measures up to now have been limited to moderate redshift — AGN will, for the first time, allow distances to be estimated to z~4, where variations of dark energy and alternate gravity theories can be probed.”&lt;ref name=Watson/&gt;

&quot;The AGN Hubble diagram [is at the right]. The luminosity distance indicator τ is plotted as a function of redshift for 38 AGN with H lag measurements. On the right axis the luminosity distance and distance modulus (m-M) are shown using the surface brightness fluctuations distance to NGC3227 as a calibrator. The current best cosmology is plotted as a solid line. The line is not fit to the data but clearly follows the data well. Cosmologies with no dark energy components are plotted as dashed and dotted lines. The lower panel shows the logarithm of the ratio of the data compared to the current cosmology on the left axis, with the same values but in magnitudes on the right. The red arrow indicates the correction for internal extinction for NGC3516. The green arrow shows where NGC7469 would lie using the revised lag estimate. NGC7469 is our largest outlier and is believed to be an example of an object with a misidentified lag.&quot;&lt;ref name=Plotner/&gt;

“The scatter due to observational uncertainty can be reduced significantly. A major advantage held by AGN is that they can be observed repeatedly and the distance to any given object substantially refined.”&lt;ref name=Watson/&gt;

“The ultimate limit of the accuracy of the method will rely on how the BLR (broad-line emitting region) responds to changes in the luminosity of the central source. The current tight radius-luminosity relationship indicates that the ionisation parameter and the gas density are both close to constant across our sample.”&lt;ref name=Watson/&gt;
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==X-rays==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/X-rays|X-ray astronomy}}
[[Image:SN2005ke labels.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Shown here is the explosion in optical, ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths. Credit: NASA/Swift/S. Immler.{{tlx|free media}}]]
Supernova 2005ke, which was detected in 2005, is a Type Ia supernova, an important &quot;standard candle&quot; explosion used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe. Shown here is the explosion in optical, ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths. This is the first X-ray image of a Type Ia, and it has provided observational evidence that Type Ia are the explosion of a white dwarf orbiting a red giant star.

An explosion called SN 2005ke is the first Type Ia supernova detected in X-ray wavelengths, and it is much brighter in the ultraviolet than expected. A Type Ia is an explosion of a white dwarf in orbit around either another white dwarf or a red giant star. The dense white dwarf can accumulate gas donated from the companion. When the dwarf reaches the critical mass of 1.4 solar masses, a thermonuclear explosion ensues.

Type Ia are called &quot;standard candles&quot; and are used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe, because each Type Ia shines with a known luminosity. Immler's team says it has the first observational evidence to support one theory about the origin of these supernovae.

Immler's group has found direct evidence in the X-ray and ultraviolet light of SN 2005ke that a white dwarf, now obliterated, was indeed orbiting a red giant. The scientists detected shock waves from the explosion ramming into gas from a red giant and found no evidence of a second white dwarf. This observation may help astronomers understand the birthplaces and evolution of these supernovae, so crucial to the field of cosmology and dark energy.
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==Opticals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Opticals|Optical astronomy}}
[[Image:Hubble views new supernova in Messier 82.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Spiral galaxy Messier 82 has long been known for its remarkable starburst activity. Credit: NASA, ESA, A. Goobar (Stockholm University), and Hubble Heritage.{{tlx|free media}}]]
&quot;Spiral galaxy Messier 82 has long been known for its remarkable starburst activity, caused by interactions with its near neighbour Messier 81, and has been the subject of intense study for many years. On 21 January 2014, astronomers at the University of London Observatory in London, UK, pointed their telescope at the galaxy and spied something peculiar… an intensely bright spot seemed to have suddenly appeared within the galaxy [1].&quot;&lt;ref name=Cooke&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Ben Cooke
|author2=Tom Wright
|author3=Matthew Wilde
|author4=Guy Pollack
|title=Hubble views new supernova in Messier 82
|publisher=Space Telescope
|location=Baltimore, Maryland USA
|date=March 3, 2014
|url=http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1409a/
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;This bright spot is actually a new supernova known as SN 2014J — the closest supernova to Earth in recent decades! Since its discovery, SN 2014J has been confirmed as a type Ia supernova, making it the closest of its type to Earth in over 40 years (since SN 1972E) [2]. This new NASA/ESA Hubble Space Telescope image is set against a previous mosaic of Messier 82 from 2006 (heic0604a), and shows the supernova as an intensely bright spot towards the bottom right of the frame.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cooke/&gt;

&quot;Type Ia supernovae are even more exciting for astronomers, as they have particular properties that we can use to probe the distant Universe. They are used as standard candles to measure distances and help us understand the scale of the cosmos. Catching such a supernova so soon after its explosion is very unusual; this early discovery will enable astronomers to explore its evolution in great detail, and to potentially infer the properties of its progenitor star.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cooke/&gt;

&quot;Messier 82 is several times more luminous than our Milky Way. Because it is only 12 million light-years away, it is one of the brighter galaxies in the northern sky. It can be found in the constellation of Ursa Major (The Great Bear). The supernova is currently visible through a modest amateur telescope, so why not see if you can spot it from your back garden?&quot;&lt;ref name=Cooke/&gt;

&quot;The image shown here was taken on 31 January 2014 with Hubble’s Wide Field Camera 3. This image is inset into a photo mosaic of the entire galaxy taken in 2006 with Hubble’s Advanced Camera for Surveys.&quot;&lt;ref name=Cooke/&gt;
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==Visuals==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Visuals|Visual astronomy}}
[[Image:Blackbody spectral density.gif|thumb|right|250px|In this diagram, the photon spectral density of a blackbody at 6000 K (solid line) and 5000 K (dashed line) is illustrated. Credit: Douglas L. Welch.{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;Classical Cepheid variable stars are potentially the most accurate distance indicators available for the near-field (0.5 kpc - 10 Mpc). Their suitability as distance indicators arises from a number of factors including luminosity (''M''&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt; = -2 to -7 mag), ease of detection through variability, precision, permanence, and understanding of the pulsation phenomenon. The classical (or Type I) Cepheids are young, disk objects and as such are only found in galaxies with recent star formation (primarily spiral or irregular galaxies).&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Douglas L. Welch
|title=Classical Cepheid Variable Stars
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby3_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The traditional path to a Cepheid-based distance to a galaxy has involved the following steps: (1) acquisition of plate material at several epochs; (2) discovery of variables; (3) magnitude estimates; (4) determination of periods; (5) estimation of mean magnitudes and colors on a standard system; (6) correction for absorption and distance estimate (given an absolute calibration).&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch1&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Douglas L. Welch
|title=Classical Cepheid Variable Stars
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby3_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The differences between observations in the optical and near-infrared are sufficiently great that they warrant discussion. In this section, we will discuss the relative merits of optical (0.4 - 0.9 µm) and near-infrared (1.0 - 2.5 µm) observations of Cepheids. To accomplish this, we will consider, in turn, the wavelength dependence of observables, factors affecting the detected signal, and factors contributing to the noise.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Douglas L. Welch
|title=Classical Cepheid Variable Stars
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby3_3.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Panoramic detectors used in the optical (0.4 - 0.9 µm) and the near-infrared (1.0 - 2.5 µm) are unity gain devices which produce a single electron for every detected photon. A blackbody at an effective temperature of 5500 K - typical of longer period Cepheids - has a slowly varying photon spectral density from the ''V'' bandpass (0.5 µm) out to ''K'' (2.2 µm). [...] However, the near-infrared spectra of stars of this effective temperature are strongly distorted by the H&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; opacity minimum at 1.6 µm, centered on the photometric ''H'' bandpass. The effect of this opacity minimum is to allow radiation characteristic of a hotter source function to escape, and consequently a Cepheid will appear approximately 20% brighter at 1.6 µm than predicted by a blackbody spectrum scaled to, say, a ''V'' magnitude. (A second and less important effect which works in the same direction is the smaller amount of limb-darkening in the near-infrared.)&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;One consequence of the H&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt; opacity feature is the near constant ''H'' - ''K'' color of Cepheids (and for that matter, RR Lyrae stars) through their pulsation cycle. Since the ''H'' - ''K'' index varies extremely slowly in this temperature regime, a useful value for the total absorption for bandpasses in the 1 - 2.5 µm regime may be estimated on the basis of the ''H'' - ''K'' index at one phase point.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;In [the diagram at right], the photon spectral density of a blackbody at 6000 K (solid line) and 5000 K (dashed line) is illustrated. These effective temperatures represent the range encountered during the pulsation of a typical 10-day Cepheid. The positions of the ''B'', ''V'', ''I'', ''J'', ''H'', and ''K'' bandpasses are indicated. The number of detected photons from sources of these effective temperatures is proportional to the area under the curve for each bandpass. Wider bandpasses and higher quantum-efficiency detectors in the near infrared are particularly advantageous for the cooler and brighter long-period Cepheids. The increased near-infrared flux due to the lower H- opacity is not shown in this diagram.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;During pulsation, both the effective temperature and radius of a Cepheid vary. Since the relative change in radius rarely exceeds 5% in Cepheids (except for the longest period stars), the areal change is only of order 10%. Therefore, the large lightcurve amplitudes observed in the optical are primarily a reflection of the changes in surface brightness during the pulsation cycle, due to the changes in effective temperature. This variation is illustrated in [the diagram at the right], where the relative number of photons at minimum and maximum effective temperature are easily compared. For detection of variation, a short wavelength bandpass such as ''B'' or ''V'' is indicated, whereas for measurement of mean lightcurve characteristics, a long wavelength bandpass such as ''I'', ''J'', ''H'', or ''K'' is advantageous.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;Other well-known advantages of longer wavelength observation are the smaller total absorption, reduced sensitivity to flux redistribution due to metallicity, and reduced sensitivity to possible photometric contamination by an upper main-sequence companion.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;The bandwidths of the ''J'', ''H'', and ''K'' filters are typically 0.3 - 0.35 µm, compared to 0.2 µm at I and 0.08-0.10 µm at ''B'' or ''V''. Furthermore, the quantum efficiency of thinned CCDs at I is typically 30-35%, whereas quantum efficiencies greater than 60% over the ''J'', ''H'', and ''K'' bandpasses can be realized with HgCdTe detectors. The reflectivity of aluminum is 93-96% in the 1.0-2.5 µm region compared to 86% at ''I''.&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;

&quot;The difference between long-wavelength optical and infrared photometry is not substantial with respect to crowding. The ''K''-giant background against which Cepheids will be detected acts as a background having statistical fluctuations due to variations in the number of giant stars per pixel, but is significantly redder (''V'' - ''K'' = 3.3) than the variables (''V'' - ''K'' = 2.0). The effects of both crowding and sky noise are obviously reduced when the [full width at half maximum] FWHM of the stellar images is small (i.e., good seeing conditions).&quot;&lt;ref name=Welch2/&gt;
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==Blues==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Blues|Blue astronomy}}
[[Image:Maximum magnitude-rate of decline for novae.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is a graph of the maximum magnitude-rate of decline for Galactic novae. Credit: Cohen (1985).{{tlx|fairuse}}]]
&quot;Novae possess a number of attributes that make them potentially valuable standard candles. They are luminous (approaching ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt; = -10) and easy to recognize. Because they belong to an old stellar population, they are found predominantly in ellipticals and the bulges of spirals [...]; such environments are relatively dust-free and photometrically smooth, so that observations of novae beyond the Local Group are simpler and easier to interpret than observations of Cepheids. The available evidence suggests that observations of novae are not strongly affected by metallicity effects [...]. Finally, the calibration of novae as standard candles possesses relatively low intrinsic scatter [...], and is well understood theoretically [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Christopher J. Pritchet
|title=Novae Background
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby5_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;All [or nearly all early] observations of extragalactic novae were made in continuum blue light.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet/&gt;

&quot;The relationship between the maximum luminosity (magnitude) of a nova and its rate of decline (MMRD) is the usual starting point for deriving extragalactic distances. [L]uminous novae decay more rapidly than intrinsically faint novae [...]. The MMRD correlation for Galactic novae [has been confirmed. In addition there are] expansion parallaxes for a number of (previously undetected) spatially resolved shells around old Galactic novae. The physical basis for the MMRD relation [is that] more massive white dwarfs require less accreted matter to produce a thermonuclear runaway, and these lower mass envelopes can be ejected more rapidly; thus the most luminous novae are also the fastest.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet2&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Christopher J. Pritchet
|title=Novae Method
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby5_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;To measure the distance to an external galaxy using the MMRD relation, it is necessary to determine the apparent magnitudes of novae at maximum light, and a mean rate of decline over two magnitudes. At present the calibration of the MMRD relation is in the ''B'' or ''m''&lt;sub&gt;pg&lt;/sub&gt; bands [...], so that observations through these bandpasses are preferred. It is essential that the observations sample the light curves of novae frequently enough near maximum light that ''m''&lt;sup&gt;max&lt;/sup&gt; can be estimated for the fastest (i.e., brightest) novae. The signal to noise ratio of the photometry should be high enough that novae discovered near maximum light can be followed at least 2 magnitudes below this level.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet2/&gt;

&quot;The calibration can be effected in two ways: (1) using Galactic novae (in which case the use of the MMRD relation is a primary distance indicator, calibrated using geometrical techniques); or (2) using novae in M31 (in which case the distance scale is tied to the distance of M31).&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3&gt;{{ cite web
|author=Christopher J. Pritchet
|title=Novae Calibration
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby5_3.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

At right is a graph of the maximum &quot;magnitude-rate of decline relation for Galactic novae [...]. Closed symbols represent the novae designated ''high quality'' [...]; the solid line [from the equation below] is a least-squares fit to the high-quality data.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

An &quot;MMRD relation for Galactic novae is given by:&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M^{max}_V = -9.96 - 2.31 \times log \dot{m},&lt;/math&gt;

&quot;where &lt;math&gt;\dot{m}&lt;/math&gt; is the mean rate of decline (in mag d&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;) over the first 2 magnitudes. The mean scatter around this relation is ± 0.52 mag (1 ) for the high quality subset [data]. The data and fit are shown in [the graph at the right]. A slightly different result is obtained if the Galactic data are corrected for the constancy of ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; 15 days after maximum light [...]. In principle such a correction removes systematic errors in the absolute magnitudes, and results in a tighter MMRD correlation (σ ≃ 0.47 mag for ''all'' objects).&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;An alternate calibration of the MMRD relation is obtained by studying novae in the nearby spiral galaxy M31. [...] Only about 1/3 of the known novae in M31 have sufficient information in their light curves to be useful in determining the MMRD relation, and only about 1/4 of these possess good quality light curves with a well-observed maximum and rate of decay. [...] The 1 σ scatter around the mean relation depends on the subset of data chosen, and is in the range 0.20 - 0.28 mag [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;To compare the M31 MMRD data with the mean Galactic MMRD, we assume (''m'' - ''M'')&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; ≃ 24.6 for M31 [...], (''B'' - ''V'')&lt;sup&gt;max&lt;/sup&gt; ≃ 0.23 [...], and (''m''&lt;sub&gt;pg&lt;/sub&gt; - ''B'') ≃ -0.17 [...]. With these assumptions, [...] the agreement between the Galactic and M31 MMRD relations is not good: the flattening observed in the M31 MMRD relation for bright and faint novae is not seen for Galactic novae. In addition, there appears to be a systematic offset of about 0.3 mag between the two MMRD relations, in the sense that Galactic novae are ''fainter'' than M31 novae. (This offset would increase to ~ 0.5 mag if the mean ''internal'' absorption for M31 novae were 0.2 mag [...]. However, we note that [there may not be] any systematic difference in the MMRD relation for novae close to and far from obvious dust patches in the bulge of M31.)&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;The flattening at faint magnitudes in the M31 MMRD relation may be due to Malmquist bias: in the presence of a magnitude limit, only the brightest novae will be detected. Whether or not this flattening is real has little effect on distance determinations outside the Local Group, because it is predominantly the most luminous novae that are detected at large distances. The flattening of the M31 MMRD relation for luminous novae is a more difficult problem. If one aligns the MMRD relations for Galactic and M31 novae in the ''linear'' (-1.3 ≲ log mdot ≲ -0.7) regime, then the luminous (log mdot ≲ -0.6) Galactic novae lie an average of ~ 0.8 mag above the M31 MMRD relation. One possible explanation for this is that maximum light for M31 novae is not as well sampled as it is for Galactic novae; this is particularly apparent in the light curves of Arp 1 and Arp 2 [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;The shift of the Galactic and M31 MMRD relations relative to each other seems to imply that the true distance modulus of M31 is 0.3 mag less than the value obtained with ''quality'' distance indicators (e.g., RR Lyrae stars, IR observations of Cepheids). However, [...] this discrepancy vanishes if a different sample of objects is chosen to define the Galactic MMRD, and if uncorrected ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt;&lt;sup&gt;max&lt;/sup&gt; values are used for the Galactic nova sample (instead of ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''V''&lt;/sub&gt; values corrected for the Buscombe - de Vaucouleurs effect). It is also worth noting that the theoretical MMRD [...] possesses a flatter slope than that observed for [...] data on Galactic novae, and hence provides a better overall fit to the S-shaped MMRD relation observed for M31 novae.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

It &quot;should be noted that the Galactic MMRD relation is defined with far fewer objects than is the case for M31; furthermore, the overall quality of the Galactic data (as demonstrated by the scatter in the MMRD relation) is considerably lower than for M31, probably due to such effects as uncertain Galactic absorption, and due to the assumption of spherical symmetry that is inherent in Cohen's application of the expansion parallax technique [...]. In fact, the offset between the Galactic and M31 MMRD relations is almost exactly what would be expected if the prolate geometry of nova shells is not taken into account when applying the expansion parallax technique [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;In view of all of the above, it seems somewhat safer to employ the M31 MMRD relation as the calibrator for the extragalactic distance scale. This makes the distance scale dependent on an assumed distance to M31. However, [...] there is concordance in most distance estimates for M31 (except those derived using novae!); using the M31 calibration is therefore a more prudent approach at the present time.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet3/&gt;

&quot;Several other methods for using novae as distance indicators have been proposed in the literature. Here we give a brief discussion of some of these methods, and their limitations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Christopher J. Pritchet
|title=Novae Other Distance Indicators using Novae
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby5_5.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;&lt;''M''&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;&gt;: [The] mean magnitude of an ensemble of novae 15 days after maximum light was a constant; from the most recent data on Galactic novae, [...] &lt;''M''&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;5&gt; ≃ -5.60 ± 0.14, where the quoted error is the 1 σ error in the mean. The rough constancy of &lt;''M''&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; is a consequence of the MMRD relation [...]. For Virgo cluster novae, &lt;''B''&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; ≃  +26 if (''m'' - ''M'') = 31.5; hence the &lt;''M''&lt;sub&gt;15&lt;/sub&gt;&gt; distance indicator will be strongly affected by Malmquist bias at the distance of the Virgo cluster unless the observational completeness limit goes somewhat fainter than B &gt; 26. Note that there are exceptional objects (e.g., M31 novae Arp 1, 2, and 3) that suggest this method be used with caution.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5/&gt;

&quot;''Luminosity Function of Novae'': The luminosity function of novae at maximum light is approximately Gaussian [with] the mean magnitude of this Gaussian to determine the distance to M31. [...] The most recent compilation of M31 nova data [...] appears to show a double-peaked luminosity function; [using] the magnitude of the minimum between the two peaks as a distance indicator. Yet another method is to use the integral luminosity function of novae at maximum light; this function is linear over a wide range of magnitude, and possesses a well-defined intercept [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5/&gt;

&quot;The use of the luminosity function of novae at maximum light as a distance indicator demands large samples of novae that are essentially complete at the faintest magnitudes; it is therefore unlikely that this method will be useful for any but the nearest luminous galaxies (i.e., those with high nova rates). [Using] the dip between two peaks in the luminosity function is not completely reliable, because, [...] different samples of M31 novae have luminosity functions with very different structure. (The very existence of this dip is in some question [...]&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5/&gt;

The &quot;luminosity function of all M31 nova observations (i.e., random phases) possesses no useful information that can be used in determining extragalactic distances [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5/&gt;

&quot;''Period of Visibility'': [There] exists a strong correlation between the mean period of visibility of novae (down to some limiting magnitude ''m''&lt;sub&gt;lim&lt;/sub&gt;, and the absolute magnitude that this ''m''&lt;sub&gt;lim&lt;/sub&gt; corresponds to. Application of this correlation (calibrated using M31 data) to the Virgo elliptical observations [...] yields a distance modulus that is similar to that obtained using the MMRD relation. This method needs complete samples of novae down to some chosen ''m''&lt;sub&gt;lim&lt;/sub&gt;, but the samples do not have to be large. (With a large sample of novae, it would in principle be possible to apply this technique at several different ''m''&lt;sub&gt;lim&lt;/sub&gt; values.)&quot;&lt;ref name=Pritchet5/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Oranges==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Oranges|Orange astronomy}}
[[Image:Ngc416 red clump stars.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The image shows orange and red stars in NGC 416. Credit: Andrzej Udalski, Peter Garnavich and Krzysztof Stanek.]]
[[Image:Hipparcos diagram red clump.gif|thumb|right|250px|This is the Hipparcos color-magnitude diagram. Credit: Hipparcos.]]
[[Image:Hipparcos Hubble distribution.gif|thumb|right|250px|This image shows the variance in the I-band. Credit: Stanek and Garnavich (1998).]]
&quot;Stellar cluster NGC 416 [in the image at the right is] located in the nearby Small Magellanic Cloud galaxy.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Krzysztof Z. Stanek
|title=Red Clump Stars as Distance Indicator
|publisher=Ohio State University
|location=Columbus, Ohio USA
|date=January 21, 2000
|url=http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/~kstanek/CfA/RedClump/
|accessdate=2014-03-27 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The cluster [in the image at the right] contains many red clump stars, allowing for accurate distance measurement to the host galaxy. This photograph was made with the 1.3-meter (51-inch) Warsaw University Telescope at Las Campanas Observatory, near La Sarena, Chile.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek/&gt;

&quot;The ideal distance indicator would be a standard candle abundant enough to provide many examples within reach of parallax measurements and sufficiently bright to be seen out to local group galaxies.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek/&gt;

Red &quot;clump stars (shown in the Hipparcos color-magnitude diagram [second image at the right]) precisely fit this description. These stars are the metal rich equivalent of the better known horizontal branch stars, and theoretical models predict that their absolute luminosity fairly weakly depends on their age and chemical composition. Indeed the absolute magnitude-color diagram of Hipparcos clearly shows how compact the red clump is.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek/&gt;

The &quot;variance in the I-band is only about 0.15 mag (see the [third figure at the right]).&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek/&gt;

&quot;Red clump giants can provide a very precise estimate of the distances to metal-rich Galactic globular clusters and nearby galaxies.&quot;&lt;ref name=Stanek/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Reds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Reds|Red astronomy}}
&quot;Supernovae [especially Type Ia (SNe Ia)], as extremely luminous (''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; ~ -19.5) point sources, offer an attractive route to extragalactic distances. [...] Type II supernovae have a wide range in peak absolute magnitude and can not be treated as standard candles. Distances to individual SNe II can be estimated by means of the expanding photosphere (Baade-Wesselink) and the expanding radiosphere methods, but only elementary applications based on simplifying assumptions have been made to SNe II beyond the Local Group [...]. [Applications] of the method to SN 1987A in the Large Magellanic Cloud [have been] based on detailed calculations [...]. Supernovae of Type Ib, Type Ic, or Type II-L may turn out to be good standard candles but the present samples are small and all three subtypes have the disadvantage of being less luminous than Type Ia.&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch&gt;{{ cite web
|author=David Branch
|title=Type-Ia Supernovae Background and Dispersion in Absolute Magnitude
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby6_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Supernovae of Type Ia lack hydrogen lines and helium lines in their optical spectra; during the first month after maximum light they do have a strong absorption feature produced by the red doublet (λ6347, λ6371 Å) of singly ionized silicon. [... One model is that] Type Ia supernovae are the result of the nuclear detonation of a white dwarf which is at or near the Chandrasekhar mass limit [...]. Since such stars are present in the old stellar populations of all galaxies (but see Foss et al. 1991), there is good reason to believe that Type Ia supernovae behave as standard candles.&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

&quot;Numerous analyses of unrestricted samples of SNe Ia, involving various assumptions about relative distances and interstellar extinction, have produced values of the dispersion in peak ''M''&lt;sub&gt;pg&lt;/sub&gt; or ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; that are generally consistent with [early results having a] determined σ = 0.6 mag. Smaller dispersions of 0.3-0.5 mag have been obtained by restricting the SN Ia samples to those beyond the Local Supercluster [...], in elliptical galaxies [...], in the Virgo cluster [...], and in the Coma cluster [...]. The restriction to remote samples lowers the dispersion by a combination of two effects: (1) the avoidance of the problem of uncertain relative distances for the nearby galaxies, and (2) the tendency to select against SNe Ia that are observationally subluminous (whether they are intrinsically subluminous or are highly extinguished).&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

A &quot;small intrinsic dispersion for ordinary SNe Ia that may be ≲ 0.3 mag. Most SNe Ia that are observationally subluminous tend to be red and in inclined disk galaxies, and probably just suffer high interstellar extinction. The peculiar, intrinsically subluminous SN 1991bg also was red. If observationally faint events enter into samples of remote SNe Ia, in spite of the selection against them, they can be recognized by their colors, and, in the case of those that are intrinsically abnormal, by their spectra. There is not yet any solid evidence for anomalously ''bright'' SNe Ia.&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

&quot;From the Hubble diagram for [a] sample of 35 SNe Ia&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M_B = -18.13 + 5 log h,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the first constant of  ± 0.08, &quot;where ''h'' is the Hubble constant in units of 100 km s&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt; Mpc&lt;sup&gt;-1&lt;/sup&gt;.&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

&quot;From a sample of 40 SNe&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M_B = -18.36 + 5 log h,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the first constant of  ± 0.04.

&quot;The difference is primarily due to the fact that [for the first equation no] corrections for parent-galaxy extinction, while [for the second] an inclination-dependent correction to those SNe Ia in spirals that appear to be subluminous [has been applied]. Perhaps the most accurate available estimate for the intrinsic absolute magnitude is [for] for nine SNe Ia in ellipticals:&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch/&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M_B = -18.33 + 5 log h,&lt;/math&gt;

with an error on the first constant of  ± 0.11.

&quot;The standard model for a Type Ia supernova is the thermonuclear disruption of a carbon-oxygen white dwarf that has accreted enough mass from a companion star to approach the Chandrasekhar mass [...]. The nuclear energy released in the explosion unbinds the white dwarf and provides the kinetic energy of the ejected matter, but adiabatic expansion quickly degrades the initial internal energy and the observable light curve is powered by delayed energy input from the radioactive decay of &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Ni and &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Co. This model brings with it a self-calibration of the peak luminosity. Arnett (1982a) predicted on the basis of an analytical model that the SN Ia peak luminosity would be equal to the instantaneous decay luminosity of the nickel and cobalt, in which case the peak luminosity follows directly from the ejected nickel mass and the rise time to maximum light. The rise time can be inferred from observation but owing to uncertainties in the physics of the nuclear burning front [...] the amount of synthesized and ejected &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Ni cannot yet be accurately predicted by theory. [The] nickel mass can be estimated indirectly from spectra and light curves. The more nuclear burning, the more &lt;sup&gt;56&lt;/sup&gt;Ni and kinetic energy, and the greater the blueshifts in the spectrum and the faster the decay of the light curve. [From] the blueshifts in the spectra [...] the nickel mass must be in the range 0.4 to 1.4 ''M''&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt; [with] a value of 0.6 ''M''&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt; (as in the particular carbon deflagration model W7 [...]). Adopting a rise time to maximum of 17 ± 3 days and distributing the luminosity according to the observed ultraviolet-deficient flux distribution of SNe Ia, [provides an] estimated ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; = -19.5&lt;sup&gt;+0.4&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;sub&gt;-0.9&lt;/sub&gt;) at bolometric maximum, which corresponds to ''M''&lt;sub&gt;''B''&lt;/sub&gt; = -19.6 with limits of -19.2 and -20.5 at the time of maximum blue light a few days earlier.&quot;&lt;ref name=Branch2&gt;{{ cite book
|author=David Branch
|title=Type-Ia Supernovae Physical Basis and Self-Calibration
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby6_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Infrareds==
{{main|Radiation astronomy/Infrareds|Infrared astronomy}}
[[Image:Standard Candle in the Wind.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The images show a standard candle. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/M. Marengo (Iowa State).]]
&quot;This image layout [at right] illustrates how NASA's Spitzer Space Telescope was able to show that a &quot;standard candle&quot; used to measure cosmological distances is shrinking -- a finding that affects precise measurements of the age, size and expansion rate of our universe. The image on the left, taken by Spitzer in infrared light, shows Delta Cephei, a type of standard candle used to measure the distances to galaxies that are relatively close to us. Cepheids like this one are the first rungs on the so-called cosmological distance ladder -- a tool needed to measure farther and farther distances.&quot;&lt;ref name=Marengo&gt;{{ cite book
|author=M. Marengo
|title=Standard Candle in the Wind
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=January 1, 2012
|url=http://www.spitzer.caltech.edu/images/3470-ssc2011-01a-Standard-Candle-in-the-Wind
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Spitzer showed that the star has a bow shock in front of it. This can be seen as the red arc shape to the left of the star, which is depicted in blue-green (the colors have been assigned to specific infrared wavelengths we can't see with our eyes). The presence of the bow shock told astronomers that Delta Cephei must have a wind that is forming the shock. This wind is made up of gas and dust blowing off the star. Before this finding, there was no direct proof that Cepheid stars could lose mass, or shrink.&quot;&lt;ref name=Marengo/&gt;

&quot;The finding is important because the loss of mass around a Cepheid can obscure the star's light, making it appear brighter in infrared observations, and dimmer in visible light, than it really is. This, in turn, affects calculations of how far away the star is. Even tiny inaccuracies in such distant measurements can cause the whole cosmological distance ladder to come unhinged.&quot;&lt;ref name=Marengo/&gt;

&quot;The diagram on the right illustrates how Delta Cephei's bow shock was formed. As the star speeds along through space, its wind hits interstellar gas and dust, causing it to pile up in the bow shock. A companion star to Delta Cephei, seen just below it, is lighting up the region, allowing Spitzer to better see the region. By examining the structure of the bow shock, astronomers were able to calculate how fast the star is losing mass.&quot;&lt;ref name=Marengo/&gt;

&quot;In this image, infrared light captured by the infrared array camera is blue and blue-green (3.6- and 4.5-micron light is blue and 8.0-micron light is blue-green). Infrared light captured by the multiband imaging photometer is colored green and red (24-micron light is green and 70-micron light is red).&quot;&lt;ref name=Marengo/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Oxygens==
[[Image:Planetary nebulae H-R.gif|thumb|right|250px|The diagram is a schematic H-R showing the evolutionary tracks of planetary nebula central stars. Credit: Jacoby et al. 1989.]]
At right is a &quot;schematic H-R diagram showing the evolutionary tracks of planetary nebula [PN] central stars. The tracks illustrate the strong dependence of magnitude and lifetime with core mass: the luminosity of a helium burning central star goes approximately as ''L'' ~ M&lt;sup&gt;3.5&lt;/sup&gt;, but the lifetime of the object goes as τ ~ M&lt;sup&gt;-9.5&lt;/sup&gt;. It is these two relationships, coupled with a sharply peaked core-mass distribution, which cause the abrupt truncation in planetary-nebula luminosity function.&quot;&lt;ref name=Jacoby&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Jacoby et al. 1989
|title=Planetary Nebulae
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=1989
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby8_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;It is common to think of using the brightest stars to determine extragalactic distances. Indeed, over 50 years ago, Hubble (1936a) first attempted to resolve stars in other galaxies to quantify the expansion of the universe, and since then, the use of blue and red supergiants for extragalactic distance determinations has been explored several times (e.g., Sandage and Tammann 1974, Humphreys 1983). However, only recently has it been appreciated that young planetary nebulae also fall into the &quot;brightest stars&quot; category and are therefore potentially useful as standard candles. As can be seen in the H-R diagram [at right], the central stars of these objects are almost as luminous as the brightest red supergiants - the fact that their continuum emission emerges in the far ultraviolet, instead of the optical or near infrared, does not affect their detectability. On the contrary, since their surrounding nebulae reprocess the EUV radiation into discrete emission lines, planetaries can be viewed through interference filters which suppress the starlight from the host galaxy. As a result, observations made through a narrow band [oxygen III 500.7 nm]  5007 filter can detect ~ 15% of the energy emitted from these extremely luminous objects, with little contamination and confusion from continuum sources.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ciardullo&gt;{{ cite book
|author=R. Ciardullo
|title=Planetary Nebulae
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=1989
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby8_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Planetary nebulae have several advantages over other extragalactic distance indicators. Because PN are not associated with any one stellar population, they can be found in galaxies of all Hubble types, and hence are particularly valuable for probing the [elliptical] E and [intermediate] S0 galaxies which define the cores of large groups and clusters. Likewise, internal extinction is usually not a problem in extragalactic PN observations: unlike blue supergiants or Cepheids, PN can be found far away from star forming regions, in areas of the galaxy which are relatively dust free. Since PN are observed through narrow band filters which suppress the continuum, the identification and measurement of these objects does not require complex, crowded field photometric procedures, and, unlike variable star standard candles, PN observations are required only once. Perhaps most importantly, in a large galaxy there may be several hundred planetaries populating the brightest two magnitudes of the planetary nebula luminosity function (PNLF). With the luminosity function so well defined, distance derivations are straightforward, and the internal errors can be as small as 3% (cf. Jacoby et al. 1989).&quot;&lt;ref name=Ciardullo/&gt;

&quot;Despite these facts, the use of PN to determine extragalactic distances is a relatively new phenomenon. The first suggestion that PN might be a useful standard candle can be found in the book ''Galaxies and Cosmology'' by Hodge (1966), where it is listed in Table 12.1 along with such well-known distance indicators as Cepheids, RR Lyrae, and novae. Actual PN distance measurements, however, were [not] made until the 1970s, when Ford and Jenner (1978) used a 50 Å wide λ 5007 filter and the SIT Video Camera on the Kitt Peak 4-m telescope to find and measure the brightest PN in the bulge of M81. Ford (1978) had noticed that the absolute [O III] λ 5007 flux of the brightest PN in each of seven Local Group galaxies varied by less than 25%. Thus, by comparing the [O III] λ 5007 fluxes of M81's brightest PN with those of the brightest PN found in M31, Ford and Jenner (1978) estimated the distance ratio between these two galaxies to be ~ 4. A few years later, Jacoby and Lesser (1981) used a similar argument to place limits on the distances to five Local Group dwarfs, and Lawrie and Graham (1983) estimated the distance modulus of NGC 300.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ciardullo/&gt;

&quot;None of the above results was exceptionally persuasive, however. Some of this skepticism arose from the analysis method which excluded all but the brightest objects from consideration. However, the main concern at the time was that little was known about the luminosity function of planetaries; hence the uncertainties associated with these distances were completely unknown. It is an irony of the subject that distances to Galactic planetary nebulae are extremely difficult to obtain, and that a single PN is definitely not a standard candle. (For instance, NGC 7027, one of the best studied Galactic PN has recent distance estimates that range from 178 pc [Daub 1982] to 1500 pc [Pottasch et al. 1982].) However, while a single PN may not be a standard candle, an ensemble of these objects can yield a well determined distance. The reason for this is the invariance of the [O III] λ 5007 planetary nebula luminosity function.&quot;&lt;ref name=Ciardullo/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Materials==
{{main|Chemicals/Materials|Radiation astronomy/Materials}}
[[Image:SNe-samples-revised.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The images show necessary adjustments to Type Ia supernovae brightness. Credit: Supernova Factory.]]
&quot;Type Ia supernovae result from the explosions of white dwarf stars. These supernovae vary widely in peak brightness, how long they stay bright, and how they fade away, as the lower graph shows. Theoretical models (dashed black lines) seek to account for the differences, for example why faint supernovae fade quickly and bright supernovae fade slowly. A new analysis by the Nearby Supernova Factory indicates that when peak brightnesses are accounted for, as shown in the upper graph, the late-time behaviors of faint and bright supernovae provide solid evidence that the white dwarfs that caused the explosions had different masses, even though the resulting blasts are all “standard candles.”&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Paul Preuss
|title=Standard-Candle Supernovae are Still Standard, but Why?
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
|location=Berkeley, California USA
|date=March 3, 2014
|url=http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2014/03/03/standard-candle-supernovae/
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;Sixteen years ago two teams of supernova hunters, one led by Saul Perlmutter of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (Berkeley Lab), the other by Brian Schmidt of the Australian National University, declared that the expansion of the universe is accelerating – a Nobel Prize-winning discovery tantamount to the discovery of dark energy. Both teams measured how fast the universe was expanding at different times in its history by comparing the brightnesses and redshifts of Type Ia supernovae, the best cosmological “standard candles.”&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;These dazzling supernovae are remarkably similar in brightness, given that they are the massive thermonuclear explosions of white dwarf stars, which pack roughly the mass of our sun into a ball the size of Earth. Based on their colors and how fast they brighten and fade away, the brightnesses of different Type Ia supernovae can be standardized to within about 10 percent, yielding accurate gauges for measuring cosmic distances.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;Until recently, scientists thought they knew why Type Ia supernovae are all so much alike. But their favorite scenario was wrong.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;The assumption was that carbon-oxygen white dwarf stars, the progenitors of the supernovae, capture additional mass by stripping it from a companion star or by merging with another white dwarf; when they approach the Chandrasekhar limit (40 percent more massive than our sun) they experience thermonuclear runaway. Type Ia brightnesses were so similar, scientists thought, because the amounts of fuel and the explosion mechanisms were always the same.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

“The Chandrasekhar mass limit has long been put forward by cosmologists as the most likely reason why Type Ia supernovae brightnesses are so uniform, and more importantly, why they are not expected to change systematically at higher redshifts.”&lt;ref name=Aldering&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Greg Aldering
|title=Standard-Candle Supernovae are Still Standard, but Why?
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
|location=Berkeley, California USA
|date=March 3, 2014
|url=http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2014/03/03/standard-candle-supernovae/
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

“The Chandrasekhar limit is set by quantum mechanics and must apply equally, even for the most distant supernovae.”&lt;ref name=Aldering/&gt;

&quot;But a new analysis of normal Type Ia supernovae, led by SNfactory member Richard Scalzo of the Australian National University, a former Berkeley Lab postdoc, shows that in fact they have a range of masses. Most are near or slightly below the Chandrasekhar mass, and about one percent somehow manage to exceed it.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;While white dwarf stars are common, it’s hard to get a Chandrasekhar mass of material together in a natural way.”&lt;ref name=Scalzo&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Richard Scalzo
|title=Standard-Candle Supernovae are Still Standard, but Why?
|publisher=Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
|location=Berkeley, California USA
|date=March 3, 2014
|url=http://newscenter.lbl.gov/news-releases/2014/03/03/standard-candle-supernovae/
|accessdate=2014-03-25 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;A Type Ia starts in a two-star (or perhaps a three-star) system, because there has to be something from which the white dwarf accumulates enough mass to explode.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;Some models picture a single white dwarf borrowing mass from a giant companion.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

“The most massive newly formed carbon-oxygen white dwarfs are expected to be around 1.2 solar masses, and to approach the Chandrasekhar limit a lot of factors would have to line up just right even for these to accrete the remaining 0.2 solar masses.”&lt;ref name=Scalzo/&gt;

&quot;If two white dwarfs are orbiting each other they somehow have to get close enough to either collide or gently merge, what Scalzo calls “a tortuously slow process.” Because achieving a Chandrasekhar mass seems so unlikely, and because sub-Chandrasekhar white dwarfs are so much more numerous, many recent models have explored how a Type Ia explosion could result from a sub-Chandrasekhar mass – so many, in fact, that Scalzo was motivated to find a simple way to eliminate models that couldn’t work.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;He and his SNfactory colleagues determined the total energy of the spectra of 19 normal supernovae, 13 discovered by the SNfactory and six discovered by others. All were observed by the SNfactory’s unique SNIFS spectrograph (SuperNova Integral Field Spectrograph) on the University of Hawaii’s 2.2-meter telescope on Mauna Kea, corrected for ultraviolet and infrared light not observed by SNIFS.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;A supernova eruption thoroughly trashes its white dwarf progenitor, so the most practical way to tell how much stuff was in the progenitor is by spectrographically “weighing” the leftover debris, the ejected mass. To do this Scalzo took advantage of a supernova’s layered composition.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;A Type Ia’s visible light is powered by radioactivity from nickel-56, made by burning carbon near the white dwarf’s center. Just after the explosion this radiation, in the form of gamma rays, is absorbed by the outer layers – including iron and lighter elements like silicon and sulfur, which consequently heat up and glow in visible wavelengths.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;But a month or two later, as the outer layers expand and dissipate, the gamma rays can leak out. The supernova’s maximum brightness compared to its brightness at late times depends on how much gamma radiation is absorbed and converted to visible light – which is determined both by the mass of nickel-56 and the mass of the other material piled on top of it.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;The SNfactory team compared masses and other factors with light curves: the shape of the graph, whether narrow or wide, that maps how swiftly a supernova achieves its brightest point, how bright it is, and how hastily or languorously it fades away. The typical method of “standardizing” Type Ia supernovae is to compare their light curves and spectra.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

“The conventional wisdom holds that the light curve width is determined primarily or exclusively by the nickel-56 mass, whereas our results show that there must also be a deep connection with the ejected mass, or between the ejected mass and the amount of nickel-56 created in a particular supernova.”&lt;ref name=Scalzo/&gt;

“The white dwarfs exploding as Type Ia supernovae have a range of masses, and the resulting light-curve width is directly proportional to the total mass involved in the explosion.”&lt;ref name=Aldering/&gt;

&quot;For a supernova whose light falls off quickly, the progenitor is a lot less massive than the Chandrasekhar mass – yet it’s still a normal Type Ia, whose luminosity can be confidently standardized to match other normal Type Ia supernovae.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;The same is true for a Type Ia that starts from a “classic” progenitor with Chandrasekhar mass, or even more. For the heavyweights, however, the pathway to supernova detonation must be significantly different than for lighter progenitors. These considerations alone were enough to eliminate a number of theoretical models for Type Ia explosions.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;Carbon-oxygen white dwarfs are still key. They can’t explode on their own, so another star must provide the trigger. For super-Chandrasekhar masses, two C-O white dwarfs could collide violently, or one could accrete mass from a companion star in a way that causes it to spin so fast that angular momentum supports it beyond the Chandrasekhar limit.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

&quot;More relevant for cosmolology, because more numerous, are models for sub-Chandrasekhar mass. From a companion star, a C-O white dwarf could accumulate helium, which detonates more readily than carbon – the result is a double detonation. Or two white dwarfs could merge. There are other surviving models, but the psychological “safety net” that the Chandrasekhar limit once provided cosmologists has been lost. Still, says Scalzo, the new analysis narrows the possibilities enough for theorists to match their models to observations.&quot;&lt;ref name=Preuss/&gt;

“This is a significant advance in furthering Type Ia supernovae as cosmological probes for the study of dark energy, likely to lead to further improvements in measuring distances. For instance, light-curve widths provide a measure of the range of the star masses that are producing Type Ia supernovae at each slice in time, well back into the history of the universe.&quot;&lt;ref name=Aldering/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Sun==
{{main|Stars/Sun|Sun (star)}}
:&lt;math&gt;M_{V\odot} = 4.83.&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;M_{bol\odot} = 4.75.&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref name=Strobel&gt;{{ cite journal
| author = G. Cayrel de Strobel
| title = Stars resembling the Sun
| journal = Astronomy and Astrophysics Review
| volume = 7
| issue = 3
| pages = 243–88
| year = 1996
| doi = 10.1007/s001590050006
|bibcode = 1996A&amp;ARv...7..243C }}&lt;/ref&gt;

==Betelgeuse==
{{main|Stars/Betelgeuse}}
The star Betelgeuse may still be too far away for visual trigonometric parallax. Standard candles have probably been used to estimate its distance from the Sun. Estimates from visual trigonometric parallax may be available to evaluate the historical accuracy of standard stellar candles.

In 1977 the first direct angular-diameter observations of 119 Tauri were made.&lt;ref name=White&gt;{{ cite journal
|author=Nathaniel M. White
|title=The Occultation of 119 Tauri and the Effective Temperatures of Three M Supergiants
|journal=The Astrophysical Journal
|month=December 1,
|year=1980
|volume=242
|issue=12
|pages=646-56
|url=http://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1980ApJ...242..646W
|arxiv=
|bibcode=1980ApJ...242..646W
|doi=10.1086/158501
|pmid=
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

As a spectral type M2.2 Iab information is inferred about Betelgeuse (a type M2.2 Iab) from the occultation measurements of 119 Tauri.&lt;ref name=White/&gt; The occultations were on January 31, and April 23, 1977.

The spectral type of 119 Tau has been constant since 1940.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

In 1977, 119 Tauri (CE Tau) was a spectral type M2.2 Iab, with a spectral range of M2.0-M2.4 Iab-Ib.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

In 1977, Betelgeuse was a spectral type M2.0 Iab&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;, with a range of M1.3-M2.8 Iab-Ib.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

For α Sco in 1980 it was M1.1 Iab with a range of M0.7-M1.5 Iab-Ib

As of 2014, 119 Tauri is an M2Iab according to SIMBAD.

As of 2014, Betelgeuse (alf Ori) is an M2Iab according to SIMBAD.

&quot;The spectral type of α Ori varies roughly with the 5.8 yr period and epoch [...] for brightness, radial velocity, and possible angular-diameter variations. Recently, α Ori has shown the latest spectral type between 1973 and 1975 and again in 1980 January-February with a spectral type of M2.8 Iab&lt;sup&gt;-&lt;/sup&gt;. Its spectral type was about M1.5 around 1969-1971 and again around 1977-1978. By 1982 or 1983, α Ori should again have a spectral type of about M1.5.&quot;&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

In 1977, apparently α Scorpii (Antares) was an M2.2 Iab, but in 2014 it is an M1.5Iab-b.

The standard candle being used in 1977 for spectral region K5-M4 is the CN (cyanide) index from the CN absorption in selected bands.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

The apparent magnitude needed for calculating an object's distance in pc is obtained using a photospheric magnitude received for the 1.04 µm flux peak, ''I''(104) in early-M stars.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

Near-infrared &quot;photometry on the narrow-band eight-color system [...] has been obtained for these stars. The mean [CN] indices and spectral types derived from photometry of the three supergiants are&quot;&lt;ref name=White/&gt;
# 119 Tau, CN index = 18 ± 2, ''I''(104) mag = +0.84 ± 0.03, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt; = -5.2 (-4.8 to -5.6), distance = 417 pc,
# α Ori, CN index = 18 ± 3, ''I''(104) mag = -2.68 ± 0.03, ''M''&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt; = -5.2, (-4.5 to -5.8), distance = 96 pc, and
# α Sco, CN index = 19 ± 3, ''I''(104) mag = -2.28 ± 0.02,  ''M''&lt;sub&gt;V&lt;/sub&gt; = -5.5, (-4.5 to -5.9), distance = 107 pc.

&quot;The distance to α Ori is about half the value, 200 pc, that is almost universally used in the literature.&quot;&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

&quot;The direct evidence for a distance of 200 pc [to Betelgeuse] is a trigonometric parallax of 0.005, which is 10 times smaller than the expected error of measurement [0.005 ± 0.05 mas].&quot;&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

In 1977 using the absorption spectrum of cyanide believed to be applicable for the spectral region K5-M4 to produce a CN index and the relationship between apparent magnitude and absolute magnitude, a distance of 96 pc was estimated for Betelgeuse. Parallax measurements at that time estimated a distance of 200 pc, but the error was 10 times greater than the value derived.&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

A parallax measurement by the satellite ''Hipparcos'' indicated a distance of 197 ± 45 pc published in 2008.

While post 1980 adjustments were made to increase the estimated distance of Betelgeuse, the initial discrepancy is quite large, at least a factor of 2 using a standard candle.

In 1977, the distance to Betelgeuse estimated by various standard candles suggested 200 pc, &quot;almost universally used in the literature.&quot;&lt;ref name=White/&gt;

==SN 2005ke==
[[Image:SN2005ke labels.jpg|thumb|300px|Supernova 2005ke, which was detected in 2005, is a Type Ia supernova, an important &quot;standard candle&quot; explosion used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe. Shown here is the explosion in optical, ultraviolet and X-ray wavelengths. This is the first X-ray image of a Type Ia, and it has provided observational evidence that Type Ia are the explosion of a white dwarf orbiting a red giant star. Credit: NASA/Swift/S. Immler.]]
A Type Ia supernova is an explosion of a white dwarf in orbit around either another white dwarf or a red giant star. The dense white dwarf can accumulate gas donated from the companion. When the dwarf reaches the critical mass of 1.4 ''M''&lt;sub&gt;⊙&lt;/sub&gt;, a thermonuclear explosion ensues. As each Type Ia shines with a known luminosity, Type Ia are called &quot;standard candles&quot; and are used by astronomers to measure distances in the universe.

SN 2005ke is the first Type Ia supernova detected in X-ray wavelengths, and it is much brighter in the ultraviolet than expected.
{{clear}}

==Andromeda galaxy==
[[Image:M31 xmm novae.jpg|thumb|right|250px|This image is a mosaic of XMM-Newton's European Photon Imaging Camera’s (EPIC) observations of the central region of M31 as seen from 2000 to 2004. Credit: W. Pietsch (MPE Garching, Germany), ESA/XMM Newton.]]
&quot;This image [on the right] is a mosaic of XMM-Newton's European Photon Imaging Camera’s (EPIC) observations of the central region of M31 as seen from 2000 to 2004.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pietsch&gt;{{ cite book
|author=W. Pietsch
|title=XMM-Newton Image of M31
|publisher=European Space Agency
|location=
|date=5 August 2007
|url=http://m.esa.int/spaceinimages/Images/2007/05/XMM-Newton_image_of_M_31
|accessdate=2016-02-12 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The color coding is such that red displays X-ray photons received in the energy band 0.2-0.5 keV, green in the 0.5-1 keV band and blue in the 1-2 keV band. The positions of ten counterparts of optical novae detected in these images are indicated with circles and nova names. Nova names are given omitting the M31N prefix.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pietsch/&gt;

&quot;It was detected that eleven out of the 34 novae that had exploded in the galaxy during the previous year were shining X-rays into space. An additional seven novae remained detectable in X-rays up to 10 years after outburst.&quot;&lt;ref name=Pietsch/&gt;
{{clear}}

==Distances==

For nearby objects:

:&lt;math&gt; M = m + 5 (1 + \log_{10}{p})\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

:&lt;math&gt; m = M - 5 ( 1+ \log_{10}p).\!\,&lt;/math&gt;

where p is the parallax in arcseconds.

&quot;The use of elliptical galaxies as distance indicators developed from studies aimed at determining their physical properties. The discovery of the relationship between luminosity and central velocity dispersion, ''L'' ∝ σ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;, by Faber and Jackson (1976) marks the beginning of the potential use of normal elliptical galaxies as standard candles. Following that discovery, automatic, quantitative techniques based on Fourier or cross correlation methods for measuring velocity dispersions came into frequent use [...]. The use of these quantitative methods led to a growth of work on the properties and distances of elliptical galaxies, notably the suggestion [...] of a second parameter at work in the Faber-Jackson relation and the use of that relation [...] to measure the infall of the Local Group towards the Virgo cluster. The uncertainty in the distance to a single galaxy in [a] use of the Faber-Jackson relation was 32%.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Roger L. Davies
|title=The ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;-σ Relation for Elliptical Galaxies
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby10_1.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;The distribution and physical properties of elliptical galaxies make them attractive as potential distance indicators because:&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies/&gt;

(1) They are luminous galaxies so that their global properties can be measured accurately at large distances. The Dn- method can be used to measure distances both within the Local Supercluster and out to distances more than twice that of the Coma cluster.

(2) &quot;They are strongly clustered so that many galaxies can contribute to the determination of the distance to an aggregate of galaxies. This increases the precision of the distance estimate and reduces systematic &quot;Malmquist-like&quot; biases.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies/&gt;

(3) &quot;They have a single dominant old stellar population and are free of the obscuring effects of dust.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies/&gt;

&quot;The method is, however, potentially sensitive to variations in the physical properties of ellipticals: residual star formation, the unknown distribution of intrinsic shapes, variations in the degree of rotational support, the presence of central velocity dispersion anomalies, and/or the presence of a weak disk.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies/&gt;

&quot;Unfortunately there are no nearby examples of luminous elliptical galaxies that can be used for absolute calibration using primary indicators. Furthermore, there is no theoretical basis for an absolute calibration of the ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;-σ relation. Thus, the method is best suited to measuring relative distances that can then be calibrated by some of the other methods discussed elsewhere in this review. For this reason the method has been applied primarily to measure the peculiar motions of galaxies and aggregates of galaxies, rather than to derive absolute distances for individual galaxies.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies/&gt;

&quot;The implementation of the ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;-σ method requires the measurement of the central velocity dispersion and luminosity profile (or curve of growth) of each galaxy to sufficient precision that the measurement errors do not contribute to the intrinsic uncertainty of the distance estimator (σ&lt;sup&gt;1.2&lt;/sup&gt; / ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;). [A] typical scatter of 23% in ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; at fixed σ [occurs]. [The] single measurements of ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; range in precision from 5-12% and for σ from 9-14% (these estimates were made from repeat measurements which were used to improve the precision of their measurements). Single measurements of this quality would contribute significantly to the scatter in ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; in the best observed clusters. A reasonable aim for future work is to determine ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt; to 6%, and  to 5%, which in the absence of cosmological scatter would generate a distance determination with an uncertainty ≤ 9%.&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies2&gt;{{ cite book
|author=Roger L. Davies
|title=The ''D''&lt;sub&gt;n&lt;/sub&gt;-σ Relation for Elliptical Galaxies Methods
|publisher=Caltech
|location=Pasadena, California USA
|date=August 1992
|url=http://ned.ipac.caltech.edu/level5/Jacoby/Jacoby10_2.html
|accessdate=2014-03-26 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

&quot;If the peculiar motions of aggregates of galaxies (hypothesised to be at the same distance) are to be determined, then a measurement of recession velocity is required in addition to the parameters which enter into the distance estimator. (Of course, this can be obtained from the same observational data that was used to derive the velocity dispersions.) The measured galaxies must then be assigned to groups on the basis of position and recession velocity using an algorithm [...].&quot;&lt;ref name=Davies2/&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Many of the standard candles have such a wide range of sizes that distance estimates are at best only good to an order of magnitude.
# Photons reaching Earth from any source say nothing about its distance.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Hypervelocity stars|Hypervelocity stellar astronomy]]
* [[Standard candles/Laboratory|Standard candles laboratory]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Standard candles/Quiz|Standard candles quiz]]
* [[Stars/Astronomy|Stellar astronomy]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Stars|Stellar radiation astronomy]]
* [[Stars/Sciences|Stellar science]]
* [[Stars/Sun|Sun]]
* [[Stars/X-ray classification|X-ray classification of stars]]
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Standard-candles astronomy&amp;action=info Page views in the past 30 days]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

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    <title>Complex Analysis in plain view</title>
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      <comment>/* Geometric Series Examples */</comment>
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      <text bytes="5113" xml:space="preserve">Many of the functions that arise naturally in mathematics and real world applications can be extended to and regarded as complex functions, meaning the input, as well as the output, can be complex numbers &lt;math&gt;x+iy&lt;/math&gt;, where &lt;math&gt;i=\sqrt{-1}&lt;/math&gt;, in such a way that it is a more natural object to study. '''Complex analysis''', which used to be known as '''function theory''' or '''theory of functions of a single complex variable''', is a sub-field of analysis that studies such functions (more specifically, '''holomorphic''' functions) on the complex plane, or part (domain) or extension (Riemann surface) thereof. It notably has great importance in number theory, e.g. the [[Riemann zeta function]] (for the distribution of primes) and other &lt;math&gt;L&lt;/math&gt;-functions, modular forms, elliptic functions, etc. &lt;blockquote&gt;The shortest path between two truths in the real domain passes through the complex domain.  — [[wikipedia:Jacques_Hadamard|Jacques Hadamard]]&lt;/blockquote&gt;In a certain sense, the essence of complex functions is captured by the principle of [[analytic continuation]].{{mathematics}}

==''' Complex Functions '''== 
* Complex Functions ([[Media:CAnal.1.A.CFunction.20140222.Basic.pdf|1.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.B.CFunction.20140111.Octave.pdf|1.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.1.C.CFunction.20140111.Extend.pdf|1.C.pdf]])

* Complex Exponential and Logarithm ([[Media:CAnal.5.A.CLog.20131017.pdf|5.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.5.A.Octave.pdf|5.B.pdf]])

* Complex Trigonometric and Hyperbolic ([[Media:CAnal.7.A.CTrigHyper..pdf|7.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.7.A.Octave..pdf|7.B.pdf]])

'''Complex Function Note'''
: 1. Exp and Log Function Note ([[Media:ComplexExp.29160721.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 2. Trig and TrigH Function Note ([[Media:CAnal.Trig-H.29160901.pdf|H1.pdf]])

: 3. Inverse Trig and TrigH Functions Note ([[Media:CAnal.Hyper.29160829.pdf|H1.pdf]])

==''' Complex Integrals '''== 
* Complex Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.2.A.CIntegral.20140224.Basic.pdf|2.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.B.CIntegral.20140117.Octave.pdf|2.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.2.C.CIntegral.20140117.Extend.pdf|2.C.pdf]])

==''' Complex Series '''== 
* Complex Series ([[Media:CPX.Series.20150226.2.Basic.pdf|3.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.B.CSeries.20140121.Octave.pdf|3.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.3.C.CSeries.20140303.Extend.pdf|3.C.pdf]])

==''' Residue Integrals '''==
* Residue Integrals ([[Media:CAnal.4.A.Residue.20140227.Basic.pdf|4.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.B.pdf|4.B.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.4.C.Residue.20140423.Extend.pdf|4.C.pdf]]) 

==='''Residue Integrals Note'''===
* Laurent Series with the Residue Theorem Note ([[Media:Laurent.1.Residue.20170713.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series with Applications Note ([[Media:Laurent.2.Applications.20170327.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series and the z-Transform Note ([[Media:Laurent.3.z-Trans.20170831.pdf|H1.pdf]])
* Laurent Series as a Geometric Series Note ([[Media:Laurent.4.GSeries.20170802.pdf|H1.pdf]])

=== Laurent Series and the z-Transform Example Note === 
* Overview ([[Media:Laurent.4.z-Example.20170926.pdf|H1.pdf]])

====Geometric Series Examples====

* Causality ([[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.A.20191026n.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Causality.1.B.20191026.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Time Shift ([[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.A.20191028.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.TimeShift.2.B.20191029.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Reciprocity ([[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3A.20191030.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Reciprocity.3B.20191031.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Combinations ([[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4A.20200702.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Combination.4B.20201002.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5A.20220105.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Property.5B.20220126.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Applications ([[Media:Laurent.6.Application.6A.20220809.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.Application.6B.20220723.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

* Double Pole Case

:- Examples ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7A.20220722.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleEx.7B.20220720.pdf|B.pdf]]) 

:- Properties ([[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5A.20190226.pdf|A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.5.DPoleProp.5B.20190228.pdf|B.pdf]])

====The Case Examples====
* Example Overview : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.0.A.20171208.pdf|0A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.6.CaseExample.0.B.20180205.pdf|0B.pdf]])
* Example Case 1 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.A.20171107.pdf|1A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.1.B.20171227.pdf|1B.pdf]])
* Example Case 2 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.A.20171107.pdf|2A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.2.B.20171227.pdf|2B.pdf]])
* Example Case 3 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.A.20171017.pdf|3A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.3.B.20171226.pdf|3B.pdf]])
* Example Case 4 : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.A.20171017.pdf|4A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.4.B.20171228.pdf|4B.pdf]])
* Example Summary : ([[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.A.20171212.pdf|5A.pdf]], [[Media:Laurent.4.Example.5.B.20171230.pdf|5B.pdf]])

==''' Conformal Mapping '''== 
* Conformal Mapping ([[Media:CAnal.6.A.Conformal.20131224.pdf|6.A.pdf]], [[Media:CAnal.6.A.Octave..pdf|6.B.pdf]])

go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

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    <title>Ampheck</title>
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      <text bytes="9145" xml:space="preserve">{{font|size=medium|&amp;#9758;}} This page belongs to resource collections on [[Logic Live|Logic]] and [[Inquiry Live|Inquiry]].

'''Ampheck''', from Greek &amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#966;&amp;#942;&amp;#954;&amp;#951;&amp;#962; double-edged, is a term coined by [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] for either one of the pair of logically dual operators, variously referred to as Peirce arrows, Sheffer strokes, or [[logical NAND|NAND]] and [[logical NNOR|NNOR]].  Either of these logical operators is a ''[[sole sufficient operator]]'' for deriving or generating all of the other operators in the subject matter variously described as [[boolean function]]s, monadic predicate calculus, [[propositional calculus]], sentential calculus, or [[zeroth order logic]].

The computer used in the spacecraft that first carried humans to the moon, the Apollo Guidance Computer, was constructed entirely using NOR gates with three inputs.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge y&lt;/math&gt; signifies that &lt;math&gt;x\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;.  Then &lt;math&gt;(x \curlywedge y) \curlywedge z&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge y} \curlywedge z&lt;/math&gt;, will signify that &lt;math&gt;z\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, but that the statement that &lt;math&gt;x\!&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y\!&lt;/math&gt; are both &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; is itself &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, that is, is ''false''.  Hence, the value of &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge x&lt;/math&gt; is the same as that of &lt;math&gt;\overline {x}&lt;/math&gt;;  and the value of &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge x} \curlywedge x&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, because it is necessarily false;  while the value of &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge y} \curlywedge \underline {x \curlywedge y}&lt;/math&gt; is only &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; in case &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge y&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;;  and &lt;math&gt;( \underline {x \curlywedge x} \curlywedge x) \curlywedge (x \curlywedge \underline {x \curlywedge x})&lt;/math&gt; is necessarily true, so that its value is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;With these two signs, the vinculum (with its equivalents, parentheses, brackets, braces, etc.) and the sign &lt;math&gt;\curlywedge&lt;/math&gt;, which I will call the ''ampheck'' (from &amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#966;&amp;#951;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#962;&amp;nbsp;, cutting both ways), all assertions as to the values of quantities can be expressed. (C.S. Peirce, CP 4.264).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the above passage, Peirce introduces the term ''ampheck'' for the 2-place logical connective or the binary logical operator that is currently called the ''joint denial'' in logic, the NNOR operator in computer science, or indicated by means of  phrases like &quot;neither-nor&quot; or &quot;both not&quot; in ordinary language.  For this operation he employs a symbol that the typographer most likely set by inverting the zodiac symbol for Aries('''&amp;#9800;'''), but set in the text above by means of the ''curly wedge'' symbol.

In the same paper, Peirce introduces a symbol for the logically dual operator.  This was rendered by the editors of his ''Collected Papers'' as an inverted Aries symbol with a bar or a serif at the top, in this way denoting the connective or logical operator that is currently called the ''alternative denial'' in logic, the NAND operator in computer science, or invoked by means of phrases like &quot;not-and&quot; or &quot;not both&quot; in ordinary language.  It is not clear whether it was Peirce himself or later writers who initiated the practice, but on account of their dual relationship it became common to refer to these two operators in the plural, as the ''amphecks''.

==References and further reading==

* Clark, Glenn (1997), &amp;ldquo;New Light on Peirce's Iconic Notation for the Sixteen Binary Connectives&amp;rdquo;, pp. 304&amp;ndash;333 in Houser, Roberts, Van Evra (eds.), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997.

* Houser, N., Roberts, Don D., and Van Evra, James (eds., 1997), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.

* McCulloch, W.S. (1961), &amp;ldquo;What Is a Number, that a Man May Know It, and a Man, that He May Know a Number?&amp;rdquo; (Ninth Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture), ''General Semantics Bulletin'', Nos. 26 &amp; 27, 7&amp;ndash;18, Institute of General Semantics, Lakeville, CT.  Reprinted, pp. 1&amp;ndash;18 in ''Embodiments of Mind''.  [http://www.vordenker.de/ggphilosophy/mcculloch_what-is-a-number.pdf Online].

* McCulloch, W.S. (1965), ''Embodiments of Mind'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

* [[Charles Sanders Peirce (Bibliography)|Peirce, C.S., Bibliography]].

* Peirce, C.S., ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', vols. 1&amp;ndash;6, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (eds.), vols. 7&amp;ndash;8, Arthur W. Burks (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931&amp;ndash;1935, 1958.

* Peirce, C.S. (1902), &amp;ldquo;The Simplest Mathematics&amp;rdquo;.  First published as CP&amp;nbsp;4.227&amp;ndash;323 in ''Collected Papers''.

* Zellweger, Shea (1997), &amp;ldquo;Untapped Potential in Peirce's Iconic Notation for the Sixteen Binary Connectives&amp;rdquo;, pp. 334&amp;ndash;386 in Houser, Roberts, Van Evra (eds.), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997.

==Syllabus==

===Focal nodes===

* [[Inquiry Live]]
* [[Logic Live]]

===Peer nodes===

* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ampheck Ampheck @ InterSciWiki]
* [http://ref.subwiki.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Subject Wikis]
* [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Wikiversity]
* [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Wikiversity Beta]

===Logical operators===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Exclusive disjunction]]
* [[Logical conjunction]]
* [[Logical disjunction]]
* [[Logical equality]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Logical implication]]
* [[Logical NAND]]
* [[Logical NNOR]]
* [[Logical negation|Negation]]
{{col-end}}

===Related topics===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Ampheck]]
* [[Boolean domain]]
* [[Boolean function]]
* [[Boolean-valued function]]
* [[Differential logic]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Logical graph]]
* [[Minimal negation operator]]
* [[Multigrade operator]]
* [[Parametric operator]]
* [[Peirce's law]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Propositional calculus]]
* [[Sole sufficient operator]]
* [[Truth table]]
* [[Universe of discourse]]
* [[Zeroth order logic]]
{{col-end}}

===Relational concepts===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Continuous predicate]]
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Logic of relatives]]
* [[Logical matrix]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]]
* [[Relation composition]]
* [[Relation construction]]
* [[Relation reduction]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation theory]]
* [[Relative term]]
* [[Sign relation]]
* [[Triadic relation]]
{{col-end}}

===Information, Inquiry===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Inquiry]]
* [[Dynamics of inquiry]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Semeiotic]]
* [[Logic of information]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Descriptive science]]
* [[Normative science]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Pragmatic maxim]]
* [[Truth theory]]
{{col-end}}

===Related articles===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Cactus_Language Cactus Language]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Futures_Of_Logical_Graphs Futures Of Logical Graphs]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Propositional_Equation_Reasoning_Systems Propositional Equation Reasoning Systems]
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_:_Introduction Differential Logic : Introduction]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Propositional_Calculus Differential Propositional Calculus]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_and_Dynamic_Systems_2.0 Differential Logic and Dynamic Systems]
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Prospects_for_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Prospects for Inquiry Driven Systems]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Introduction_to_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Introduction to Inquiry Driven Systems]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Inquiry_Driven_Systems Inquiry Driven Systems : Inquiry Into Inquiry]
{{col-end}}

==Document history==

Portions of the above article were adapted from the following sources under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], under other applicable licenses, or by permission of the copyright holders.

* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/ InterSciWiki]
* [http://planetmath.org/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://planetmath.org/ PlanetMath]
* [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://en.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity]
* [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://beta.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity Beta]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampheck&amp;oldid=62218032 Ampheck], [http://en.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia]

[[Category:Inquiry]]
[[Category:Open Educational Resource]]
[[Category:Peer Educational Resource]]
[[Category:Automata Theory]]
[[Category:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Neural Networks]]
[[Category:Semiotics]]</text>
      <sha1>d9fzz6r36wvr2uvxvtzkfgxoe5bxasc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412856</id>
      <parentid>2412854</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:22:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>171.226.36.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add content</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9170" xml:space="preserve">{{font|size=medium|&amp;#9758;}} This page belongs to resource collections on [[Logic Live|Logic]] and [[Inquiry Live|Inquiry]].

'''Ampheck''', from Greek &amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#966;&amp;#942;&amp;#954;&amp;#951;&amp;#962; 'double-edged' or 'cutting both ways', is a term coined by [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] for either one of the pair of logically dual operators, variously referred to as Peirce arrows, Sheffer strokes, or [[logical NAND|NAND]] and [[logical NNOR|NNOR]].  Either of these logical operators is a ''[[sole sufficient operator]]'' for deriving or generating all of the other operators in the subject matter variously described as [[boolean function]]s, monadic predicate calculus, [[propositional calculus]], sentential calculus, or [[zeroth order logic]].

The computer used in the spacecraft that first carried humans to the moon, the Apollo Guidance Computer, was constructed entirely using NOR gates with three inputs.

&lt;blockquote&gt;
&lt;p&gt;For example, &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge y&lt;/math&gt; signifies that &lt;math&gt;x\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;.  Then &lt;math&gt;(x \curlywedge y) \curlywedge z&lt;/math&gt;, or &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge y} \curlywedge z&lt;/math&gt;, will signify that &lt;math&gt;z\!&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, but that the statement that &lt;math&gt;x\!&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y\!&lt;/math&gt; are both &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; is itself &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, that is, is ''false''.  Hence, the value of &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge x&lt;/math&gt; is the same as that of &lt;math&gt;\overline {x}&lt;/math&gt;;  and the value of &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge x} \curlywedge x&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt;, because it is necessarily false;  while the value of &lt;math&gt;\underline {x \curlywedge y} \curlywedge \underline {x \curlywedge y}&lt;/math&gt; is only &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{f}&lt;/math&gt; in case &lt;math&gt;x \curlywedge y&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;;  and &lt;math&gt;( \underline {x \curlywedge x} \curlywedge x) \curlywedge (x \curlywedge \underline {x \curlywedge x})&lt;/math&gt; is necessarily true, so that its value is &lt;math&gt;\mathbf{v}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

&lt;p&gt;With these two signs, the vinculum (with its equivalents, parentheses, brackets, braces, etc.) and the sign &lt;math&gt;\curlywedge&lt;/math&gt;, which I will call the ''ampheck'' (from &amp;#945;&amp;#956;&amp;#966;&amp;#951;&amp;#954;&amp;#942;&amp;#962;&amp;nbsp;, cutting both ways), all assertions as to the values of quantities can be expressed. (C.S. Peirce, CP 4.264).&lt;/p&gt;
&lt;/blockquote&gt;

In the above passage, Peirce introduces the term ''ampheck'' for the 2-place logical connective or the binary logical operator that is currently called the ''joint denial'' in logic, the NNOR operator in computer science, or indicated by means of  phrases like &quot;neither-nor&quot; or &quot;both not&quot; in ordinary language.  For this operation he employs a symbol that the typographer most likely set by inverting the zodiac symbol for Aries('''&amp;#9800;'''), but set in the text above by means of the ''curly wedge'' symbol.

In the same paper, Peirce introduces a symbol for the logically dual operator.  This was rendered by the editors of his ''Collected Papers'' as an inverted Aries symbol with a bar or a serif at the top, in this way denoting the connective or logical operator that is currently called the ''alternative denial'' in logic, the NAND operator in computer science, or invoked by means of phrases like &quot;not-and&quot; or &quot;not both&quot; in ordinary language.  It is not clear whether it was Peirce himself or later writers who initiated the practice, but on account of their dual relationship it became common to refer to these two operators in the plural, as the ''amphecks''.

==References and further reading==

* Clark, Glenn (1997), &amp;ldquo;New Light on Peirce's Iconic Notation for the Sixteen Binary Connectives&amp;rdquo;, pp. 304&amp;ndash;333 in Houser, Roberts, Van Evra (eds.), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997.

* Houser, N., Roberts, Don D., and Van Evra, James (eds., 1997), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN.

* McCulloch, W.S. (1961), &amp;ldquo;What Is a Number, that a Man May Know It, and a Man, that He May Know a Number?&amp;rdquo; (Ninth Alfred Korzybski Memorial Lecture), ''General Semantics Bulletin'', Nos. 26 &amp; 27, 7&amp;ndash;18, Institute of General Semantics, Lakeville, CT.  Reprinted, pp. 1&amp;ndash;18 in ''Embodiments of Mind''.  [http://www.vordenker.de/ggphilosophy/mcculloch_what-is-a-number.pdf Online].

* McCulloch, W.S. (1965), ''Embodiments of Mind'', MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.

* [[Charles Sanders Peirce (Bibliography)|Peirce, C.S., Bibliography]].

* Peirce, C.S., ''Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce'', vols. 1&amp;ndash;6, Charles Hartshorne and Paul Weiss (eds.), vols. 7&amp;ndash;8, Arthur W. Burks (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931&amp;ndash;1935, 1958.

* Peirce, C.S. (1902), &amp;ldquo;The Simplest Mathematics&amp;rdquo;.  First published as CP&amp;nbsp;4.227&amp;ndash;323 in ''Collected Papers''.

* Zellweger, Shea (1997), &amp;ldquo;Untapped Potential in Peirce's Iconic Notation for the Sixteen Binary Connectives&amp;rdquo;, pp. 334&amp;ndash;386 in Houser, Roberts, Van Evra (eds.), ''Studies in the Logic of Charles Sanders Peirce'', Indiana University Press, Bloomington, IN, 1997.

==Syllabus==

===Focal nodes===

* [[Inquiry Live]]
* [[Logic Live]]

===Peer nodes===

* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ampheck Ampheck @ InterSciWiki]
* [http://ref.subwiki.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Subject Wikis]
* [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Wikiversity]
* [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck @ Wikiversity Beta]

===Logical operators===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Exclusive disjunction]]
* [[Logical conjunction]]
* [[Logical disjunction]]
* [[Logical equality]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Logical implication]]
* [[Logical NAND]]
* [[Logical NNOR]]
* [[Logical negation|Negation]]
{{col-end}}

===Related topics===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Ampheck]]
* [[Boolean domain]]
* [[Boolean function]]
* [[Boolean-valued function]]
* [[Differential logic]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Logical graph]]
* [[Minimal negation operator]]
* [[Multigrade operator]]
* [[Parametric operator]]
* [[Peirce's law]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Propositional calculus]]
* [[Sole sufficient operator]]
* [[Truth table]]
* [[Universe of discourse]]
* [[Zeroth order logic]]
{{col-end}}

===Relational concepts===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Continuous predicate]]
* [[Hypostatic abstraction]]
* [[Logic of relatives]]
* [[Logical matrix]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation (mathematics)|Relation]]
* [[Relation composition]]
* [[Relation construction]]
* [[Relation reduction]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Relation theory]]
* [[Relative term]]
* [[Sign relation]]
* [[Triadic relation]]
{{col-end}}

===Information, Inquiry===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [[Inquiry]]
* [[Dynamics of inquiry]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Semeiotic]]
* [[Logic of information]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Descriptive science]]
* [[Normative science]]
{{col-break}}
* [[Pragmatic maxim]]
* [[Truth theory]]
{{col-end}}

===Related articles===

{{col-begin}}
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Cactus_Language Cactus Language]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Futures_Of_Logical_Graphs Futures Of Logical Graphs]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Propositional_Equation_Reasoning_Systems Propositional Equation Reasoning Systems]
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_:_Introduction Differential Logic : Introduction]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Propositional_Calculus Differential Propositional Calculus]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Differential_Logic_and_Dynamic_Systems_2.0 Differential Logic and Dynamic Systems]
{{col-break}}
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Prospects_for_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Prospects for Inquiry Driven Systems]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Introduction_to_Inquiry_Driven_Systems Introduction to Inquiry Driven Systems]
* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Inquiry_Driven_Systems Inquiry Driven Systems : Inquiry Into Inquiry]
{{col-end}}

==Document history==

Portions of the above article were adapted from the following sources under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]], under other applicable licenses, or by permission of the copyright holders.

* [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/wiki/index.php/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://intersci.ss.uci.edu/ InterSciWiki]
* [http://planetmath.org/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://planetmath.org/ PlanetMath]
* [http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://en.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity]
* [http://beta.wikiversity.org/wiki/Ampheck Ampheck], [http://beta.wikiversity.org/ Wikiversity Beta]
* [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampheck&amp;oldid=62218032 Ampheck], [http://en.wikipedia.org/ Wikipedia]

[[Category:Inquiry]]
[[Category:Open Educational Resource]]
[[Category:Peer Educational Resource]]
[[Category:Automata Theory]]
[[Category:Charles Sanders Peirce]]
[[Category:Combinatorics]]
[[Category:Computer science]]
[[Category:Discrete mathematics]]
[[Category:Logic]]
[[Category:Neural Networks]]
[[Category:Semiotics]]</text>
      <sha1>jlnzybr9u7g39kvhessjaoit970zyai</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Haskell programming in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>203942</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413244</id>
      <parentid>2412414</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:13:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5588" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Background ===
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])

=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
: - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])
: - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
: - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
: - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220808.pdf |pdf]])
: - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Computer programming]]</text>
      <sha1>33oovclrb6u1e5qdiywel47dqkp768p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413254</id>
      <parentid>2413244</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:14:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Monads III : Mutable State Monads */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5588" xml:space="preserve">
==Introduction==
* Overview I ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.1.A.20160806.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview II ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.2.A.20160926.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview III ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.3.A.20161011.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview IV ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.4.A.20161104.pdf |pdf]])
* Overview V ([[Media:HSKL.Overview.5.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Applications==
* Sudoku Background ([[Media:Sudoku.Background.0.A.20161108.pdf |pdf]])
* Bird's Implementation 
:- Specification ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.1.A.Spec.20170425.pdf |pdf]])
:- Rules ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.2.A.Rule.20170201.pdf |pdf]])
:- Pruning ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.3.A.Pruning.20170211.pdf |pdf]])
:- Expanding ([[Media:Sudoku.1Bird.4.A.Expand.20170506.pdf |pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;

==Using GHCi==
* Getting started ([[Media:GHCi.Start.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Using Libraries==
* Library ([[Media:Library.1.A.20170605.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;
&lt;/br&gt; 

==Function Oriented Typeclasses== 
=== Background ===
* Constructors ([[Media:Background.1.A.Constructor.20180904.pdf |pdf]])
* TypeClasses ([[Media:Background.1.B.TypeClass.20180904.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Functions ([[Media:Background.1.C.Function.20180712.pdf |pdf]])
* Expressions ([[Media:Background.1.D.Expression.20180707.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:Background.1.E.Operator.20180707.pdf |pdf]])

=== Functors ===
* Functor Overview ([[Media:Functor.1.A.Overview.20180802.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Functor ([[Media:Functor.2.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Functor Lifting ([[Media:Functor.2.B.Lifting.20180721.pdf |pdf]])

=== Applicatives ===
* Applicatives Overview ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Overview.20180606.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Methods ([[Media:Applicative.3.B.Method.20180519.pdf |pdf]])
* Function Applicative ([[Media:Applicative.3.A.Function.20180804.pdf |pdf]])
* Applicatives Sequencing ([[Media:Applicative.3.C.Sequencing.20180606.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads I : Background ===
* Side Effects ([[Media:Monad.P1.1A.SideEffect.20190316.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Overview ([[Media:Monad.P1.2A.Overview.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Monadic Operations ([[Media:Monad.P1.3A.Operations.20190308.pdf |pdf]])
* Maybe Monad ([[Media:Monad.P1.4A.Maybe.201900606.pdf |pdf]])
* IO Actions ([[Media:Monad.P1.5A.IOAction.20190606.pdf |pdf]])
* Several Monad Types ([[Media:Monad.P1.6A.Types.20191016.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads II : State Transformer Monads ===
* State Transformer 
: - State Transformer Basics ([[Media:MP2.1A.STrans.Basic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Generic Monad ([[Media:MP2.1B.STrans.Generic.20191002.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Transformer Monads ([[Media:MP2.1C.STrans.Monad.20191022.pdf |pdf]])

* State Monad 
: - State Monad Basics ([[Media:MP2.2A.State.Basic.20190706.pdf |pdf]])
: - State Monad Methods ([[Media:MP2.2B.State.Method.20190706.pdf |pdf]]) 
: - State Monad Examples ([[Media:MP2.2C.State.Example.20190706.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads III : Mutable State Monads ===
* Mutability Background 
: - Types ([[Media:MP3.1A.Mut.Type.20200721.pdf |pdf]])
: - Primitive Types ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.PrimType.20200611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Polymorphic Types ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Polymorphic.20201212.pdf |pdf]])
: - Continuation Passing Style ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Continuation.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
: - Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Expression.20220628.pdf |pdf]])
: - Lambda Calculus ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.LambdaCal.20220809.pdf |pdf]])
: - Non-terminating Expressions ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Non-terminating.20220616.pdf |pdf]])
: - Inhabitedness ([[Media:MP3.1F.Mut.Inhabited.20220319.pdf |pdf]])
: - Existential Types ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.Existential.20220128.pdf |pdf]])
: - forall Keyword ([[Media:MP3.1E.Mut.forall.20210316.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutability and Strictness ([[Media:MP3.1C.Mut.Strictness.20200613.pdf |pdf]])
: - Strict and Lazy Packages ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.Package.20200620.pdf |pdf]])

* Mutable Objects
: - Mutable Variables ([[Media:MP3.1B.Mut.Variable.20200224.pdf |pdf]])
: - Mutable Data Structures  ([[Media:MP3.1D.Mut.DataStruct.20191226.pdf |pdf]])

* IO Monad 
: - IO Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.2A.IO.Basic.20191019.pdf |pdf]])
: - IO Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.2B.IO.Method.20191022.pdf |pdf]])  
: - IORef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.2C.IO.IORef.20191019.pdf |pdf]])  

* ST Monad 
: - ST Monad Basics ([[Media:MP3.3A.ST.Basic.20191031.pdf |pdf]])
: - ST Monad Methods ([[Media:MP3.3B.ST.Method.20191023.pdf |pdf]])
: - STRef Mutable Variable ([[Media:MP3.3C.ST.STRef.20191023.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monads IV : Reader and Writer Monads ===
* Function Monad ([[Media:Monad.10.A.Function.20180806.pdf |pdf]])
* Monad Transformer ([[Media:Monad.3.I.Transformer.20180727.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadState Class
:: - State &amp; StateT Monads ([[Media:Monad.9.A.MonadState.Monad.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.9.B.MonadState.Class.20180920.pdf |pdf]])
* MonadReader Class
:: - Reader &amp; ReaderT Monads ([[Media:Monad.11.A.Reader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
:: - MonadReader Class ([[Media:Monad.12.A.MonadReader.20180821.pdf |pdf]])
* Control Monad ([[Media:Monad.9.A.Control.20180908.pdf |pdf]])

=== Monoid ===
* Monoids ([[Media:Monoid.4.A.20180508.pdf |pdf]])

=== Arrow ===
* Arrows ([[Media:Arrow.1.A.20190504.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Polymorphism==
* Polymorphism Overview ([[Media:Poly.1.A.20180220.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;

==Concurrent Haskell ==
&lt;/br&gt;


go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]

==External links==
* [http://learnyouahaskell.com/introduction Learn you Haskell]
* [http://book.realworldhaskell.org/read/ Real World Haskell]
* [http://www.scs.stanford.edu/14sp-cs240h/slides/ Standford Class Material]


[[Category:Computer programming]]</text>
      <sha1>3fnj7c6gpe0qd55i732wzthwrr0zvqc</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>211122</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413099</id>
      <parentid>2117839</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:25:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5147" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Supernova remnant E0102-72.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Color composite of the supernova remnant E0102-72 has X-ray (blue), optical (green), and radio (red). Credit: X-ray (NASA/CXC/SAO); optical (NASA/HST); radio: (ACTA).{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''[[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas|Nebula astronomy]]''' is a stand-alone radiation astronomy lecture studying astronomical radiating sources, or natural radiating sources called nebulas.

You are free to take this quiz based on [[radiation astronomy/Nebulas|nebula astronomy]] at any time.

To improve your score, read and study the lecture, the links contained within, listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']], [[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], and in the {{tlx|Principles of radiation astronomy}} template.

This should give you adequate background to get 100 %.

As a &quot;learning by doing&quot; resource, this quiz helps you to assess your knowledge and understanding of the information, and it is a quiz you may take over and over as a learning resource to improve your knowledge, understanding, test-taking skills, and your score.

'''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window.

To master the information and use only your memory while taking the quiz, try rewriting the information from more familiar points of view, or be creative with association.

Enjoy learning by doing!
{{clear}}

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Yes or No, A cloud in outer space consisting of gas or dust is called a nebula.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{True or False, Any small luminous green dot appearing in the cloudless portion of the night sky, especially with a fixed location relative to other such dots is most likely to be an active galactic nucleus.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Evidence that demonstrates that a model or idea versus a control group is feasible with respect to radiation sources is called a
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
{ proof of concept (i) }.

{Yes or No, Hubble astronomers have found an unexpected surprise while surveying more than 100 planetary nebulae in the central bulge of our Milky Way galaxy. Those nebulae that are butterfly-shaped or hourglass-shaped tend to be mysteriously aligned such that their rotation axis is perpendicular to the plane of our galaxy.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

{True or False, A dominant group with respect to radiation astronomy sources differs from a control group in that it rules the treatment of the control group.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
A short or { incomplete (i) } realization of a certain { method (i) } or idea to { demonstrate (i) } a treament's feasibility with respect to radiation astronomy sources is called a proof of { concept (i) }.

{True or False, A control group may be used in respect to radiation astronomy sources to demonstrate no effect or a standard effect versus a novel effort applied to a treatment group.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{True or False, Pure radiation sources involve no doing apart from themselves.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
A proof-of-concept structure, including a control group, consists of { background (i) }, procedures, findings, and { interpretation (i) }.

{True or False, The purpose of a treatment group with respect to radiation astronomy sources is to describe natural processes or phenomena for the first time relative to a control group.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ TRUE
- FALSE

{Yes or No, Planetary nebulae are the expanding gaseous shrouds encircling dying stars.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ Yes
- No

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Nebulas are composed of dust and rock.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=12em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Astronomy/Quiz|Astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Sources/Astronomy/Quiz|Astronomy sources/Quiz]]
* [[Green astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Planetary science/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation chemistry/Quiz|Radiation astrochemistry/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation geography/Quiz|Radiation astrogeography/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation history/Quiz|Radiation astrohistory/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation entities/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation objects/Quiz]]
* [[Theoretical radiation astronomy/Quiz]]
{{Div col end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NASA's National Space Science Data Center]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/SpacecraftQuery.jsp Spacecraft Query at NASA]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{Sisterlinks|Nebulas}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Astronomy learning project quizzes]]
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]
[[Category:Sources quizzes]]</text>
      <sha1>0aol3f0h04fzkmjv4ud2vfoufqcxjgx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Blackfoot vocabulary/Animals</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>219967</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412839</id>
      <parentid>2180190</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T15:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>199.167.26.106</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Portal */ elk is Ponok'a</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="287" xml:space="preserve">
This article is part of the vocabulary section of the [[Wikilang/Blackfoot Portal|Blackfoot language]]. It lists a sample of animal names in Blackfoot with their English translation. elk is Ponok'a

== Portal ==
* [[Wikilang/Blackfoot Portal]]

[[Category:Blackfoot vocabulary|Animals]]</text>
      <sha1>clsjevijxygxek34s3doayf0p0v896w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412844</id>
      <parentid>2412839</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T18:26:12Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/199.167.26.106|199.167.26.106]] ([[User_talk:199.167.26.106|talk]]) to last version by [[User:-akko|-akko]] using [[Wikiversity:Rollback|rollback]]</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="817" xml:space="preserve">
This article is part of the vocabulary section of the [[Wikilang/Blackfoot Portal|Blackfoot language]]. It lists a sample of animal names in Blackfoot with their English translation.

{| class=&quot;wikitable&quot;
|-
! English !! Blackfoot
|-
| dog || omitaa
|-
| horse || ponokáómitaa
|-
| buffalo || iiníí
|-
| elk || iiníí
|-
| wolf || ómahkapi'si
|-
| bear || kiááyo
|-
| lynx || natáyo
|-
| fox || máóhkataatoyi
|-
| deer || áwatoyi
|-
| porcupine || kai'skááhpa
|-
| hare || ááattsistaa
|-
| mouse || kaanaisskiinaa
|-
| bird || pi'ksíí
|-
| eagle || ksikkihkíni
|-
| bustard || áápsspini
|-
| owl || sipistoo
|-
| snake || pitsííksiinaa
|-
| fish || mamíí
|-
| turtle || sspopíi
|-
| bee || naamóó
|}

== Portal ==
* [[Wikilang/Blackfoot Portal]]

[[Category:Blackfoot vocabulary|Animals]]</text>
      <sha1>6cepmjkdurty7wx0j7s9vrreznbb7tw</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>The necessities in Microprocessor Based System Design</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>232469</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413298</id>
      <parentid>2412417</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:05:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5699" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectoredInterrupt.20220808.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220806.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>lbko9evqm0xzo3gex96xt4eqehs67dc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413299</id>
      <parentid>2413298</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:07:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5691" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220808.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220806.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>etqjz0bxa2plbwdol5sv51fvalrxia8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413301</id>
      <parentid>2413299</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:08:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* ARM Assembly Programming (II) */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5691" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220809.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220806.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>t4ck6d3brbk5lr2ook0l7xmiuyot6q3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413303</id>
      <parentid>2413301</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:09:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5691" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220809.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220808.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>rcnsijb5avv1z0kpu62uimso9g5owtd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413305</id>
      <parentid>2413303</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:10:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Serial Bus */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5691" xml:space="preserve">== '''Background''' ==

'''Combinational and Sequential Circuits'''
* [[Media:DD2.B.4..Adder.20131007.pdf |Adder]] 
* [[Media:DD3.A.1.LatchFF.20160308.pdf |Latches and Flipflops]]

'''FSM'''
* [[Media:DD3.A.3.FSM.20131030.pdf |FSM]]
* [[Media:CArch.2.A.Bubble.20131021.pdf |FSM Example]]

'''Tiny CPU Example'''
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.A.ISA.20160511.pdf |Instruction Set]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.B.DPath.20160502.pdf |Data Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.C.CPath.20160427.pdf |Control Path]]
* [[Media:CDsgn6.TinyCPU.2.D.Implement.20160513.pdf |FPGA Implementation]]
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Microprocessor Architecture''' ==
* ARM Architecture 
: - Programmer's Model ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.1A.Model.20180321.pdf |pdf]])
: - Pipelined Architecture ([[Media:ARM.1Arch.2A.Pipeline.20180419.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Organization 

* ARM Cortex-M Processor Architecture 
* ARM Processor Cores
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ==
* ARM Instruction Set 
: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20190611.pdf |pdf]])
: - Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.AddrMode.20191108.pdf |pdf]])
: - Multiple Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.MTransfer.20190903.pdf |pdf]])
: - Assembler Format
::  - Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4A.Proc.Format.20200204.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4B.Trans.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Coprocessor ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4C.CoProc.Format.20191214.pdf |pdf]])
::  - Summary ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.4D.Summary.Format.20200205.pdf |pdf]])
: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.5A.Encoding.201901105.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 

&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Assembly Programming''' == 


=== ARM Assembly Programming (I) ===
* 1. Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.1A.Overview.20200101.pdf |pdf]])
* 2. Example Programs ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.2A.Program.20200108.pdf |pdf]])
* 3. Addressing Modes ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.3A.Address.20200127.pdf |pdf]])
* 4. Data Transfer ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.4A.DTransfer.20200206.pdf |pdf]])
* 5. Data Processing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.5A.DProcess.20200208.pdf |pdf]])
* 6. Control ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.6A.Control.20200215.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Arrays ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.7A.Array.20200311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 8. Data Structures ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.8A.DataStruct.20200718.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 9. Finite State Machines ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.9A.FSM.20200417.pdf |pdf]])  
* 10. Functions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.10A.Function.20210115.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 11. Parameter Passing ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.11A.Parameter.20210106.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 12. Stack Frames ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.12A.StackFrame.20210611.pdf |pdf]]) 
::  

::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (II) ===
::  
* 1. Thumb instruction programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Thumb.20210612.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 2. Exceptions ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.Exception.20220722.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 3. Exception Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionProg.20220311.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 4. Exception Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.ExceptionHandler.20220131.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 5. Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptProg.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 6. Interrupt Handlers ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.InterruptHandler.20211030.pdf |pdf]]) 
* 7. Vectored Interrupt Programming ([[Media:ARM.2ASM.VectorInt.20220809.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;
* ARM Assembly Exercises ([[Media:ESys.3.A.ARM-ASM-Exercise.20160608.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:ESys.3.B.Assembly.20160716.pdf |B.pdf]])
::

=== ARM Assembly Programming (III) ===
* 1. Fixed point arithmetic (integer division)
* 2. Floating point arithmetic 
* 3. Matrix multiply

=== ARM Linking ===
* arm link ([[Media:arm_link.20211208.pdf |pdf]]) 


&lt;/br&gt;

=== ARM Microcontroller Programming ===
* 1. Input / Output 
* 2. Serial / Parallel Port Interfacing
* 3. Analog I/O Interfacing
* 4. Communication


&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Memory Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Memory Hierarchy''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''System and Peripheral Buses''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Architectural Support''' === 
* High Level Languages
* System Development
* Operating Systems
&lt;/br&gt;


== '''Peripheral Architecture''' == 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Vectored Interrupt Controller ''' === 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Timers ''' === 
* Timer / Counter ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.Timer.20220801.pdf |pdf]]) 
* Real Time Clock
* Watchdog Timer
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''Serial Bus''' === 
* '''UART''' : Universal Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter  ([[Media:ARM.4ASM.UART.20220809.pdf |pdf]]) 
* '''I2C''' : Inter-Integrated Circuit 
* '''SPI''' : Serial Peripheral Interface 
* '''USB''' : Universal Serial Bus Device Controller
&lt;/br&gt;

=== '''I/Os ''' === 
* General Purpose Input/Output ports (GPIO)
* Pulse Width Modulator
* Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC)
* Digital-to-Analog Converter (DAC)

&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;!-- == '''Interrupts and Exceptions ''' == --&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Synchrnoization'''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== H/W and S/W Synchronization === 
* busy wait synchronization
* handshake interface
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Interrupt Synchronization === 
* interrupt synchronization
* reentrant programming
* buffered IO
* periodic interrupt
* periodic polling 
&lt;/br&gt;

==''' Interfacing '''==
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Time Interfacing === 
* input capture
* output compare
&lt;/br&gt;


=== Serial Interfacing === 
* Programming UART
* Programming SPI
* Programming I2C
* Programming USB 
&lt;/br&gt;

=== Analog Interfacing === 
* OP Amp
* Filters
* ADC 
* DAC 
&lt;/br&gt;

== '''Old materials''' ==

=== '''Instruction Set Architecture''' ===
* ARM Instruction Set 
:: - Overview ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.1A.Overview.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Binary Encoding ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.2A.Encoding.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
:: - Assembler Format ([[Media:ARM.2ISA.3A.Format.20180528.pdf |pdf]])
* Thumb Instruction Set 
* ARM Assembly Language ([[Media:ESys3.1A.Assembly.20160608.pdf |pdf]])
* ARM Machine Language ([[Media:ESys3.2A.Machine.20160615.pdf |pdf]])
&lt;/br&gt;


&lt;/br&gt; 
go to [ [[Electrical_%26_Computer_Engineering_Studies]] ]</text>
      <sha1>4x0dxuonn2l9u0bkddhfqgnh3702t61</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei/Quiz</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>237913</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413098</id>
      <parentid>2146479</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:15:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Marshallsumter</username>
        <id>311529</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6676" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Chandra Deep Field South - active galactic nuclei.jpeg|right|thumb|300px|X-Rays Emanate From Heated Material Falling Into Black Hole. Credit: NASA, ESA, A. M. Koekemoer (STScI), M. Dickinson (NOAO) and The GOODS Team.{{tlx|free media}}]]
'''[[Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei|Active galactic nuclei astronomy]]''' is the latest lecture for the course on the [[principles of radiation astronomy]].

It is the flagship lecture for the [[Portal:Radiation astronomy|radiation astronomy]] department of the school of [[School:Physics and Astronomy|physics and astronomy]].

You are free to take this quiz at any time.

Once you’ve read and studied the lecture itself, the links contained within the lecture and listed under [[Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei/Quiz#See also|'''See also''']] and [[Radiation astronomy/Active galactic nuclei/Quiz#External links|'''External links''']], you should have adequate background to to get 100 %. Additional information that may be helpful is in the {{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}} template.

'''Suggestion:''' Have the lecture available in a separate window.

Enjoy learning by doing!
{{clear}}

==Quiz==

&lt;quiz&gt;

{Yes or No, Active galactic nuclei do not occur in spiral galaxies generally.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Yes
+ No

{A cosmic ray may originate from what astronomical source?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Jupiter
- the solar wind
- the diffuse X-ray background
- Mount Redoubt in Alaska
- the asteroid belt
+ an active galactic nucleus

{True or False, Any small luminous green dot appearing in the cloudless portion of the night sky, especially with a fixed location relative to other such dots is most likely to be an active galactic nucleus.
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- TRUE
+ FALSE

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the standard candle with a representative image:
Tully-Fisher relation - A
surface brightness fluctuations - B
absolute magnitude - C
globular clusters - D
active galactic nuclei - E
Type Ia supernova - F
classical Cepheid variable - G
novae - H
planetary nebula - I
[[Image:65Cyb-LB3-apmag.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { C (i) }
[[Image:Maximum magnitude-rate of decline for novae.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { H (i) }.
[[Image:B-, R-, I-, and H-band Tully-Fisher relations.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { A (i) }.
[[Image:Blackbody spectral density.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { G (i) }.
[[Image:SN2005ke labels.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { F (i) }.
[[Image:A further away schematic galaxy.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { B (i) }.
[[Image:1-agnsasanewst.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] { E (i) }.
[[Image:Planetary nebulae H-R.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { I (i) }
[[Image:Luminosity function for globular clusters.gif|thumb|left|100px]] { D (i) }.
{{clear}}

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the radiation object with the likely source:
[[Image:Crmo volcanic bomb 20070516123632.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - L
[[Image:Circinus X-1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - M
[[Image:Moon egret.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - N
[[Image:Neusun1 superk1.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - O
[[Image:Earth in ultraviolet from the Moon (S72-40821).jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - P
[[Image:PIA00072.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - Q
[[Image:Io Color Eclipse Movie - PIA03450.gif|thumb|left|100px]] - R
[[Image:NGC 7048.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - S
[[Image:HST NGC 5728 -O III- emission-line image.jpg|thumb|left|100px]] - T
a Craters of the Moon volcano { L (i) }.
violet image of Venus { Q (i) }.
active galactic nuclear region of NGC 5728 { T (i) }.
cosmic-ray bombardment of the Moon's surface { N (i) }.
blue lights from Io { R (i) }.
neutrino profile of the solar octant { O (i) }.
planetary nebula NGC 7048 { S (i) }.
ultraviolet image of the Earth { P (i) }.
a neutron star in a binary system { M (i) }.
{{clear}}

{Complete the text:
|type=&quot;{}&quot;}
Match up the item letter with each of the first astronomical source possibilities below:
Meteors - A
Cosmic rays - B
Neutrons - C
Protons - D
Electrons - E
Positrons - F
Gamma rays - G
Superluminals - H
cosmic rays { C|D (i) }
galactic nuclei { H (i) }.
comets { A (i) }.
electron-positron annihilation { G (i) }.
weak force nuclear decay { F (i) }.
AGNs { B (i) }.
511 keV photon pair production { E (i) }.
solar wind { D (i) }.

{AGNs may be used as standard candles because?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ they are extremely luminous
+ can be observed at very large distances
+ they emit their own light signature
- GeV gamma rays 
+ reverberation mapping 
+ tight relationship between the luminosity of an AGN and the radius of its broad line region

{Which of the following are associated with standard candles?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ Cepheid variables
+ Type Ia supernovae
+ the Sun
+ stellar spectral type 
+ absolute magnitude 
+ Tully-Fisher relation

{Which of the following are associated with the envelope of the polarization current density?
|type=&quot;[]&quot;}
+ emission of electromagnetic radiation from a superluminal charged particle
+ intensity of some components decays as the inverse of the distance from the source
+ non-spherically-decaying sources
+ emission contains very high frequencies not present in the synthesis of the source
+ non-spherically decaying components of the radiation do not violate energy conservation
+ strong electromagnetic fields are compensated by weak fields elsewhere

{What may be the first astronomical cosmic-ray source?
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- Jupiter
- the solar wind
- the diffuse X-ray background
- Mount Redoubt in Alaska
- the asteroid belt
+ an active galactic nucleus

&lt;/quiz&gt;

==Hypotheses==
{{main|Hypotheses}}
# Questions about pure astronomy may be most about early astronomy.

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Radiation astronomy/Galaxy clusters/Quiz|Galaxy cluster astronomy quiz]]
* [[Galaxies/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/High-velocity galaxies/Quiz]]
* [[Intergalactic medium/Quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Nebulas/Quiz|Nebula quiz]]
* [[Radiation astronomy/Quiz]]
{{Div col end}}

==External links==
* [http://www.iau.org/ International Astronomical Union]
* [http://nedwww.ipac.caltech.edu/ NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database - NED]
* [http://www.adsabs.harvard.edu/ The SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System]
* [http://cas.sdss.org/astrodr6/en/tools/quicklook/quickobj.asp SDSS Quick Look tool: SkyServer]
* [http://simbad.u-strasbg.fr/simbad/ SIMBAD Astronomical Database]
* [http://simbad.harvard.edu/simbad/ SIMBAD Web interface, Harvard alternate]
* [http://heasarc.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/Tools/convcoord/convcoord.pl Universal coordinate converter]

&lt;!-- footer templates --&gt;
{{tlx|History of science resources}}{{Principles of radiation astronomy}}{{tlx|Radiation astronomy resources}}{{Sisterlinks|Astronomy}}

&lt;!-- categories --&gt;
[[Category:Astrophysics quizzes]]
[[Category:Radiation astronomy quizzes]]</text>
      <sha1>p7vtpts6j8yriqeqz3mqfbnswqce6r4</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>3D Modelling/Create 3D Models/Wiki 360 Degree AFrame</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>241308</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413321</id>
      <parentid>2282853</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T10:10:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Bert Niehaus</username>
        <id>2387134</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7325" xml:space="preserve">[[File:aframe360image.png|thumb|300px|[https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/eusserthal.html AFrame 360 Image]  - Look around by draging mouse with mouse button pressed]]
[[File:Hugin result in aframe.png|thumb|300px|[https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/ AFrame Example Durlach] or [https://aframe.io/examples/showcase/sky/ AFrame Sample 360 Degree Image]  - Look around by draging mouse with mouse button pressed]][[File:Equirectangular sphere.png|thumb|Equirectangular Projection from the surface of the Sphere to a rectangle]]
[[File:Equirectangular-projection.jpg|thumb|Equirectangular Projection of the surface of the earth]]
[[File:Förderturm Zeche Holland Panorama.jpg|thumb|Coal Mining: equirectangular image - Förderturm der Zeche Holland]]
This learning resource supports you in creating a link that creates a 360 degree scene from an existing equirectangular 360-degree image that exists Wiki Commons. The OpenSource tool [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons4Aframe WikiCommons4Aframe] was created for this learning resource, so that learners can add 360 degree spherical image with a link for AFrame.

== Learning Task ==
360 degree images for web-based 3D models define the background sky of the 3D model. Webbased 3D enviroment can be used with a sky background to explore a place, you cannot physically go to. The  [[w:Equirectangular_projection|3D background images are regular PNG or JPG images]] which seem to be deformed in a standard image viewer, but a 360 degree image in AFrame it is used as spherical projection in which the user can look around in AFrame. In the following learning task you will learn 
# about the equirectangular images,
# explore the 360 image in Aframe,
# use a equirectangular image in WikiCommons in AFrame and finally 
# use and create your own 360 image in AFrame
Now we start with the analysis of [[w:Equirectangular_projection|equirectangular images]]:
* '''(Search 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Images)''' Search for [[w:Equirectangular_projection|equirectangular images]] in WikiCommons or one of the following images
** [https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Aldara_parks.jpg/1280px-Aldara_parks.jpg Aldara Park (Wiki Commons)] - 
** [https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/img/durlach_saumarkt.jpg Durlach Saumarkt (Web Link to Github)]
* '''([https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame WikiCommons2AFrame])''' Start the [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame link creator for the Aframe] and copy the Filename into [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons4Aframe WikiCommons4Aframe]
** '''(WikiCommons)''' &lt;kbd&gt;[https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Aldara_parks.jpg/1280px-Aldara_parks.jpg Aldara_parks.jpg]&lt;/kbd&gt; -- Generated Link for '''[https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame/wikicommons2aframe.html?domain=weblink&amp;skyimage=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fd%2Fd8%2FAldara_parks.jpg&amp;useaframecode=yes&amp;aframecode=%7B%0D%0A++%22a-text%22%3A+%7B%0D%0A++++%22font%22%3A%22kelsonsans%22+%2C%0D%0A++++%22value%22%3A%22Aldara+Park%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22color%22%3A%22white%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22width%22%3A%226%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22position%22%3A%22-3.5+2.25+-2.5%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22rotation%22%3A%220+15+0%22%0D%0A++%7D%0D%0A%7D%0D%0A 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image]'''
** '''(WikiCommons)''' &lt;kbd&gt;[https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%B6rderturm_Zeche_Holland_Panorama.jpg Förderturm_Zeche_Holland_Panorama.jpg]&lt;/kbd&gt; -- [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame/wikicommons2aframe.html?domain=weblink&amp;skyimage=https%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2Fb%2Fbf%2FF%25C3%25B6rderturm_Zeche_Holland_Panorama.jpg&amp;useaframecode=yes&amp;aframecode=%7B%0D%0A++%22a-text%22%3A+%7B%0D%0A++++%22font%22%3A%22kelsonsans%22+%2C%0D%0A++++%22value%22%3A%22Foerderturm+der+Zeche+Holland%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22color%22%3A%22white%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22width%22%3A%226%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22position%22%3A%22-3.5+2.25+-2.5%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22rotation%22%3A%220+15+0%22%0D%0A++%7D%0D%0A%7D%0D%0A++++++++++ Förderturm der Zeche Holland] - link created with [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame WikiCommons2AFrame] with [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:F%C3%B6rderturm_Zeche_Holland_Panorama.jpg equirectangular image from WikiCommons].

** '''(WebLink)''' &lt;kbd&gt;[https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/img/rieselfelder1.jpg  Rieselfelder Muenster, Germany]&lt;/kbd&gt; with https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/img/rieselfelder1.jpg --  Generated Link for '''[https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame/wikicommons2aframe.html?domain=weblink&amp;skyimage=https%3A%2F%2Fniebert.github.io%2FHuginSample%2Fimg%2Frieselfelder1.jpg&amp;useaframecode=yes&amp;aframecode=%7B%0D%0A++%22a-text%22%3A+%7B%0D%0A++++%22font%22%3A%22kelsonsans%22+%2C%0D%0A++++%22value%22%3A%22Generated+with+WikiCommons2AFrame%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22color%22%3A%22blue%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22width%22%3A%226%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22position%22%3A%22-3.5+2.25+-2.5%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22rotation%22%3A%220+15+0%22%0D%0A++%7D%0D%0A%7D%0D%0A 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image]'''
** '''(WebLink)''' &lt;kbd&gt;[https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/img/durlach_saumarkt.jpg  Saumarkt Karlsruhe-Durlach, Germany]&lt;/kbd&gt; with https://niebert.github.io/HuginSample/img/durlach_saumarkt.jpg --  Generated Link for '''[https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame/wikicommons2aframe.html?domain=weblink&amp;skyimage=https%3A%2F%2Fniebert.github.io%2FHuginSample%2Fimg%2Fdurlach_saumarkt.jpg&amp;useaframecode=yes&amp;aframecode=%7B%0D%0A++%22a-text%22%3A+%7B%0D%0A++++%22font%22%3A%22kelsonsans%22+%2C%0D%0A++++%22value%22%3A%22Durlach+-+Saurmarkt%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22color%22%3A%22white%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22width%22%3A%226%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22position%22%3A%22-3.5+2.25+-2.5%22%2C%0D%0A++++%22rotation%22%3A%220+15+0%22%0D%0A++%7D%0D%0A%7D%0D%0A  360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image]'''
* '''(Text in AFrame)''' Edit the visible text in the 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image, the color, the position, ... and then display the the 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image with button.
* '''(Copy URL)''' Copy the link into the Wikiversity where you need a 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Image.
* '''([[Real World Lab]])''' Explore the concept of a [[Real World Lab]] and define the application of 360&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt;-Images for additional digital augmentation of a participatory environment of the [[Real World Lab]].

== Test 360-Degree Images with your Smartphone ==
Click on one of the spherical 360 degree image and move your smartphone up an down or turn your smartphone. 
* Does your browser and operating system perform the appropriate turns and rotation of the spherical image (i.e. turn the smartphone horizontally or vertically and check if the VR image in AFrame turns according to the 360 degree image?
* Try with different browsers (e.g. Chrome, Firefox, Safari, ... on Android and iOS)

== External Links ==
* [https://niebert.github.io/WikiCommons2AFrame WikiCommons2AFrame] to create links for Wikiversity and Wikipedia for 360 Degree Images in [https://aframe.io AFrame]

== See also ==
* [[Hugin|Hugin Create spherical 360-degree images with your own camera]]
* [[Real World Lab]]
* [[AppLSAC]]
* [[equirectangular projection|Equirectangular Projection]]
* [[3D Modelling/Create 3D Models/360-Degree AFrame]]

== References ==

[[Category:AFrame]]
[[Category:Real World Lab]]

&lt;noinclude&gt; [[de:3D-Modellierung/3D-Modelle_erstellen/Wiki 360-Grad-Bilder]] &lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
      <sha1>ip6oohhphmghsvlrkyydtw0ozq4hde1</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Gorlapraveen123</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>242405</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412827</id>
      <parentid>2412600</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T13:21:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>OhanaUnited</username>
        <id>18921</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* WikiJournal Preprints/Algorithms for Categorical-Generative Analysis: Implementing an Inductive, Comparative Method for Social Processes based on Formal Language Theory */ Reply</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5386" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Gorlapraveen123!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOUI JS signature icon LTR.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [irc://irc.freenode.net/wikiversity-en &lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity-en&lt;/kbd&gt;].
* Follow Wikiversity on [[twitter]] (http://twitter.com/Wikiversity) and [[identi.ca]] (http://identi.ca/group/wikiversity).
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 22:46, 24 November 2018 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== [[WikiJournal Preprints/Algorithms for Categorical-Generative Analysis: Implementing an Inductive, Comparative Method for Social Processes based on Formal Language Theory]] ==

Hello Gorla. We are trying to tackle the backlog of submissions. I noticed that you signed up to arrange for the search of peer reviewers. I was wondering what is the status of this article? The author made some changes to this submission back in March so I don't think they will be abandoning/withdrawing the submissions. If you are no longer able to coordinator for the search of peer reviewers, please let me know so that I can reassign it to someone else. Thanks. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 20:11, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

:Hello @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]]. I have sent the multiple invitation to the experts in this specialization and couldn't get the positive response from them. Some of them have agreed and couldn't make it to the review. Timely, I have copied the status of searching for the reviewer to EiC. I highly recommend to re-assign it to someone who can find more reviewers for this. Thanks for your message. [[User:Gorlapraveen123|Gorlapraveen123]] ([[User talk:Gorlapraveen123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gorlapraveen123|contribs]]) 02:48, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
::Many thanks for your effort and prompt reply. Would you mind giving it one more shot since it was nearly a year ago when this was submitted? If you want, I can assign a few [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] to assist with your search of peer reviewers in this field. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 04:18, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
:::Hello @[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]] I am trying to reach-out the few more. Can I have any assistance here. [[User:Gorlapraveen123|Gorlapraveen123]] ([[User talk:Gorlapraveen123|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Gorlapraveen123|contribs]]) 09:35, 8 August 2022 (UTC)
::::Certainly! Most of our tech editors are attending Wikimania this week. I will assign them to assist you next week. Thank you. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 13:21, 9 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>bq3apgsg1d6lp7l3r7ydhvvgoijqrhg</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>264908</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412921</id>
      <parentid>2410982</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:11:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Update for 2022</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1983" xml:space="preserve">{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials|Tutorial 02: Wiki editing|second}}
{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}}
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Complete2}} --&gt;
&lt;!-- {{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/In development}} --&gt;

==Overview==
This tutorial:
# teaches [[Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing#Basic skills|basic wiki editing skills]]

==[[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Basic skills|Basic skills]]==
{{:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Basic skills}}

==Next steps==
&lt;!-- Update link each year --&gt;
# Sign up for (or negotiate) a [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|book chapter topic]] 
# Develop an initial chapter plan (topic development) consisting of:
## main headings
## bullet-points about key points for each section
# Check out these [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Examples|examples of topic development submissions which received 100%]].

==Recording==
* Tutorial 02 recording TBA (2022)
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/bfbe6c14113a44dda4dd83ac0b45b7fc Tutorial 02 recording] (2021)&lt;!--
* [https://au-lti.bbcollab.com/recording/c99554f593a64f1ea0ea9f737e754d50 Tutorial 02 recording] (2020)
--&gt;

==See also==
;Additional tutorial material
* [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity|Wikiversity skills]]

;Book chapters
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book|Motivation and emotion book]]
&lt;!--
;Wikipedia
--&gt;
;Lecture
* [[Motivation and emotion/Lectures/Historical development and assessment skills|Historical development and assessment skills]]

;Tutorials
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Topic selection|Topic selection]] (Previous tutorial)
* [[{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|2}}/Physiological needs|Physiological needs]] (Next tutorial)

;Admin
* [[/Instructor notes/]]

==External links==
# [http://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLVx9pX-VnGVjAVQo8Qv_ohNP5r7JuzhRo Wikipedia editing basics] (YouTube)
&lt;noinclude&gt;{{Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Navigation}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Tutorials/Wiki editing]]</text>
      <sha1>gujly8ffuufhwzk48ube94knflqyz9n</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Mohamed Bourebala</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>267054</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412822</id>
      <parentid>2391648</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:51:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MediaWiki message delivery</username>
        <id>983498</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter emailWikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="38674" xml:space="preserve">== إشعار ترجمة: Tech/Server switch 2020Tech/Server switch 2020 ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Tech/Server switch 2020|Tech/Server switch 2020]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch+2020&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch+2020&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:03, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Path slopu@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia CHWikimedia CH ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia CH|Wikimedia CH]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+CH&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+CH&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 07:43, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Eihel@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Project wiki representativesProject wiki representatives ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Project wiki representatives|Project wiki representatives]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Project+wiki+representatives&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Project+wiki+representatives&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-02-14.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The five year old strategy process has resulted in recommendations. After Global Conversations the number one priority is to establish an Interim Global Council, who will draft a Movement Charter, which will lead to the formation of a Global Council.

Please help in translating the concise page &quot;Project wiki representatives&quot; which asks contributor to select for each project wiki a representative, who will help in implementing the first strategic priority.&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:10, 6 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Ad Huikeshoven@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/JuneVisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June|VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-VisualEditor%2FNewsletter%2F2021%2FJune&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-VisualEditor%2FNewsletter%2F2021%2FJune&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-06-20.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;This short newsletter is good news about posting comments on wiki.  You can try out the &quot;Discussion tools&quot; in the Beta Features here at Meta-Wiki, too:  [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures]].  Thank you!
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 00:16, 16 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Whatamidoing (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Template:InternetArchiveBot headerTemplate:InternetArchiveBot header ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Template:InternetArchiveBot header|Template:InternetArchiveBot header]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AInternetArchiveBot+header&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AInternetArchiveBot+header&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The InternetArchiveBot team has come up with a new header for its documentation and user pages designed to make important links as easy to find as possible. We use this header on the bot's global user page, and we have it set up to show the labels in your interface language, meaning that the labels will appear in Russian on Russian Wikipedia (unless you override the interface language).

In order for this feature to work, we need translations of those labels. There are only six labels:
* About the Bot
* Report Problem
* Contact Us
* Documentation
* Configure
* Disable Bot

If you know how to say those things in another language, you can help! And your work will make it easier for non-English speakers to use InternetArchiveBot.
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 16:20, 29 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Harej@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: InternetArchiveBot/ProblemInternetArchiveBot/Problem ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:InternetArchiveBot/Problem|InternetArchiveBot/Problem]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-InternetArchiveBot%2FProblem&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-InternetArchiveBot%2FProblem&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Thank you to everyone who translated &quot;Template:InternetArchiveBot header&quot;. The template is now available in 64 languages (including variants)! Now when people visit the bot's user page on those language wikis, they will be greeted with navigation options in their language. (We have since added one more link to the header – &quot;Translate&quot; – translations are appreciated!)

This page I am requesting translations for is the &quot;report problem&quot; page for InternetArchiveBot, directing the user to different places depending on the kind of problem they are having. There are a total of 17 terms to translate, consisting of short phrases and sentences. This page is directly linked from the header on InternetArchiveBot's global user page, so your work will likely be seen.&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 23:15, 12 July 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Harej@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/VotingWikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2FVoting&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2FVoting&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:22, 2 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:KCVelaga (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Hack4OpenGLAMHack4OpenGLAM ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Hack4OpenGLAM|Hack4OpenGLAM]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Hack4OpenGLAM&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Hack4OpenGLAM&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-09-20.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Welcome to translate the messages of the Hack4OpenGLAM hackathon, taking place at the Creative Commons Summit 20–24 September! Your work is appreciated!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:25, 10 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Susannaanas@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/ShortWikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2F2021-09-07%2F2021+Election+Results%2FShort&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2F2021-09-07%2F2021+Election+Results%2FShort&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي عالية.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-09-07.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;This short text (125 words) is meant to announce the results of the board elections on September, 7 to as much communities and volunteers as possible on such short notice in their native tongue. Please help us to make that happen! &lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 19:04, 6 September 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Lingua LibreLingua Libre ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Lingua Libre|Lingua Libre]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Lingua+Libre&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Lingua+Libre&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-11-30.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:34, 18 September 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:WikiLucas00@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translationMovement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation|Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElection+translation&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElection+translation&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-08.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;2 sentences, 21 words! 

Movement Charter Drafting Committee Elections are coming. Translating the voting tool SecurePoll in as many native tongues is crucial for this. But: there are two sentences we need to be translated for this. Please support the effort to make this a global experience. Thank you for helping out!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 14:04, 6 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global messageGrants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message|Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Grants%3AMSIG%2FAnnouncements%2F2021%2FGlobal+message&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Grants%3AMSIG%2FAnnouncements%2F2021%2FGlobal+message&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-26.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hi everbody! The [[Movement Strategy and Governance|Movement Strategy and Governance team]] is announcing a Movement Strategy Implementation Grants program to the communities. 

We want to reach out to as many communities as possible, calling out volunteers globally. Please support us and help translating the announcement in all the languages you speak, '''it is only 50 words'''. We will send it out as a mass message later.

Beyond this: if you would like to, please check out the program and spread the word. We would appreciate your help in sharing this news in social media channels of your community.

We are grateful for all your support, you are awesome!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 14:24, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/AnnouncementMovement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement|Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElections%2FResults%2FAnnouncement&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElections%2FResults%2FAnnouncement&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The announcement of the members of the Movement Charter Drafting Committee is coming close. We would like to announce the results in as many languages as possible and kindly ask for your support. It is '''less than 100 words''', we would appreciate your help a lot and it is just a few minutes. 

Thank you for your continuous support! 

&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:31, 29 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees electionsWikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections|Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+Board+of+Trustees%2FCall+for+feedback%3A+Board+of+Trustees+elections&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+Board+of+Trustees%2FCall+for+feedback%3A+Board+of+Trustees+elections&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-01-10.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;''This year four seats of the WMF Board of Trustees are to be newly filled and there will be a Call for Feedback about the Board of Trustees selection processes from 10 January to 7 February 2022.''

''The [[Movement Strategy and Governance]] team is supporting this Call for Feedback. For widest outreach across the Wikiverse we kindly ask you to support this by helping us out with additional translations.''

'''Postscriptum: During the last year many of you have helped us a lot to reach out to many different communities by translating in dozens of languages. We are utterly grateful for this - thanks to all of you for your ongoing support! You are the best!'''
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 17:25, 7 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Template:Education/News/ContentsTemplate:Education/News/Contents ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Template:Education/News/Contents|Template:Education/News/Contents]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AEducation%2FNews%2FContents&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AEducation%2FNews%2FContents&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 08:48, 22 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:ZI Jony@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback AnnouncementLeadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement|Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Leadership+Development+Task+Force%2FCall+for+Feedback+Announcement&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Leadership+Development+Task+Force%2FCall+for+Feedback+Announcement&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-02-07.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Good day to you from [[Movement Strategy and Governance]]! The coming weeks see a Call for Feedback concerning the creation of a movementwide [[Leadership_Development_Task_Force]]. We are announcing it by a short message of '''only 60 words''' to be distributed globally on Tuesday. Global distribution asks for native language support, so we kindly ask for your help to have as many translations as possible available. It should be a few minutes of work only. Thank you very much for your help, [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 10:13, 4 February 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:13, 4 February 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: ContribuLing 2022ContribuLing 2022 ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:ContribuLing 2022|ContribuLing 2022]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:05, 12 February 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:WikiLucas00@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelinesUniversal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Universal+Code+of+Conduct%2FEnforcement+guidelines&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Universal+Code+of+Conduct%2FEnforcement+guidelines&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 15:18, 22 February 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Ericliu1912@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy MonthUkraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Ukraine%27s+Cultural+Diplomacy+Month&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Ukraine%27s+Cultural+Diplomacy+Month&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 01:50, 2 March 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Juan90264@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: ContribuLing 2022/ProgramContribuLing 2022/Program ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:ContribuLing 2022/Program|ContribuLing 2022/Program]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022%2FProgram&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022%2FProgram&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-03-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 15:49, 26 March 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:WikiLucas00@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw GuidelinesWikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines|Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+chapters%2FCreation+guide%2FBylaw+Guidelines&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+chapters%2FCreation+guide%2FBylaw+Guidelines&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hello translators. 

We have created a new resource to help affiliates draft their by-laws and we need your help to translate these.

Best regards &lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:46, 21 April 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DNdubane (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: GLAM School/QuestionsGLAM School/Questions ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:GLAM School/Questions|GLAM School/Questions]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-GLAM+School%2FQuestions&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-GLAM+School%2FQuestions&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-12-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Thank you for the wonderful work you are doing!

I have made a couple of small modifications to the existing text and added one new section. I hope you would be willing to have a look at those.

Thank you again!

Cheers, Susanna&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 07:07, 29 April 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Susannaanas@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter emailWikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي عالية.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hi all!

The community vote of this year's Board Elections are close. As always voter mails will be sent out. To invite as many community members as possible in their native tongue your help is very much appreciated. While there are already plenty of translations we would appreciate you to check for languages still missing and to contribute translations for these.

The mails are short, just a bit about two times '''200 words''', a few minutes of work. 

Your support is very important as it helps communities to learn about the election and to cast their vote.

Best,
Denis Barthel (WMF)
(Movement Strategy and Governance)&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:51, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>evv322zevyji0t4akyug0whqcmwyjri</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412870</id>
      <parentid>2412822</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T21:51:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>MediaWiki message delivery</username>
        <id>983498</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter emailWikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email */ new section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="40865" xml:space="preserve">== إشعار ترجمة: Tech/Server switch 2020Tech/Server switch 2020 ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Tech/Server switch 2020|Tech/Server switch 2020]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch+2020&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Tech%2FServer+switch+2020&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:03, 15 August 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Path slopu@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia CHWikimedia CH ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia CH|Wikimedia CH]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+CH&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+CH&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 07:43, 17 December 2020 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Eihel@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Project wiki representativesProject wiki representatives ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Project wiki representatives|Project wiki representatives]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Project+wiki+representatives&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Project+wiki+representatives&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-02-14.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The five year old strategy process has resulted in recommendations. After Global Conversations the number one priority is to establish an Interim Global Council, who will draft a Movement Charter, which will lead to the formation of a Global Council.

Please help in translating the concise page &quot;Project wiki representatives&quot; which asks contributor to select for each project wiki a representative, who will help in implementing the first strategic priority.&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:10, 6 February 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Ad Huikeshoven@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/JuneVisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June|VisualEditor/Newsletter/2021/June]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-VisualEditor%2FNewsletter%2F2021%2FJune&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-VisualEditor%2FNewsletter%2F2021%2FJune&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-06-20.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;This short newsletter is good news about posting comments on wiki.  You can try out the &quot;Discussion tools&quot; in the Beta Features here at Meta-Wiki, too:  [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures]].  Thank you!
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 00:16, 16 June 2021 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Template:InternetArchiveBot headerTemplate:InternetArchiveBot header ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Template:InternetArchiveBot header|Template:InternetArchiveBot header]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AInternetArchiveBot+header&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AInternetArchiveBot+header&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The InternetArchiveBot team has come up with a new header for its documentation and user pages designed to make important links as easy to find as possible. We use this header on the bot's global user page, and we have it set up to show the labels in your interface language, meaning that the labels will appear in Russian on Russian Wikipedia (unless you override the interface language).

In order for this feature to work, we need translations of those labels. There are only six labels:
* About the Bot
* Report Problem
* Contact Us
* Documentation
* Configure
* Disable Bot

If you know how to say those things in another language, you can help! And your work will make it easier for non-English speakers to use InternetArchiveBot.
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 16:20, 29 June 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Harej@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: InternetArchiveBot/ProblemInternetArchiveBot/Problem ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:InternetArchiveBot/Problem|InternetArchiveBot/Problem]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-InternetArchiveBot%2FProblem&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-InternetArchiveBot%2FProblem&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Thank you to everyone who translated &quot;Template:InternetArchiveBot header&quot;. The template is now available in 64 languages (including variants)! Now when people visit the bot's user page on those language wikis, they will be greeted with navigation options in their language. (We have since added one more link to the header – &quot;Translate&quot; – translations are appreciated!)

This page I am requesting translations for is the &quot;report problem&quot; page for InternetArchiveBot, directing the user to different places depending on the kind of problem they are having. There are a total of 17 terms to translate, consisting of short phrases and sentences. This page is directly linked from the header on InternetArchiveBot's global user page, so your work will likely be seen.&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 23:15, 12 July 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Harej@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/VotingWikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/Voting]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2FVoting&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2FVoting&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:22, 2 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:KCVelaga (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Hack4OpenGLAMHack4OpenGLAM ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Hack4OpenGLAM|Hack4OpenGLAM]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Hack4OpenGLAM&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Hack4OpenGLAM&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-09-20.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Welcome to translate the messages of the Hack4OpenGLAM hackathon, taking place at the Creative Commons Summit 20–24 September! Your work is appreciated!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:25, 10 August 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:Susannaanas@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/ShortWikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2021/2021-09-07/2021 Election Results/Short]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2F2021-09-07%2F2021+Election+Results%2FShort&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2021%2F2021-09-07%2F2021+Election+Results%2FShort&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي عالية.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-09-07.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;This short text (125 words) is meant to announce the results of the board elections on September, 7 to as much communities and volunteers as possible on such short notice in their native tongue. Please help us to make that happen! &lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 19:04, 6 September 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Lingua LibreLingua Libre ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Lingua Libre|Lingua Libre]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Lingua+Libre&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Lingua+Libre&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-11-30.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:34, 18 September 2021 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translationMovement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation|Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Election translation]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElection+translation&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElection+translation&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-08.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;2 sentences, 21 words! 

Movement Charter Drafting Committee Elections are coming. Translating the voting tool SecurePoll in as many native tongues is crucial for this. But: there are two sentences we need to be translated for this. Please support the effort to make this a global experience. Thank you for helping out!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 14:04, 6 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global messageGrants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message|Grants:MSIG/Announcements/2021/Global message]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Grants%3AMSIG%2FAnnouncements%2F2021%2FGlobal+message&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Grants%3AMSIG%2FAnnouncements%2F2021%2FGlobal+message&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-26.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hi everbody! The [[Movement Strategy and Governance|Movement Strategy and Governance team]] is announcing a Movement Strategy Implementation Grants program to the communities. 

We want to reach out to as many communities as possible, calling out volunteers globally. Please support us and help translating the announcement in all the languages you speak, '''it is only 50 words'''. We will send it out as a mass message later.

Beyond this: if you would like to, please check out the program and spread the word. We would appreciate your help in sharing this news in social media channels of your community.

We are grateful for all your support, you are awesome!&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 14:24, 21 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/AnnouncementMovement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement|Movement Charter/Drafting Committee/Elections/Results/Announcement]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElections%2FResults%2FAnnouncement&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Movement+Charter%2FDrafting+Committee%2FElections%2FResults%2FAnnouncement&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2021-10-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;The announcement of the members of the Movement Charter Drafting Committee is coming close. We would like to announce the results in as many languages as possible and kindly ask for your support. It is '''less than 100 words''', we would appreciate your help a lot and it is just a few minutes. 

Thank you for your continuous support! 

&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:31, 29 October 2021 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees electionsWikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections|Wikimedia Foundation Board of Trustees/Call for feedback: Board of Trustees elections]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+Board+of+Trustees%2FCall+for+feedback%3A+Board+of+Trustees+elections&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+Board+of+Trustees%2FCall+for+feedback%3A+Board+of+Trustees+elections&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-01-10.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;''This year four seats of the WMF Board of Trustees are to be newly filled and there will be a Call for Feedback about the Board of Trustees selection processes from 10 January to 7 February 2022.''

''The [[Movement Strategy and Governance]] team is supporting this Call for Feedback. For widest outreach across the Wikiverse we kindly ask you to support this by helping us out with additional translations.''

'''Postscriptum: During the last year many of you have helped us a lot to reach out to many different communities by translating in dozens of languages. We are utterly grateful for this - thanks to all of you for your ongoing support! You are the best!'''
&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 17:25, 7 January 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Template:Education/News/ContentsTemplate:Education/News/Contents ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Template:Education/News/Contents|Template:Education/News/Contents]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AEducation%2FNews%2FContents&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Template%3AEducation%2FNews%2FContents&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 08:48, 22 January 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback AnnouncementLeadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement|Leadership Development Task Force/Call for Feedback Announcement]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Leadership+Development+Task+Force%2FCall+for+Feedback+Announcement&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Leadership+Development+Task+Force%2FCall+for+Feedback+Announcement&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-02-07.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Good day to you from [[Movement Strategy and Governance]]! The coming weeks see a Call for Feedback concerning the creation of a movementwide [[Leadership_Development_Task_Force]]. We are announcing it by a short message of '''only 60 words''' to be distributed globally on Tuesday. Global distribution asks for native language support, so we kindly ask for your help to have as many translations as possible available. It should be a few minutes of work only. Thank you very much for your help, [[User:MediaWiki message delivery|MediaWiki message delivery]] ([[User talk:MediaWiki message delivery|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/MediaWiki message delivery|contribs]]) 10:13, 4 February 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 10:13, 4 February 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: ContribuLing 2022ContribuLing 2022 ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:ContribuLing 2022|ContribuLing 2022]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:05, 12 February 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelinesUniversal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines|Universal Code of Conduct/Enforcement guidelines]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Universal+Code+of+Conduct%2FEnforcement+guidelines&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Universal+Code+of+Conduct%2FEnforcement+guidelines&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 15:18, 22 February 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy MonthUkraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month|Ukraine's Cultural Diplomacy Month]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Ukraine%27s+Cultural+Diplomacy+Month&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Ukraine%27s+Cultural+Diplomacy+Month&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 01:50, 2 March 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: ContribuLing 2022/ProgramContribuLing 2022/Program ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:ContribuLing 2022/Program|ContribuLing 2022/Program]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022%2FProgram&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-ContribuLing+2022%2FProgram&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.
الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-03-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 15:49, 26 March 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw GuidelinesWikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines|Wikimedia chapters/Creation guide/Bylaw Guidelines]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+chapters%2FCreation+guide%2FBylaw+Guidelines&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+chapters%2FCreation+guide%2FBylaw+Guidelines&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي متوسطة.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hello translators. 

We have created a new resource to help affiliates draft their by-laws and we need your help to translate these.

Best regards &lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 13:46, 21 April 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: GLAM School/QuestionsGLAM School/Questions ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:GLAM School/Questions|GLAM School/Questions]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-GLAM+School%2FQuestions&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-GLAM+School%2FQuestions&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]


الموعد النهائي لترجمة هذه الصفحة هو 2022-12-31.

&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Thank you for the wonderful work you are doing!

I have made a couple of small modifications to the existing text and added one new section. I hope you would be willing to have a look at those.

Thank you again!

Cheers, Susanna&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 07:07, 29 April 2022 (UTC)
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== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter emailWikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي عالية.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hi all!

The community vote of this year's Board Elections are close. As always voter mails will be sent out. To invite as many community members as possible in their native tongue your help is very much appreciated. While there are already plenty of translations we would appreciate you to check for languages still missing and to contribute translations for these.

The mails are short, just a bit about two times '''200 words''', a few minutes of work. 

Your support is very important as it helps communities to learn about the election and to cast their vote.

Best,
Denis Barthel (WMF)
(Movement Strategy and Governance)&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 12:51, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;

== إشعار ترجمة: Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter emailWikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email ==

مرحبا Mohamed Bourebala،

أنت تتلقى هذا البريد الإلكتروني لأنك اشتركت كمترجم إلى العربية و الفرنسية في Meta.

الصفحة [[:metawikipedia:Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email|Wikimedia Foundation elections/2022/Announcement/Board voter email]] متاحة للترجمة; يمكنك ترجمتها هنا:
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=ar&amp;action=page ترجم إلى العربية]
* [https://meta.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Translate&amp;group=page-Wikimedia+Foundation+elections%2F2022%2FAnnouncement%2FBoard+voter+email&amp;language=fr&amp;action=page ترجم إلى الفرنسية]

أولوية هذه الصفحة هي عالية.


&lt;div lang=&quot;en&quot; class=&quot;mw-content-ltr&quot;&gt;Hi all!

The community vote of this year's Board Elections are close. As always voter mails will be sent out. To invite as many community members as possible in their native tongue your help is very much appreciated. While there are already plenty of translations we would appreciate you to check for languages still missing and to contribute translations for these.

The mails are short, just a bit about two times '''200 words''', a few minutes of work. 

Your support is very important as it helps communities to learn about the election and to cast their vote.

Best,
Denis Barthel (WMF)
(Movement Strategy and Governance)&lt;/div&gt;

مساعدتك موضع تقدير كبير; يساعدك المترجمون مثلك Meta على العمل 
كمجتمع متعدد اللغات حقا.

يمكنك [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:TranslatorSignup تغيير تفضيلات الإشعارات].

شكرا لك! 
إداريو ترجمة Meta&amp;rlm;, 21:51, 9 August 2022 (UTC)
&lt;!-- Message sent by User:DBarthel (WMF)@metawiki using the list at https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:NotifyTranslators --&gt;</text>
      <sha1>dcs3d4j950i43e6heswzhig0j78rgoe</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:Natematic</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>267148</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412836</id>
      <parentid>2412081</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T14:23:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Natematic</username>
        <id>794001</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* WikiJournal Preprints/A Survey on Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4) */ Reply</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="5428" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Natematic!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOUI JS signature icon LTR.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
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&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 02:30, 18 August 2020 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
{{Robelbox/close}}

== [[WikiJournal Preprints/A Survey on Internet Protocol version 4 (IPv4)]] ==

Hello Emanuele. We are trying to tackle the backlog of submissions. I noticed that you signed up to arrange for the search of peer reviewers. I was wondering what is the status of this article? The author made some changes to this submission back in March so I don't think they will be abandoning/withdrawing the submissions. If you are no longer able to coordinator for the search of peer reviewers, please let me know so that I can reassign it to someone else. Thanks. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 20:15, 10 July 2022 (UTC)

:Hello Andrew, I informed Thomas and Kate by email that I would not be able to work for some time. I can resume my task on the paper at the end of July in case you can't find another editor. [[User:Natematic|Natematic]] ([[User talk:Natematic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Natematic|contribs]]) 10:03, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
::Thanks for the prompt reply. We can wait for a bit. If you need additional help, I can assign a few [[WikiJournal User Group/Technical editors|technical editors]] who can assist with your search of peer reviewers for this article. [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 19:42, 11 July 2022 (UTC)
:::@[[User:OhanaUnited|OhanaUnited]], this is just a notice that I have already found a reviewer (granting two months of time to him), and I'm looking for a couple more. [[User:Natematic|Natematic]] ([[User talk:Natematic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Natematic|contribs]]) 12:17, 3 August 2022 (UTC)
::::Terrific. Would you like me to assign one to two technical editors to you to assist with the peer reviewer search? [[User:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: #0000FF;&quot;&gt;OhanaUnited&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]][[User talk:OhanaUnited|&lt;b&gt;&lt;span style=&quot;color: green;&quot;&gt;&lt;sup&gt;Talk page&lt;/sup&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;/b&gt;]] 18:04, 3 August 2022 (UTC)
:::::I am first checking for potential reviewers among colleagues, if I don't get any further reviewer in a few days I'll get back to you. [[User:Natematic|Natematic]] ([[User talk:Natematic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Natematic|contribs]]) 09:41, 5 August 2022 (UTC)
::::::Just a heads up that I found 2 reviewers, which should submit their reviews by the end of September, so we should be good. [[User:Natematic|Natematic]] ([[User talk:Natematic|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Natematic|contribs]]) 14:23, 9 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>g4psq5gnoiyily3i66tdvwympf6ff40</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Topics in Special Relativity/Lorentz transformation (general)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>267586</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413087</id>
      <parentid>2411873</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T06:35:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D.H</username>
        <id>52339</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{anchor|Jacobi}} Jacobi (1827, 1833/34) – Homogeneous coordinates */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="87307" xml:space="preserve">{{../Lorentz transformation (header)}}
==Most general Lorentz transformations==
===General quadratic form===
The general [[w:quadratic form]] ''q(x)'' with coefficients of a [[w:symmetric matrix]] '''A''', the associated [[w:bilinear form]] ''b(x,y)'', and the [[w:linear transformation]]s of ''q(x)'' and ''b(x,y)'' into ''q(x′)'' and ''b(x′,y′)'' using the [[w:transformation matrix]] '''g''', can be written as&lt;ref&gt;Bôcher (1907), chapter X&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\begin{align}q=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}x_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{x}\end{align}
 &amp; =q'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\
b=\sum_{0}^{n}A_{ij}x_{i}y_{j}=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{y} &amp; =b'=\mathbf{x}^{\mathrm{\prime T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}'\cdot\mathbf{y}'
\end{align}
\quad\left(A_{ij}=A_{ji}\right)\\
\hline \left.\begin{align}x_{i}^{\prime} &amp; =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}x_{j}=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
x_{i} &amp; =\sum_{j=0}^{n}g_{ij}^{(-1)}x_{j}^{\prime}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\right|\mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}=\mathbf{A}'
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|Q1}}}}

The case ''n=1'' is the [[w:binary quadratic form]] introduced by [[#Lagrange|Lagrange (1773)]] and [[#Gauss|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=2'' is the ternary quadratic form introduced by [[#Gauss2|Gauss (1798/1801)]], ''n=3'' is the quaternary quadratic form etc.

===Most general Lorentz transformation===
The general Lorentz transformation follows from ({{equationNote|Q1}}) by setting '''A'''='''A′'''=diag(-1,1,...,1) and det '''g'''=±1. It forms an [[w:indefinite orthogonal group]] called the [[w:Lorentz group]] O(1,n), while the case det '''g'''=+1 forms the restricted [[w:Lorentz group]] SO(1,n). The quadratic form ''q(x)'' becomes the [[w:Lorentz interval]] in terms of an [[w:indefinite quadratic form]] of [[w:Minkowski space]] (being a special case of [[w:pseudo-Euclidean space]]), and the associated bilinear form ''b(x)'' becomes the [[w:Minkowski inner product]]:&lt;ref name=ratcliffe&gt;Ratcliffe (1994), 3.1 and Theorem 3.1.4 and Exercise 3.1&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Naimark (1964), 2 in four dimensions&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime2}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime2}\\
-x_{0}y_{0}+\cdots+x_{n}y_{n} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}y_{0}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}^{\prime}y_{n}^{\prime}
\end{align}
\\
\hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{x}'=\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\downarrow\\
\begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}+\dots+x_{n}g_{0n}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}g_{1n}\\
 &amp; \dots\\
x_{n}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{n0}+x_{1}g_{n1}+\dots+x_{n}g_{nn}
\end{align}
\\
\\
\mathbf{x}=\mathbf{g}^{-1}\cdot\mathbf{x}'\\
\downarrow\\
\begin{align}x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}-\dots-x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n0}\\
x_{1} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{n1}\\
 &amp; \dots\\
x_{n} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{0n}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{1n}+\dots+x_{n}^{\prime}g_{nn}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}}\cdot\mathbf{A} &amp; =\mathbf{g}^{-1}\\
\mathbf{g}^{{\rm T}}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g} &amp; =\mathbf{A}\\
\mathbf{g}\cdot\mathbf{A}\cdot\mathbf{g}^{\mathrm{T}} &amp; =\mathbf{A}\\
\\
\end{align}
\\
\begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} &amp; =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad &amp; (j=k=0)\\
1\quad &amp; (j=k&gt;0)\\
0\quad &amp; (j\ne k)
\end{align}
\right.\\
\sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} &amp; =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad &amp; (i=k=0)\\
1\quad &amp; (i=k&gt;0)\\
0\quad &amp; (i\ne k)
\end{align}
\right.
\end{align}
\end{matrix}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|1a}}}}

Such general Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]] in order to simplify computations of [[w:elliptic function]]s and integrals.&lt;ref&gt;Musen (1970) pointed out the intimate connection of Hill's scalar development and Minkowski's pseudo-Euclidean 3D space.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Touma et al. (2009) showed the analogy between Gauss and Hill's equations and Lorentz transformations, see eq. 22-29.&lt;/ref&gt; They were also used by [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]] and [[#Weddle|Weddle (1847)]] to describe relations on hyperboloids, as well as by [[#Poincare|Poincaré (1881)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1881/82)]], [[#Picard|Picard (1882, 1884)]], [[#Killing|Killing (1885, 1893)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Hausdorff|Hausdorff (1899)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]], [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] to describe [[w:hyperbolic motion]]s (i.e. rigid motions in the [[w:hyperbolic plane]] or [[w:hyperbolic space]]), which were expressed in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] satisfying the relation &lt;math&gt;-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt; or in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] of [[w:projective geometry]] using the &quot;absolute&quot; form &lt;math&gt;-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1885), p. 71&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Müller (1910), p. 661, in particular footnote 247.&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Sommerville (1911), p. 286, section K6.&lt;/ref&gt; In addition, [[w:infinitesimal transformation]]s related to the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions were given in terms of Weierstrass coordinates &lt;math&gt;-x_{0}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt; by [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]].

===Most general Lorentz transformation of velocity===

If &lt;math&gt;x_{i},\ x_{i}^{\prime}&lt;/math&gt; in ({{equationNote|1a}}) are interpreted as [[w:homogeneous coordinates]], then the corresponding inhomogenous coordinates &lt;math&gt;u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}&lt;/math&gt; follow by

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{x_{s}}{x_{0}}=u_{s},\ \frac{x_{s}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}=u_{s}^{\prime}\ (s=1,2\dots n)&lt;/math&gt;

so that the Lorentz transformation becomes a [[w:homography]] inside the [[w:unit sphere]], which [[w:John Lighton Synge]] called &quot;the most general formula for the composition of velocities&quot; in terms of special relativity (the transformation matrix '''g''' stays the same as in ({{equationNote|1a}})):&lt;ref&gt;Synge (1955), p. 129 for ''n''=3&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}u_{s}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{g_{s0}+g_{s1}u_{1}+\dots+g_{sn}u_{n}}{g_{00}+g_{01}u_{1}+\dots+g_{0n}u_{n}}\\
\\
u_{s} &amp; =\frac{-g_{0s}+g_{1s}u_{1}^{\prime}+\dots+g_{ns}u_{n}^{\prime}}{g_{00}-g_{10}u_{1}^{\prime}-\dots-g_{n0}u_{n}^{\prime}}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\sum_{i=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{ik}-g_{0j}g_{0k} &amp; =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad &amp; (j=k=0)\\
1\quad &amp; (j=k&gt;0)\\
0\quad &amp; (j\ne k)
\end{align}
\right.\\
\sum_{j=1}^{n}g_{ij}g_{kj}-g_{i0}g_{k0} &amp; =\left\{ \begin{align}-1\quad &amp; (i=k=0)\\
1\quad &amp; (i=k&gt;0)\\
0\quad &amp; (i\ne k)
\end{align}
\right.
\end{align}
\right.&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|1b}}}}

Such Lorentz transformations for various dimensions were used by [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827–1833)]], [[#Lebesgue|Lebesgue (1837)]], [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[#Somov|Somov (1863)]], [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[#Callandreau|Callandreau (1885)]] in order to simplify computations of elliptic functions and integrals, by [[#Picard|Picard (1882-1884)]] in relation to [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic form]]s, or by [[#Woods2|Woods (1901, 1903)]] in terms of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry. In addition, infinitesimal transformations in terms of the [[w:Lie algebra]] of the group of hyperbolic motions leaving invariant the unit sphere &lt;math&gt;-1+u_{1}^{\prime2}+\cdots+u_{n}^{\prime2}=0&lt;/math&gt; were given by [[#Lie3|Lie (1885-1893) and Werner (1889)]] and [[#Killing3|Killing (1888-1897)]].

==Historical notation==
===Lagrange (1773) – Binary quadratic forms {{anchor|Lagrange}}===
After the invariance of the sum of squares under linear substitutions was discussed by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]], the general expressions of a [[w:binary quadratic form]] and its transformation was formulated by [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1773/75) as follows&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lagrange (1773/75), section 22&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}py^{2}+2qyz+rz^{2}=Ps^{2}+2Qsx+Rx^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}y &amp; =Ms+Nx\\
z &amp; =ms+nx
\end{align}
\left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}P &amp; =pM^{2}+2qMm+rm^{2}\\
Q &amp; =pMN+q(Mn+Nm)+rmn\\
R &amp; =pN^{2}+2qNn+rn^{2}
\end{align}
\\
\downarrow\\
PR-Q^{2}=\left(pr-q^{2}\right)(Mn-Nm)^{2}
\end{matrix}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. The Lorentz interval &lt;math&gt;-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(p,q,r)=(P,Q,R)=(1,0,-1)''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gauss}} Gauss (1798–1818)===

===={{anchor|Gauss1}} Binary quadratic forms====

The theory of binary quadratic forms was considerably expanded by [[w:Carl Friedrich Gauss]] (1798, published 1801) in his [[w:Disquisitiones Arithmeticae]]. He rewrote Lagrange's formalism as follows using integer coefficients α,β,γ,δ:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1798/1801), articles 157–158;&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}F=ax^{2}+2bxy+cy^{2}=(a,b,c)\\
F'=a'x^{\prime2}+2b'x'y'+c'y^{\prime2}=(a',b',c')\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =\alpha x'+\beta y'\\
y &amp; =\gamma x'+\delta y'\\
\\
x' &amp; =\delta x-\beta y\\
y' &amp; =-\gamma x+\alpha y
\end{align}
\left|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}a' &amp; =a\alpha^{2}+2b\alpha\gamma+c\gamma^{2}\\
b' &amp; =a\alpha\beta+b(\alpha\delta+\beta\gamma)+c\gamma\delta\\
c' &amp; =a\beta^{2}+2b\beta\delta+c\delta^{2}
\end{align}
\\
\downarrow\\
b^{2}-a'c'=\left(b^{2}-ac\right)(\alpha\delta-\beta\gamma)^{2}
\end{matrix}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=1)''. As pointed out by Gauss, ''F'' and ''F′'' are called &quot;proper equivalent&quot; if αδ-βγ=1, so that ''F'' is contained in ''F′'' as well as ''F′'' is contained in ''F''. In addition, if another form ''F″'' is contained by the same procedure in ''F′'' it is also contained in ''F'' and so forth.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1798/1801), section 159&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The Lorentz interval &lt;math&gt;-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' are a special case of the binary quadratic form by setting ''(a,b,c)=(a',b',c')=(1,0,-1)''.&lt;/p&gt;

===={{anchor|Gauss2}} Ternary quadratic forms====

Gauss (1798/1801)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1798/1801), articles 266–285&lt;/ref&gt; also discussed ternary quadratic forms with the general expression

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}f=ax^{2}+a'x^{\prime2}+a''x^{\prime\prime2}+2bx'x''+2b'xx''+2b''xx'=\left(\begin{matrix}a, &amp; a', &amp; a''\\
b, &amp; b', &amp; b''
\end{matrix}\right)\\
g=my^{2}+m'y^{\prime2}+m''y^{\prime\prime2}+2ny'y''+2n'yy''+2n''yy'=\left(\begin{matrix}m, &amp; m', &amp; m''\\
n, &amp; n', &amp; n''
\end{matrix}\right)\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =\alpha y+\beta y'+\gamma y''\\
x' &amp; =\alpha'y+\beta'y'+\gamma'y''\\
x'' &amp; =\alpha''y+\beta''y'+\gamma''y''
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

which is equivalent to ({{equationNote|Q1}}) ''(n=2)''. Gauss called these forms definite when they have the same sign such as ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'', or indefinite in the case of different signs such as ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''. While discussing the classification of ternary quadratic forms, Gauss (1801) presented twenty special cases, among them these six variants:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1798/1801), article 277&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left(\begin{matrix}a, &amp; a', &amp; a''\\
b, &amp; b', &amp; b''
\end{matrix}\right)\Rightarrow\begin{matrix}\left(\begin{matrix}1, &amp; -1, &amp; 1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, &amp; 1, &amp; 1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}1, &amp; 1, &amp; -1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right),\\
\left(\begin{matrix}1, &amp; -1, &amp; -1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, &amp; 1, &amp; -1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right),\ \left(\begin{matrix}-1, &amp; -1, &amp; 1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These are all six types of Lorentz interval in 2+1 dimensions that can be produced as special cases of a ternary quadratic form. In general: The Lorentz interval &lt;math&gt;x^{2}+x^{\prime2}-x^{\prime\prime2}&lt;/math&gt; and the Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' is an indefinite ternary quadratic form, which follows from the general ternary form by setting:
&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\left(\begin{matrix}a, &amp; a', &amp; a''\\
b, &amp; b', &amp; b''
\end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}m, &amp; m', &amp; m''\\
n, &amp; n', &amp; n''
\end{matrix}\right)=\left(\begin{matrix}1, &amp; 1, &amp; -1\\
0, &amp; 0, &amp; 0
\end{matrix}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

===={{anchor|Gauss4}} Homogeneous coordinates====

Gauss (1818) discussed planetary motions together with formulating [[w:elliptic function]]s. In order to simplify the integration, he transformed the expression

:&lt;math&gt;(AA+BB+CC)tt+aa(t\cos E)^{2}+bb(t\sin E)^{2}-2aAt\cdot t\cos E-2bBt\cdot t\sin E&lt;/math&gt;

into

:&lt;math&gt;G+G'\cos T^{2}+G''\sin T^{2}&lt;/math&gt;

in which the [[w:eccentric anomaly]] ''E'' is connected to the new variable ''T'' by the following transformation including an arbitrary constant ''k'', which Gauss then rewrote by setting ''k''=1:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1818), pp. 5–10&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}{\scriptstyle \left(\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\right)^{2}+\left(\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\right)^{2}-\left(\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T\right)^{2}}=0\\
k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)=0\\
\hline \begin{align}\cos E &amp; =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\
\sin E &amp; =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma &amp; =k &amp; \alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' &amp; =-k\\
-\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =-k &amp; \beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' &amp; =-k\\
-\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =-k &amp; \gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =+k\\
-\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0 &amp; \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma &amp; =0 &amp; \gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0 &amp; \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.\\
\hline k=1\\
\begin{align}t\cos E &amp; =\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T\\
t\sin E &amp; =\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T\\
t &amp; =\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma &amp; =1\\
-\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =-1\\
-\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =-1\\
-\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma &amp; =0\\
-\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The coefficients α,β,γ,... of Gauss' case ''k''=1 are equivalent to the coefficient system in Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|1a}}) and ({{equationNote|1b}})  ''(n=2)''.

Further setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, Gauss' transformation becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}})  ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

Subsequently, he showed that these relations can be reformulated using three variables ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'', so that

:&lt;math&gt;aaxx+bbyy+(AA+BB+CC)zz-2aAxz-2bByz&lt;/math&gt;

can be transformed into

:&lt;math&gt;Guu+G'u'u'+G''u''u''&lt;/math&gt;,

in which ''x,y,z'' and ''u,u′,u″'' are related by the transformation:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gauss (1818), pp. 9–10&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}x &amp; =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\
y &amp; =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\
z &amp; =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\
\\
u &amp; =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\
u' &amp; =\alpha'x+\beta'y-\gamma'z\\
u'' &amp; =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma &amp; =1\\
-\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =-1\\
-\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =-1\\
-\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma &amp; =0\\
-\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}})  ''(n=2)'' satisfying &lt;math&gt;x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}&lt;/math&gt;, and can be related to Gauss' previous equations in terms of homogeneous coordinates &lt;math&gt;\left[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E\right]=\left[\tfrac{x}{z},\ \tfrac{y}{z},\ \tfrac{u'}{u},\ \tfrac{u''}{u}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Jacobi}} Jacobi (1827, 1833/34) – Homogeneous coordinates===

Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Carl Gustav Jacob Jacobi]] extended Gauss' transformation in 1827:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Jacobi (1827), p. 235, 239–240&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}\cos P^{2}+\sin P^{2}\cos\vartheta^{2}+\sin P^{2}\sin\vartheta^{2}=1\\
k\left(\cos\psi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\cos\varphi^{2}+\sin\psi^{2}\sin\varphi^{2}-1\right)=0\\
\hline {\left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}\cos P &amp; =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos\psi+\alpha''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\alpha'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\
\sin P\cos\vartheta &amp; =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos\psi+\beta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\beta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\
\sin P\sin\vartheta &amp; =\frac{\gamma+\beta'\cos\psi+\gamma''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\gamma'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}{\delta+\delta'\cos\psi+\delta''\sin\psi\cos\varphi+\delta'''\sin\psi\sin\varphi}\\
\\
\cos\psi &amp; =\frac{-\delta'+\alpha'\cos P+\beta'\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\
\sin\psi\cos\varphi &amp; =\frac{-\delta''+\alpha''\cos P+\beta''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}\\
\sin\psi\sin\varphi &amp; =\frac{-\delta'''+\alpha'''\cos P+\beta'''\sin P\cos\vartheta+\gamma'''\sin P\sin\vartheta}{\delta-\alpha\cos P-\beta\sin P\cos\vartheta-\gamma\sin P\sin\vartheta}
\end{align}
\\
\\
\hline \mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}\alpha\mu+\beta x+\gamma y+\delta z &amp; =m\\
\alpha'\mu+\beta'x+\gamma'y+\delta'z &amp; =m'\\
\alpha''\mu+\beta''x+\gamma''y+\delta''z &amp; =m''\\
\alpha'''\mu+\beta'''x+\gamma'''y+\delta'''z &amp; =m'''\\
\\
Am+A'm'+A''m''+A'''m''' &amp; =\mu\\
Bm+B'm'+B''m''+B'''m''' &amp; =x\\
Cm+C'm'+C''m''+C'''m''' &amp; =y\\
Dm+D'm'+D''m''+D'''m''' &amp; =z\\
\\
\end{align}
\\
\begin{align}\alpha &amp; =-kA, &amp; \beta &amp; =-kB, &amp; \gamma &amp; =-kC, &amp; \delta &amp; =kD,\\
\alpha' &amp; =kA', &amp; \beta' &amp; =kB', &amp; \gamma' &amp; =kC', &amp; \delta' &amp; =-kD',\\
\alpha'' &amp; =kA'', &amp; \beta'' &amp; =kB'', &amp; \gamma'' &amp; =kC'', &amp; \delta'' &amp; =-kD'',\\
\alpha''' &amp; =kA''', &amp; \beta''' &amp; =kB''', &amp; \gamma''' &amp; =kC''', &amp; \delta''' &amp; =-kD''',
\end{align}
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma-\delta\delta &amp; =-k\\
\alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma'-\delta'\delta' &amp; =k\\
\alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma''-\delta''\delta'' &amp; =k\\
\alpha'''\alpha'''+\beta'''\beta'''+\gamma'''\gamma'''-\delta'''\delta''' &amp; =k\\
\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma'-\delta\delta' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''+\gamma\gamma''-\delta\delta'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha'''+\beta\beta'''+\gamma\gamma'''-\delta\delta''' &amp; =0\\
\alpha''\alpha'''+\beta''\beta'''+\gamma''\gamma'''-\delta''\delta''' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'''\alpha'+\beta'''\beta'+\gamma'''\gamma'-\delta'''\delta' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma''-\delta'\delta'' &amp; =0\\
\\
-\alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha''+\alpha'''\alpha''' &amp; =k\\
-\beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta''+\beta'''\beta''' &amp; =k\\
-\gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma''+\gamma'''\gamma''' &amp; =k\\
-\delta\delta+\delta'\delta'+\delta''\delta''+\delta'''\delta''' &amp; =-k\\
-\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta''+\alpha'''\beta''' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'+\alpha''\gamma''+\alpha'''\gamma''' &amp; =0\\
-\alpha\delta+\alpha'\delta'+\alpha''\delta''+\alpha'''\delta''' &amp; =0\\
-\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma''+\beta'''\gamma''' &amp; =0\\
-\gamma\delta+\gamma'\delta'+\gamma''\delta''+\gamma'''\delta''' &amp; =0\\
-\delta\beta+\delta'\beta'+\delta''\beta''+\delta'''\beta''' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\end{matrix}}
\end{matrix}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;By setting &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\left[\cos P,\ \sin P\cos\varphi,\ \sin P\sin\varphi\right] &amp; =\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{3}\right]\\{}
[\cos\psi,\ \sin\psi\cos\vartheta,\ \sin\psi\sin\vartheta] &amp; =\left[u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime},\ u_{3}^{\prime}\right]
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt; and ''k''=1 in the (1827) formulas, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'', and by setting ''k''=1 in transformation system (2) it becomes equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' producing &lt;math&gt;m^{2}+m^{\prime2}+m^{\prime\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime\prime2}=\mu^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

Alternatively, in two papers from 1832 Jacobi started with an ordinary orthogonal transformation, and by using an imaginary substitution he arrived at Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change):&lt;ref group=M&gt;The orthogonal substitution and the imaginary transformation was defined in Jacobi (1832a), pp. 257, 265–267; Transformation system (2) and (3) and coefficients in Jacobi (1832b), pp. 321-325.&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}xx+yy+zz=ss+s's'+s''s''=0\\
\mathbf{(1)}\begin{align}x &amp; =\alpha s+\alpha's'+\alpha''s''\\
y &amp; =\beta s+\beta's'+\beta''s''\\
z &amp; =\gamma s+\gamma's'+\gamma''s''\\
\\
s &amp; =\alpha x+\beta y+\gamma z\\
s' &amp; =\alpha'x+\beta'y+\gamma'z\\
s'' &amp; =\alpha''x+\beta''y+\gamma''z
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha+\beta\beta+\gamma\gamma &amp; =1 &amp; \alpha\alpha+\alpha'\alpha'+\alpha''\alpha'' &amp; =1\\
\alpha'\alpha'+\beta'\beta'+\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =1 &amp; \beta\beta+\beta'\beta'+\beta''\beta'' &amp; =1\\
\alpha''\alpha''+\beta''\beta''+\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =1 &amp; \gamma\gamma+\gamma'\gamma'+\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =1\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''+\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0 &amp; \beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'+\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha''\alpha+\beta''\beta+\gamma''\gamma &amp; =0 &amp; \gamma\alpha+\gamma'\alpha'+\gamma''\alpha'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'+\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0 &amp; \alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'+\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.\\
\hline \left[\frac{y}{x},\ \frac{z}{x},\ \frac{s'}{s},\ \frac{s''}{s}\right]=\left[-i\cos\varphi,\ -i\sin\varphi,\ i\cos\eta,\ i\sin\eta\right]\\
\left[\alpha',\ \alpha'',\ \beta,\ \gamma\right]=\left[i\alpha',\ i\alpha'',\ -i\beta,\ -i\gamma\right]\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\mathbf{(2)}\begin{matrix}\left(\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta\right)^{2}=\left(\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta\right)^{2}+\left(\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta\right)^{2}\\
\left(\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi\right)^{2}=\left(\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi\right)^{2}+\left(\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi\right)^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}\cos\phi &amp; =\frac{\beta-\beta'\cos\eta-\beta''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, &amp; \cos\eta &amp; =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'\cos\phi-\gamma'\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi}\\
\sin\phi &amp; =\frac{\gamma-\gamma'\cos\eta-\gamma''\sin\eta}{\alpha-\alpha'\cos\eta-\alpha''\sin\eta}, &amp; \sin\eta &amp; =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''\cos\phi-\gamma''\sin\phi}{\alpha-\beta\cos\phi-\gamma\sin\phi}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline \\
\mathbf{(3)}\begin{matrix}1-zz-yy=\frac{1-s's'-s''s''}{\left(\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''\right)^{2}}\\
\hline \begin{align}y &amp; =\frac{\beta-\beta's'-\beta''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s''}, &amp; s' &amp; =\frac{\alpha'-\beta'y-\gamma'z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z},\\
z &amp; =\frac{\gamma-\gamma's'-\gamma''s''}{\alpha-\alpha's'-\alpha''s'''}, &amp; s'' &amp; =\frac{\alpha''-\beta''y-\gamma''z}{\alpha-\beta y-\gamma z},
\end{align}
\end{matrix}
\end{matrix}\left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\beta\beta-\gamma\gamma &amp; =1\\
\alpha'\alpha'-\beta'\beta'-\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =-1\\
\alpha''\alpha''-\beta''\beta''-\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =-1\\
\alpha'\alpha''-\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha''\alpha-\beta''\beta-\gamma''\gamma &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha'-\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\\
\alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha'' &amp; =1\\
\beta\beta-\beta'\beta'-\beta''\beta'' &amp; =-1\\
\gamma\gamma-\gamma'\gamma'-\gamma''\gamma'' &amp; =-1\\
\beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\gamma\alpha-\gamma'\alpha'-\gamma''\alpha'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;By setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos\phi,\ \sin\phi,\ \cos\eta,\ \sin\eta]=\left[u_{1},\ u_{2},\ u_{1}^{\prime},\ u_{2}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''. Also transformation system (3) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change.&lt;/p&gt;

Extending his previous result, Jacobi (1833) started with [[#Cauchy|Cauchy's (1829)]] orthogonal transformation for ''n'' dimensions, and by using an imaginary substitution he formulated Gauss' transformation (up to a sign change) in the case of ''n'' dimensions:&lt;ref group =M&gt;Jacobi (1833/34), pp. 7–8, 34–35, 41; Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 229–230.&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}x_{1}+x_{2}x_{2}+\dots+x_{n}x_{n}=y_{1}y_{1}+y_{2}y_{2}+\dots+y_{n}y_{n}\\
\hline \mathbf{(1)\ }\begin{align}y_{\varkappa} &amp; =\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}\\
x_{\varkappa} &amp; =\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}\\
\\
\frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}} &amp; =\frac{\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}x_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}}\\
\frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}} &amp; =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}y_{1}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}y_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}y_{n}}{\alpha_{1}^{(n)}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}^{(n)}x_{2}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(n)}x_{n}}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n)} &amp; =0\\
\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}+\dots+\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)} &amp; =1\\
\\
\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\lambda)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\lambda)} &amp; =0\\
\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}+\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}+\dots+\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)} &amp; =1
\end{align}
\right.\\
\hline \frac{x_{\varkappa}}{x_{n}}=-i\xi_{\varkappa},\ \frac{y_{\varkappa}}{y_{n}}=i\nu_{\varkappa}\\
1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{y_{n}y_{n}}{x_{n}x_{n}}\left(1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}\right)\\
\alpha_{n}^{(\varkappa)}=i\alpha^{(\varkappa)},\ \alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n)}=-i\alpha_{\varkappa},\ \alpha_{n}^{(n)}=\alpha\\
1-\xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=\frac{1-\nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}}{\left[\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}\right]^{2}}\\
\hline \mathbf{(2)\ }\begin{align}\nu_{\varkappa} &amp; =\frac{\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\xi_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha_{1}\xi_{1}-\alpha_{2}\xi_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}}\\
\\
\xi_{\varkappa} &amp; =\frac{\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}}{\alpha-\alpha^{\prime}\nu_{1}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\nu_{2}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\nu_{n-1}}
\end{align}
\\
\hline \xi_{1}\xi_{1}-\xi_{2}\xi_{2}-\dots-\xi_{n-1}\xi_{n-1}=1\ \Rightarrow\ \nu_{1}\nu_{1}-\nu_{2}\nu_{2}-\dots-\nu_{n-1}\nu_{n-1}=1
\end{matrix}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) up to a sign change.&lt;/p&gt;

He also stated the following transformation leaving invariant the Lorentz interval:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Jacobi (1833/34), p. 37. Some misprints were corrected in Jacobi's collected papers, vol 3, pp. 232–233.&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}uu-u_{1}u_{1}-u_{2}u_{2}-\dots-u_{n-1}u_{n-1}=ww-w_{1}w_{1}-w_{2}w_{2}-\dots-w_{n-1}w_{n-1}\\
\hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}u &amp; =\alpha w-\alpha'w_{1}-\alpha''w_{2}-\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\
u_{1} &amp; =\alpha_{1}w-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\
 &amp; \dots\\
u_{n-1} &amp; =\alpha_{n-1}w-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}w_{1}-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime\prime}w_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}w_{n-1}\\
\\
w &amp; =\alpha u-\alpha_{1}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}u_{n-1}\\
w_{1} &amp; =\alpha'u-\alpha_{1}^{\prime}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{\prime}u_{n-1}\\
 &amp; \dots\\
w_{n-1} &amp; =\alpha^{(n-1)}u-\alpha_{1}^{(n-1)}u_{1}-\alpha_{2}^{(n-1)}u_{2}-\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(n-1)}u_{n-1}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\alpha\alpha-\alpha'\alpha'-\alpha''\alpha''\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha^{(n-1)} &amp; =+1\\
\alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} &amp; =-1\\
\alpha\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha^{\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}-\alpha^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)} &amp; =0\\
\alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\lambda}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime}-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{\lambda}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{\varkappa}^{(n-1)}\alpha_{\lambda}^{(n-1)} &amp; =0\\
\\
\alpha\alpha-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1} &amp; =+1\\
\alpha_{\varkappa}\alpha_{\varkappa}-\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}\alpha_{1}^{\varkappa}-\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\alpha_{2}^{\prime\prime}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} &amp; =-1\\
\alpha\alpha^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{1}\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}-\alpha_{2}\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)} &amp; =0\\
\alpha^{(\varkappa)}\alpha^{(\lambda)}-\alpha_{1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{1}^{\lambda l)}-\alpha_{2}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{2}^{(\lambda)}\dots-\alpha_{n-1}^{(\varkappa)}\alpha_{n-1}^{(\lambda)} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\text{ }\right.}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) up to a sign change.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Chasles}} Chasles (1829) – Conjugate hyperboloids ===

[[w:Michel Chasles]] (1829) independently introduced the same equation systems as [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827)]], albeit in the different context of conjugate hyperboloids. He started with two equation systems (a) and (b) from which he derived systems (c), (d) and others:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Chasles (1829), p. 139&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(a)\\ \\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(b)\\ \\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(c)\\ \\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(d)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He noted that those quantities become the “frequently employed” formulas of Lagrange [i.e. the coefficients of the Euclidean orthogonal transformation first given by [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#Euler|E:Euler (1771)]]] by setting:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Chasles (1829), p. 141&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\gamma\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma\sqrt{-1}\\
\gamma'\quad\Rightarrow\quad-\gamma'\sqrt{-1}\\
\alpha''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\alpha''\sqrt{-1}\\
\beta''\quad\Rightarrow\quad\beta''\sqrt{-1}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equations (a,b,c,d) are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).&lt;/p&gt;

Chasles now showed that equation systems (a,b,c,d) are of importance when discussing the relations between conjugate diameters of hyperboloids. He used the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid having the same principal axes (x,y,z), thus sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0&lt;/math&gt;. He then transformed those two hyperboloids to new axes (x',y',z') sharing the property of conjugacy:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Chasles (1829), pp. 143-144&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\
\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =lx'+l'y'+l''z'\\
y &amp; =mx'+m'y'+m''z'\\
z &amp; =nx'+n'y'+n''z'
\end{align}
\\
\left\{ \begin{align}\frac{ll'}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm'}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn'}{c^{2}} &amp; =0\\
\frac{ll''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{mm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{nn''}{c^{2}} &amp; =0\\
\frac{l'l''}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m'm''}{b^{2}}-\frac{n'n''}{c^{2}} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\} \\
\hline \left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=1\\
\left(\frac{l^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{2}}{c^{2}}\right)x^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)y^{\prime2}+\left(\frac{l^{\prime\prime2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{m^{\prime\prime2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{n^{\prime\prime2}}{c^{2}}\right)z^{\prime2}=-1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Chasles defined the conditional equations of ''l,m,n'' in the same way as those of &lt;math&gt;\alpha,\beta,\gamma&lt;/math&gt; in equation system (b) above, so his transformation of x,y,z into x',y',z' represents Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by applying equation system (a) as well.&lt;/p&gt;

He went on to use two semi-diameters of the one-sheet hyperboloid and one semi-diameter of the two-sheet hyperboloid in order to define equation system (A), and went on to suggest that the other equations related to this system can be obtained using the above transformation from oblique coordinates to other oblique ones, but he deemed it more simple to use a geometric argument to obtain system (B), which together with (A) then allowed him to algebraically determine systems (C), (D) and additional ones, leading Chasles to announce that “''from these formulas one can very easily conclude the various properties of conjugated diameters of hyperboloids''”:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Chasles (1829), pp. 145-146&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} &amp; =a^{2}\\
\alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} &amp; =b^{2}\\
\alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-c^{2}
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(A)\\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(B)\\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =a^{2}\\
\beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =b^{2}\\
\gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-c^{2}
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(C)\\
\left.\begin{align}\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(D)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equation systems (A,B,C,D), being equivalent to systems (a,b,c,d) above, are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lebesgue}} Lebesgue (1837) – Homogeneous coordinates===

[[w:Victor-Amédée Lebesgue]] (1837) summarized the previous work of [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], [[#Cauchy|Cauchy (1829)]]. He started with the orthogonal transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lebesgue (1837), pp. 338-341&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}\ (9)\\
\hline {\scriptstyle \begin{align}x_{1} &amp; =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\
x_{2} &amp; =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\
\dots\\
x_{n} &amp; =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\
\\
y_{1} &amp; =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,1}x_{n}\\
y_{2} &amp; =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,2}x_{n}\ (12)\ \\
\dots\\
y_{n} &amp; =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}^{2} &amp; =1 &amp; (10)\\
a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} &amp; =0 &amp; (11)\\
a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}^{2} &amp; =1 &amp; (13)\\
a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} &amp; =0 &amp; (14)
\end{align}
\right.}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

In order to achieve the invariance of the Lorentz interval&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–354&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}&lt;/math&gt;

he gave the following instructions as to how the previous equations shall be modified: In equation (9) change the sign of the last term of each member. In the first ''n-1'' equations of (10) change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side, and in the one which satisfies α=''n'' change the sign of the last term of the left-hand side as well as the sign of the right-hand side. In all equations (11) the last term will change sign. In equations (12) the last terms of the right-hand side will change sign, and so will the left-hand side of the ''n''-th equation. In equations (13) the signs of the last terms of the left-hand side will change, moreover in the ''n''-th equation change the sign of the right-hand side. In equations (14) the last terms will change sign.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These instructions give Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) in the form:

&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{1} &amp; =a_{1,1}y_{1}+a_{1,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{1,n}y_{n}\\
x_{2} &amp; =a_{2,1}y_{1}+a_{2,2}y_{2}+\dots+a_{2,n}y_{n}\\
\dots\\
x_{n} &amp; =a_{n,1}x_{1}+a_{n,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n}x_{n}\\
\\
y_{1} &amp; =a_{1,1}x_{1}+a_{2,1}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,1}x_{n-1}-a_{n,1}x_{n}\\
y_{2} &amp; =a_{1,2}x_{1}+a_{2,2}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,2}x_{n-1}-a_{n,2}x_{n}\\
\dots\\
-y_{n} &amp; =a_{1,n}x_{1}+a_{2,n}x_{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}x_{n-1}-a_{n,n}x_{n}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}a_{1,\alpha}^{2}+a_{2,\alpha}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}^{2}-a_{n,\alpha}^{2} &amp; =1\\
a_{1,n}^{2}+a_{2,n}^{2}+\dots+a_{n-1,n}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
a_{1,\alpha}a_{1,\beta}+a_{2,\alpha}a_{2,\beta}+\dots+a_{n-1,\alpha}a_{n-1,\beta}-a_{n,\alpha}a_{n,\beta} &amp; =0\\
a_{\alpha,1}^{2}+a_{\alpha,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}^{2}-a_{\alpha,n}^{2} &amp; =1\\
a_{n,1}^{2}+a_{n,2}^{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}^{2}-a_{n,n}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
a_{\alpha,1}a_{\beta,1}+a_{\alpha,2}a_{\beta,2}+\dots+a_{\alpha,n-1}a_{\beta,n-1}-a_{\alpha,n}a_{\beta,n} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

He went on to redefine the variables of the Lorentz interval and its transformation:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lebesgue (1837), pp. 353–355&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n-1}^{2}-x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n-1}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}\\
\downarrow\\
\begin{align}x_{1} &amp; =x_{n}\cos\theta_{1}, &amp; x_{2} &amp; =x_{n}\cos\theta_{2},\dots &amp; x_{n-1} &amp; =x_{n}\cos\theta_{n-1}\\
y_{1} &amp; =y_{n}\cos\phi_{1}, &amp; y_{2} &amp; =y_{n}\cos\phi_{2},\dots &amp; y_{n-1} &amp; =y_{n}\cos\phi_{n-1}
\end{align}
\\
\downarrow\\
\cos^{2}\theta_{1}+\cos^{2}\theta_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\theta_{n-1}=1\\
\cos^{2}\phi_{1}+\cos^{2}\phi_{2}+\dots+\cos^{2}\phi_{n-1}=1\\
\hline \\
\cos\theta_{i}=\frac{a_{i,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{i,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{i,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{i,n}}{a_{n,1}\cos\phi_{1}+a_{n,2}\cos\phi_{2}+\dots+a_{n,n-1}\cos\phi_{n-1}+a_{n,n}}\\
(i=1,2,3\dots n)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos\theta_{i},\ \cos\phi_{i}]=\left[u_{s},\ u_{s}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt; it is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Weddle}} Weddle (1847) – Conjugate hyperboloids===
Very similar to [[#Chasles|Chasles (1829)]], though without reference to him, [[w:Thomas Weddle]] discussed conjugate hyperboloids using the following equation system (&amp;alpha;), from which he derived equations (&amp;beta;) and others:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Weddle (1847), p. 274&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} &amp; =1, &amp; l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} &amp; =0\\
l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} &amp; =1, &amp; l_{1}l_{3}+m_{1}m_{3}-n_{1}n_{3} &amp; =0\\
l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =-1, &amp; l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(\alpha)\\ \\
\left.\begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} &amp; =1, &amp; l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} &amp; =0\\
m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} &amp; =1, &amp; l_{1}n_{1}+l_{2}n_{2}-l_{3}n_{3} &amp; =0\\
n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =-1, &amp; m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right\}  &amp; \dots(\beta)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2).&lt;/p&gt;

Using the equations of a one-sheet hyperboloid and of a two-sheet hyperboloid sharing the same conjugate axes, and having the common asymptotic cone &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\tfrac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\tfrac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=0&lt;/math&gt;, he defined three conjugate points &lt;math&gt;(x_{1}\dots,y_{1}\dots,z_{1}\dots)&lt;/math&gt; on those two conjugate hyperboloids, related to each other in the same way as equations (&amp;alpha;, &amp;beta;) stated above:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Weddle (1847), pp. 275-276&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=1\\
\frac{x^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z^{2}}{c^{2}}=-1\\
\hline \begin{align}\frac{x_{1}x_{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{2}}{c^{2}} &amp; =0\\
\frac{x_{1}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}z_{3}}{c^{2}} &amp; =0\\
\frac{x_{2}x_{3}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}y_{3}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}z_{3}}{c^{2}} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\quad\begin{align}\frac{x_{1}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{1}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{1}^{2}}{c^{2}} &amp; =1\\
\frac{x_{2}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{2}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{2}^{2}}{c^{2}} &amp; =1\\
\frac{x_{3}^{2}}{a{{}^2}}+\frac{y_{3}^{2}}{b^{2}}-\frac{z_{3}^{2}}{c^{2}} &amp; =-1
\end{align}
\\
\begin{align}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-x_{3}^{2} &amp; =a^{2}\\
y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}-y_{3}^{2} &amp; =b^{2}\\
z_{1}^{2}+z_{2}^{2}-z_{3}^{2} &amp; =-c^{2}
\end{align}
\quad\begin{align}x_{1}y_{1}+x_{2}y_{2}-x_{3}y_{3} &amp; =0\\
x_{1}z_{1}+x_{2}z_{2}-x_{3}z_{3} &amp; =0\\
y_{1}z_{1}+y_{2}z_{2}-y_{3}z_{3} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt; These are the coefficients of Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}, n=2) by setting ''a=b=c=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Bour}} Bour (1856) – Homogeneous coordinates===

Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:Edmond Bour]] (1856) wrote the transformations:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Bour (1856), pp. 61; 64–65&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}E+\sin^{2}E-1=k\left(\cos^{2}T+\sin^{2}T-1\right)\\
\hline \left.\begin{matrix}\mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos E &amp; =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\cos T+\alpha''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}\\
\sin E &amp; =\frac{\beta+\beta'\cos T+\beta''\sin T}{\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T}
\end{align}
\\
\hline \\
k=+1\\
t=\gamma+\gamma'\cos T+\gamma''\sin T,\\
1=u,\ \cos T=u',\ \sin T=u',\\
t=z,\ t\cos E=x,\ t\sin E=y\\
\downarrow\\
\mathbf{(2)}\begin{align}x &amp; =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\
y &amp; =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\
z &amp; =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\
\\
u &amp; =\gamma z-\alpha x-\beta y\\
u' &amp; =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\
u'' &amp; =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z
\end{align}
\end{matrix}\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}-\alpha^{2}-\beta^{2}+\gamma^{2} &amp; =k\\
-\alpha^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime2} &amp; =-k\\
-\alpha^{\prime\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2}+\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-k\\
\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\\
\alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-k\\
\beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-k\\
\gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =k\\
\beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'', implying &lt;math&gt;x^{2}+y^{2}-z^{2}=u^{\prime2}+u^{\prime\prime2}-u^{2}&lt;/math&gt;. Furthermore, setting &lt;math&gt;[k,\cos T,\sin T,\cos E,\sin E]=\left[1,u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in transformation system (1) produces Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Somov}} Somov (1863) – Homogeneous coordinates ===

Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[#Jacobi|Jacobi (1827, 1833)]], and [[#Bour|Bour (1856)]], [[w:Osip Ivanovich Somov]] (1863) wrote the transformation systems:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Somov (1863), pp. 12–14; p. 18 for differentials.&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\left.\begin{align}\cos\phi &amp; =\frac{m\cos\psi+n\sin\psi+s}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''}\\
\sin\phi &amp; =\frac{m'\cos\psi+n'\sin\psi+s'}{m''\cos\psi+n''\sin\psi+s''}
\end{align}
\right|\begin{matrix}\cos^{2}\phi+\cos^{2}\phi=1\\
\cos^{2}\psi+\cos^{2}\psi=1
\end{matrix}\\
\hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}\cos\phi &amp; =x, &amp; \cos\psi &amp; =x'\\
\sin\phi &amp; =y, &amp; \sin\psi &amp; =y'
\end{align}
\ \left|\begin{align}x &amp; =\frac{mx'+ny'+s}{m''x'+n''y'+s''}\\
y &amp; =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''}
\end{align}
\right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=1\\
x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=1
\end{matrix}\\
\hline \begin{align}\cos\phi &amp; =\frac{x}{z}, &amp; \cos\psi &amp; =\frac{x'}{z'}\\
\sin\phi &amp; =\frac{y}{z}, &amp; \sin\psi &amp; =\frac{y'}{z'}
\end{align}
\ \left|\begin{align}\frac{x}{z} &amp; =\frac{mx'+ny'+sz'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'}\\
\frac{y}{z} &amp; =\frac{m'x'+n'y'+s'z'}{m''x'+n''y'+s''z'}
\end{align}
\right|\ \begin{matrix}x^{2}+y^{2}=z^{2}\\
x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}=z^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline \mathbf{(2)}\ \left.\begin{align}x &amp; =mx'+ny'+sz'\\
y &amp; =m'x'+n'y'+s'z'\\
z &amp; =m''x'+n''y'+s''z'\\
\\
x' &amp; =mx+m'y-m''z\\
y' &amp; =nx+n'y-n''z\\
z' &amp; =-sx-s'y+s''z\\
\\
dx &amp; =mdx'+ndy'+sdz'\\
dy &amp; =m'dx'+n'dy'+s'dz'\\
dz &amp; =m''dx'+n''dy'+s''dz'
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}m^{2}+m^{\prime2}-m^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
n^{2}+n^{\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
-s^{2}-s^{\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
ns+n's'-n''s'' &amp; =0\\
sm+s'm'-s''m'' &amp; =0\\
mn+m'n'-m''n'' &amp; =0\\
\\
m^{2}+n^{2}-s^{2} &amp; =1\\
m^{\prime2}+n^{\prime2}-s^{\prime2} &amp; =1\\
-m^{\prime\prime2}-n^{\prime\prime2}+s^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
-m'm''-n'n''+s's'' &amp; =0\\
-m''m-n''n+s''s &amp; =0\\
mm'+nn'-ss' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\\
dx^{2}+dy^{2}-dz^{2}=dx^{\prime2}+dy^{\prime2}-dz^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)''.

Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Killing}} Killing (1878–1893)===

===={{anchor|Killing1}} Weierstrass coordinates====

[[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) described non-Euclidean geometry by using [[w:hyperboloid model|Weierstrass coordinates]] (named after [[w:Karl Weierstrass]] who described them in lectures in 1872 which Killing attended) obeying the form

:&lt;math&gt;k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1877/78), p. 74; Killing (1880), p. 279&lt;/ref&gt; with &lt;math&gt;ds^{2}=k^{2}dt^{2}+du^{2}+dv^{2}+dw^{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1880), eq. 25 on p. 283&lt;/ref&gt;

or&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1880), p. 283&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}&lt;/math&gt;

where ''k'' is the reciprocal measure of curvature, &lt;math&gt;k^{2}=\infty&lt;/math&gt; denotes [[w:Euclidean geometry]], &lt;math&gt;k^{2}&gt;0&lt;/math&gt; [[w:elliptic geometry]], and &lt;math&gt;k^{2}&lt;0&lt;/math&gt; hyperbolic geometry. In (1877/78) he pointed out the possibility and some characteristics of a transformation (indicating rigid motions) preserving the above form.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1877/78), eq. 25 on p. 283&lt;/ref&gt; In (1879/80) he tried to formulate the corresponding transformations by plugging &lt;math&gt;k^{2}&lt;/math&gt; into a [[w:Rotation matrix#Rotation matrix from axis and angle|general rotation matrix]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1879/80), p. 274&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}=k^{2}\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\cos\eta\tau+\lambda^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; \nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; -\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\
-k^{2}\nu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\lambda\mu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; \cos\eta\tau+\mu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; \lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}\\
k^{2}\mu\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\nu\lambda\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; -\lambda\frac{\sin\eta\tau}{\eta}+k^{2}\mu\nu\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}, &amp; \cos\eta\tau+\nu^{2}\frac{1-\cos\eta\tau}{\eta^{2}}
\end{matrix}\\
\left(\lambda^{2}+k^{2}\mu^{2}+k^{2}\nu^{2}=\eta^{2}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1885) he wrote the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation as follows:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1885), pp. 18, 28–30, 53&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}\\
k^{2}p^{2}+x^{2}+y^{2}=k^{2}p^{\prime2}+x^{\prime2}+y^{\prime2}\\
ds^{2}=k^{2}dp^{2}+dx^{2}+dy^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}k^{2}p' &amp; =k^{2}wp+w'x+w''y\\
x' &amp; =ap+a'x+a''y\\
y' &amp; =bp+b'x+b''y\\
\\
k^{2}p &amp; =k^{2}wp'+ax'+by'\\
x &amp; =w'p'+a'x+b'y'\\
y &amp; =w''p'+a''x'+b''y'
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}w^{2}+w^{\prime2}+w^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
\frac{a^{2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\frac{b^{2}}{k^{2}}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
aw+a'w'+a''w'' &amp; =0\\
bw+b'w'+b''w'' &amp; =0\\
\frac{ab}{k^{2}}+a'b'+a''b'' &amp; =0\\
\\
k^{2}w^{2}+a^{2}+b^{2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
\frac{w^{\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\frac{w^{\prime\prime2}}{k^{2}}+a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
ww'+aa'+bb' &amp; =0\\
ww''+aa''+bb'' &amp; =0\\
\frac{w'w''}{k^{2}}+a'a''+b'b'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1885) he also gave the transformation for ''n'' dimensions:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1884/85), pp. 42–43; Killing (1885), pp. 73–74, 222&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Ratcliffe (1994), § 3.6&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\
ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\
\hline \left.\begin{align}k^{2}\xi_{0} &amp; =k^{2}a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{0}\\
\xi_{\varkappa} &amp; =a_{\varkappa0}x_{0}+a_{\varkappa1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{\varkappa n}x_{n}\\
\\
k^{2}x_{0} &amp; =a_{00}k^{2}\xi_{0}+a_{10}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n0}\xi_{n}\\
x_{\varkappa} &amp; =a_{0\varkappa}\xi_{0}+a_{1\varkappa}\xi_{1}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}\xi_{n}
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} &amp; =0\\
\frac{a_{0\iota}a_{0\varkappa}}{k^{2}}+a_{0\iota}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n\iota}a_{n\varkappa}=\delta_{\iota\kappa} &amp; =1\ (\iota=\kappa)\ \text{or}\ 0\ (\iota\ne\kappa)
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1885) he applied his transformations to mechanics and defined four-dimensional vectors of velocity and force.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1884/85), pp. 4–5&lt;/ref&gt; Regarding the geometrical interpretation of his transformations, Killing argued in (1885) that by setting &lt;math&gt;k^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt; and using ''p,x,y'' as rectangular space coordinates, the hyperbolic plane is mapped on one side of a two-sheet hyperboloid &lt;math&gt;p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt; (known as [[w:hyperboloid model]]),&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1885), Note 9 on p. 260&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=rey /&gt; by which the previous formulas become equivalent to Lorentz transformations and the geometry becomes that of Minkowski space.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;All of Killing's transformations between 1879 and 1885 don't work when &lt;math&gt;k^{2}&lt;/math&gt; is negative, thus they fail to produce Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with &lt;math&gt;k^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

Finally, in (1893) he wrote:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1893), see pp. 144, 327–328&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}t^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}=k^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}t' &amp; =at+bu+cv\\
u' &amp; =a't+b'u+c'v\\
v' &amp; =a''t+b''u+c''v
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}k^{2}a^{2}+a^{\prime2}+a^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
k^{2}b^{2}+b^{\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
k^{2}c^{2}+b^{\prime2}+c^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
k^{2}ab+a'b'+a''b'' &amp; =0\\
k^{2}ac+a'c'+a''c'' &amp; =0\\
k^{2}bc+b'c'+b''c'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and in ''n'' dimensions&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1893), pp. 314–316, 216–217&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\
k^{2}y_{0}y_{0}^{\prime}+y_{1}y_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+y_{n}y_{n}^{\prime}=k^{2}x_{0}x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}x_{1}^{\prime}+\cdots+x_{n}x_{n}^{\prime}\\
ds^{2}=k^{2}dx_{0}^{2}+\dots+dx_{n}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}y_{0} &amp; =a_{00}x_{0}+a_{01}x_{1}+\dots+a_{0n}x_{n}\\
y_{1} &amp; =a_{10}x_{0}+a_{11}x_{1}+\dots+a_{1n}x_{n}\\
 &amp; \,\,\,\vdots\\
y_{n} &amp; =a_{n0}x_{0}+a_{n1}x_{1}+\dots+a_{nn}x_{n}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}k^{2}a_{00}^{2}+a_{10}^{2}+\dots+a_{n0}^{2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}^{2}+a_{1\varkappa}^{2}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}^{2} &amp; =1\\
k^{2}a_{00}a_{0\varkappa}+a_{10}a_{1\varkappa}+\dots+a_{n0}a_{n\varkappa} &amp; =0\\
k^{2}a_{0\varkappa}a_{0\lambda}+a_{1\varkappa}a_{1\lambda}+\dots+a_{n\varkappa}a_{n\lambda} &amp; =0\\
(\varkappa,\lambda=1,\dots, n,\ \lambda\lessgtr\varkappa)
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) with &lt;math&gt;k^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

===={{anchor|Killing3}} Infinitesimal transformations and Lie group====

After [[#Lie3|Lie (1885/86)]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree &lt;math&gt;\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0&lt;/math&gt; with the group of non-Euclidean motions, Killing (1887/88)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1887/88a), pp. 274–275&lt;/ref&gt; defined the infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra) in relation to the unit hypersphere:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{m+1}^{2}=1\\
\hline X_{\iota\varkappa}f=x_{i}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\varkappa}}-x_{\varkappa}\frac{\partial f}{\partial x_{\iota}}\\
\text{where}\\
\left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\iota\lambda}\right)=X_{\varkappa\lambda};\ \left(X_{\iota\varkappa},X_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0;\\
\left[\iota\ne\varkappa\ne\lambda\ne\mu\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and in (1892) he defined the infinitesimal transformation for non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1892), p. 177&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}\\
\hline X_{\iota\varkappa}=x_{\iota}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{\iota},\quad X_{\iota}=x_{0}p_{\iota}-\frac{x_{\iota}p_{0}}{k^{2}}\\
\text{where}\\
\left(X_{\iota}X_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=X_{\varkappa}f;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0;\ \left(X_{\iota}X_{\varkappa}\right)=-\frac{1}{k^{2}}X_{\iota\varkappa}f;
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1897/98) he showed the relation between Weierstrass coordinates &lt;math&gt;k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2}&lt;/math&gt; and corrdinates &lt;math&gt;k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt; used by himself in (1887/88) and by [[#Lie3|Werner (1889), Lie (1890)]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Killing (1897/98), pp. 255–256&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2} &amp; (a)\\
k^{2}x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=k^{2} &amp; (b)
\end{matrix}\\
\hline V_{\varkappa}=k^{2}x_{0}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{0},\quad U_{\iota\varkappa}=p_{\iota}x_{\varkappa}-p_{\varkappa}x_{\iota}\\
\text{where}\\
\left(V_{\iota},V_{\varkappa}\right)=k^{2}U_{\iota\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\iota\varkappa}\right)=-V_{\varkappa},\ \left(V_{\iota},U_{\varkappa\lambda}\right)=0,\\
\left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\iota\lambda}\right)=U_{\varkappa\lambda},\ \left(U_{\iota\varkappa},U_{\lambda\mu}\right)=0\\
\left[\iota,\varkappa,\lambda,\mu=1,2,\dots n\right]\\
\hline \begin{matrix}y_{1}=\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ y_{2}=\frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\dots y_{n}=\frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}}\\
\downarrow\\
k^{2}+y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}=0\\
\hline q_{\varkappa}+\frac{y_{\varkappa}}{k^{2}}\sum_{\varrho}y_{y}q_{\varrho},\quad q_{\iota}y_{\varkappa}-q_{\varkappa}y_{\iota}
\end{matrix}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He pointed out that the corresponding group of non-Euclidean motions in terms of Weierstrass coordinates is intransitive when related to quadratic form (a) and [[w:Group action (mathematics)|transitive]] when related to quadratic form (b).

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting &lt;math&gt;k^{2}=-1&lt;/math&gt; denotes the group of hyperbolic motions and thus the Lorentz group.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Poincare}} Poincaré (1881) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Henri Poincaré]] (1881) connected the work of [[../Lorentz transformation (Cayley-Hermite)#Hermite|E:Hermite (1853)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (Möbius)#Selling|E:Selling (1873)]] on indefinite quadratic forms with non-Euclidean geometry (Poincaré already discussed such relations in an unpublished manuscript in 1880).&lt;ref&gt;Gray (1997)&lt;/ref&gt; He used two indefinite ternary forms in terms of three squares and then defined them in terms of Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) connected by a transformation with integer coefficients:&lt;ref group=M name=p1&gt;Poincaré (1881a), pp. 133–134&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dickson (1923), pp. 220–221&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}F &amp; =(ax+by+cz)^{2}+(a'x+b'y+c'z)^{2}-(a''x+b''y+c''z)^{2}\\
 &amp; =\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}-\zeta^{2}=-1\\
F &amp; =(ax'+by'+cz')^{2}+(a'x'+b'y'+c'z')^{2}-(a''x'+b''y'+c''z')^{2}\\
 &amp; =\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}-\zeta^{\prime2}=-1
\end{align}
\\
\hline \begin{align}\xi' &amp; =\alpha\xi+\beta\eta+\gamma\zeta\\
\eta' &amp; =\alpha'\xi+\beta'\eta+\gamma'\zeta\\
\zeta' &amp; =\alpha''\xi+\beta''\eta+\gamma''\zeta
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\beta^{2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\gamma^{2}+\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1\\
\alpha\beta+\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\gamma+\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\beta\gamma+\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He went on to describe the properties of &quot;hyperbolic coordinates&quot;.&lt;ref group=M name=poinc&gt;Poincaré (1881b), p. 333&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=rey&gt;Reynolds (1993)&lt;/ref&gt; Poincaré mentioned the hyperboloid model also in (1887).&lt;ref group=M&gt;Poincaré (1887), p. 206&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881–1883) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) – referring to similar rectangular coordinates used by [[w:Christoph Gudermann|Gudermann]] (1830)&lt;ref name=guder group=M&gt;Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19&lt;/ref&gt; and [[w:George Salmon]] (1862)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Salmon (1862), section 212, p. 165&lt;/ref&gt; on a sphere, and to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] as reported by [[w:Johannes Frischauf]] (1876)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Frischauf (1876), pp. 86–87&lt;/ref&gt; in the hyperbolic plane – defined the Weierstrass coordinates (without using that expression) and their transformation:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), p. 186 for Weierstrass coordinates; (1881/82), pp. 193–194 for Lorentz transformation. On p. 193, the misprinted expression &lt;math&gt;x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}&lt;/math&gt; should read &lt;math&gt;z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}z^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\
z^{2}-y^{2}-x^{2}=Z^{2}-Y^{2}-X^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =l_{1}X+l_{2}Y+l_{3}Z\\
y &amp; =m_{1}X+m_{2}Y+m_{3}Z\\
z &amp; =n_{1}X+n_{2}Y+n_{3}Z\\
\\
X &amp; =l_{1}x+m_{1}y-n_{1}z\\
Y &amp; =l_{2}x+m_{2}y-n_{2}z\\
Z &amp; =l_{3}x+m_{3}y-n_{3}z
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}-n_{1}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-n_{2}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{1}l_{2}+m_{1}m_{2}-n_{1}n_{2} &amp; =0\\
l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}-n_{2}n_{3} &amp; =0\\
l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}-n_{3}n_{1} &amp; =0\\
\\
l_{1}^{2}+l_{2}^{2}-l_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
m_{1}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}-m_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{1}m_{1}+l_{2}m_{2}-l_{3}m_{3} &amp; =0\\
m_{1}n_{1}+m_{2}n_{2}-m_{3}n_{3} &amp; =0\\
n_{1}l_{1}+n_{2}l_{2}-n_{3}l_{3} &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =1
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
n_{1}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-n_{3}^{2} &amp; =-1
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt;, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' up to a sign change in the inverse transformation.&lt;/p&gt;

Cox also gave the Weierstrass coordinates and their transformation in hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), pp. 199, 206–207&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=1\\
w^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}-z^{2}=w^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}-z^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =l_{1}x'+l_{2}y'+l_{3}z'-l_{4}w'\\
y &amp; =m_{1}x'+m_{2}y'+m_{3}z'-m_{4}w'\\
z &amp; =n_{1}x'+n_{2}y'+n_{3}z'-n_{4}w'\\
w &amp; =r_{1}x'+r_{2}y'+r_{3}z'-r_{4}w'\\
\\
x' &amp; =l_{1}x+m_{1}y+n_{1}z-r_{1}w\\
y' &amp; =l_{2}x+m_{2}y+n_{2}z-r_{2}w\\
z' &amp; =l_{3}x+m_{3}y+n_{3}z-r_{3}w\\
w' &amp; =l_{4}x+m_{4}y+n_{4}z-r_{4}w
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}l_{1}^{2}+m_{1}^{2}+n_{1}^{2}-r_{1}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{2}^{2}+m_{2}^{2}+n_{2}^{2}-r_{2}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{3}^{2}+m_{3}^{2}+n_{3}^{2}-r_{3}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2} &amp; =1\\
l_{2}l_{3}+m_{2}m_{3}+n_{2}n_{3}-r_{2}r_{3} &amp; =0\\
l_{3}l_{1}+m_{3}m_{1}+n_{3}n_{1}-r_{3}r_{1} &amp; =0\\
l_{1}l_{4}+m_{1}m_{4}+n_{1}n_{4}-r_{1}r_{4} &amp; =0\\
l_{2}l_{4}+m_{2}m_{4}+n_{2}n_{4}-r_{2}r_{4} &amp; =0\\
l_{3}l_{4}+m_{3}m_{4}+n_{3}n_{4}-r_{3}r_{4} &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=1}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle l_{4}^{2}+m_{4}^{2}+n_{4}^{2}-r_{4}^{2}=-1}&lt;/math&gt;, this becomes Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' up to a sign change in both the first as well as inverse transformation.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Hill}} Hill (1882) – Homogeneous coordinates ===

Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]], [[w:George William Hill]] (1882) formulated the equations&lt;ref group=M&gt;Hill (1882), pp. 323–325&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)\\
k\left(\sin^{2}E+\cos^{2}E-1\right)\\
\hline \begin{align} &amp;  &amp; \cos E' &amp; =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\
 &amp; \mathbf{(1)} &amp; \sin E' &amp; =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\
\hline \\
 &amp;  &amp; x &amp; =\alpha u+\alpha'u'+\alpha''u''\\
 &amp;  &amp; y &amp; =\beta u+\beta'u'+\beta''u''\\
 &amp;  &amp; z &amp; =\gamma u+\gamma'u'+\gamma''u''\\
 &amp; \mathbf{(2)}\\
 &amp;  &amp; u &amp; =-\alpha x-\beta y+\gamma z\\
 &amp;  &amp; u' &amp; =\alpha'x+\beta'y'-\gamma'z\\
 &amp;  &amp; u'' &amp; =\alpha''x+\beta''y-\gamma''z
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} &amp; =-1\\
\alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\\
(k=-1)\\
\alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =k\\
\beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =k\\
\gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-k\\
\alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' with &lt;math&gt;[\cos T,\sin T,\cos E',\sin E']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.

Transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' .&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Picard}} Picard (1882-1884) – Quadratic forms ===

[[w:Émile Picard]] (1882) analyzed the invariance of indefinite ternary [[w:Hermitian form|Hermitian quadratic forms]] with integer coefficients and their relation to [[w:Group action (mathematics)|discontinuous groups]], extending Poincaré's Fuchsian functions of one complex variable related to a circle, to &quot;hyperfuchsian&quot; functions of two complex variables related to a [[w:hypersphere]]. He formulated the following special case of an Hermitian form:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Picard (1882), pp. 307–308 first transformation system; pp. 315-317 second transformation system&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Dickson (1923), pp. 280-281&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-zz_{0}\\
\\
\mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}x &amp; =M_{1}X+P_{1}Y+R_{1}Z\\
y &amp; =M_{2}X+P_{2}Y+R_{2}Z\\
z &amp; =M_{3}X+P_{3}Y+R_{3}Z
\end{align}
\\
\\
\left[\begin{align}[][x,y,z]=\text{complex}\\
\left[x_{0},y_{0},z_{0}\right]=\text{conjugate}
\end{align}
\right]\\
\\
\hline \\
x^{\prime2}+x^{\prime\prime2}+y^{\prime2}+y^{\prime\prime2}=1\\
x=x'+ix'',\quad y=y'+iy''\\
\\
\mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}X &amp; =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\
Y &amp; =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3} &amp; =1\\
P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} &amp; =1\\
R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =-1\\
P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3} &amp; =0\\
M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =0\\
P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =0\\
\\
M_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{1}\pi_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{1} &amp; =1\\
M_{2}\mu_{2}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-R_{2}\rho_{2} &amp; =1\\
M_{3}\mu_{3}+P_{3}\pi_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =-1\\
\mu_{2}M_{1}+\pi_{2}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{2} &amp; =0\\
\mu_{2}M_{3}+\pi_{2}P_{3}-R_{3}\rho_{2} &amp; =0\\
\mu_{3}M_{1}+\pi_{3}P_{1}-R_{1}\rho_{3} &amp; =0\\
\\
\left[\begin{align}[][M,P,R\dots]=\text{complex}\\
\left[\mu,\pi,\rho\dots\right]=\text{conjugate}
\end{align}
\right]
\end{align}
}\right.\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=X&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+Y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-Z&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=X&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+Y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

Or in (1884a) in relation to indefinite binary Hermitian quadratic forms:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Picard (1884a), p. 13&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}UU_{0}-VV_{0}=uu_{0}-vv_{0}\\
\hline \begin{align}U &amp; =\mathcal{A}u+\mathcal{B}v\\
V &amp; =\mathcal{C}u+\mathcal{D}v
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\mathcal{A}\mathcal{A}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} &amp; =1\\
\mathcal{A}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{D}_{0} &amp; =0\\
\mathcal{B}\mathcal{B}_{0}-\mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0} &amp; =-1\\
\mathcal{D}\mathcal{D}_{0}-\mathcal{C}\mathcal{C}_{0} &amp; =1
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=1)'' producing ''U&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-V&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=u&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-v&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;''.&lt;/p&gt;

Or in (1884b):&lt;ref group=M&gt;Picard (1884b), p. 416&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}xx_{0}+yy_{0}-1=0\\
\hline \begin{align}X &amp; =\frac{M_{1}x+P_{1}y+R_{1}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}\\
Y &amp; =\frac{M_{2}x+P_{2}y+R_{2}}{M_{3}x+P_{3}y+R_{3}}
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}M_{1}\mu_{1}+M_{2}\mu_{2}-M_{3}\mu_{3}=P_{1}\pi_{1}+P_{2}\pi_{2}-P_{3}\pi_{3} &amp; =1\\
R_{1}\rho_{1}+R_{2}\rho_{2}-R_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =-1\\
P_{1}\mu_{1}+P_{2}\mu_{2}-P_{3}\mu_{3}=M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3}=P_{1}\rho_{1}+P_{2}\rho_{2}-P_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =0\\
M_{1}\rho_{1}+M_{2}\rho_{2}-M_{3}\rho_{3} &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, this is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''x&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=X&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+Y&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

Or in (1884c):&lt;ref group=M&gt;Picard (1884c), pp. 123–124; 163&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}UU_{0}+VV_{0}-WW_{0}=uu_{0}+vv_{0}-ww_{0}\\
\hline \mathbf{(1)}\ \begin{align}U &amp; =Mu+Pv+Rw\\
V &amp; =M'u+P'v+R'w\\
W &amp; =M''u+P''v+R''w\\
\\
u &amp; =M_{0}U+M_{0}^{\prime}V-M_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\
v &amp; =P_{0}U+P_{0}^{\prime}V-P_{0}^{\prime\prime}W\\
w &amp; =-R_{0}U-R_{0}^{\prime}V+R_{0}^{\prime\prime}W
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}MM_{0}+M'M_{0}^{\prime}-M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =1\\
PP_{0}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =1\\
RR_{0}+R'R_{0}^{\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =-1\\
MP_{0}+M'P_{0}^{\prime}-M''P_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0\\
MR_{0}+M'R_{0}^{\prime}-M''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0\\
PR_{0}+P'R_{0}^{\prime}-P''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0\\
\\
MM_{0}+PP_{0}-RR_{0} &amp; =1\\
M'M_{0}^{\prime}+P'P_{0}^{\prime}-R'R_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =1\\
M''M_{0}^{\prime\prime}+P''P_{0}^{\prime\prime}-R''R_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =-1\\
M_{0}M'+P_{0}P'-R_{0}R' &amp; =0\\
M_{0}M''+P_{0}P''-R_{0}R'' &amp; =0\\
M_{0}^{\prime}M''+P_{0}^{\prime}P''-R_{0}^{\prime}R'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.\\
\hline \text{Invariance of unit hypersphere:}\\
\mathbf{(2)}\ \begin{align}\xi' &amp; =\frac{A\xi+A'\eta+A''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''}\\
\eta' &amp; =\frac{B\xi+B'\eta+B''}{C\xi+C'\eta+C''}
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}AA_{0}+A'A_{0}^{\prime}-A''A_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =1\\
BB_{0}+B'B_{0}^{\prime}-B''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =1\\
CC_{0}+C'C_{0}^{\prime}-C''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =-1\\
AB_{0}+A'B_{0}^{\prime}-A''B_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0\\
AC_{0}+A'C_{0}^{\prime}-A''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0\\
BC_{0}+B'C_{0}^{\prime}-B''C_{0}^{\prime\prime} &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Replacing the imaginary variables and coefficients with real ones, transformation system (1) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'' producing ''U&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+V&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-W&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=u&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;+v&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;-w&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;'' and transformation system (2) is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=2)'' producing &lt;math&gt;\xi^{\prime2}+\eta^{\prime2}=\xi^{2}+\eta^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Callandreau}} Callandreau (1885) – Homography ===

Following [[#Gauss4|Gauss (1818)]] and [[#Hill|Hill (1882)]], [[w:Octave Callandreau]] (1885) formulated the equations&lt;ref group=M&gt;Callandreau (1885), pp. A.7; A.12&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k\left(\sin^{2}T+\cos^{2}T-1\right)=\\
{\scriptstyle (\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T)^{2}+(\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T)^{2}-(\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T)^{2}}\\
\hline \begin{align}\cos\varepsilon' &amp; =\frac{\alpha+\alpha'\sin T+\alpha''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}\\
\sin\varepsilon' &amp; =\frac{\beta+\beta'\sin T+\beta''\cos T}{\gamma+\gamma'\sin T+\gamma''\cos T}
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align} &amp; \left(k=1\right)\\
\alpha^{2}+\beta^{2}-\gamma^{2} &amp; =-k &amp; \alpha\alpha'+\beta\beta'-\gamma\gamma' &amp; =0\\
\alpha^{\prime2}+\beta^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime2} &amp; =+k &amp; \alpha\alpha''+\beta\beta''-\gamma\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\alpha^{\prime\prime2}+\beta^{\prime\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =+k &amp; \alpha'\alpha''+\beta'\beta''-\gamma'\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\\
\alpha^{2}-\alpha^{\prime2}-\alpha^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1 &amp; \alpha\beta-\alpha'\beta'-\alpha''\beta'' &amp; =0\\
\beta^{2}-\beta^{\prime2}-\beta^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1 &amp; \alpha\gamma-\alpha'\gamma'-\alpha''\gamma'' &amp; =0\\
\gamma^{2}-\gamma^{\prime2}-\gamma^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =+1 &amp; \beta\gamma-\beta'\gamma'-\beta''\gamma'' &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}})  ''(n=2)'' with &lt;math&gt;[\cos T,\sin T,\cos\varepsilon',\sin\varepsilon']=\left[u_{1},u_{2},u_{1}^{\prime},u_{2}^{\prime}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lie3}} Lie (1885-1890) – Lie group, hyperbolic motions, and infinitesimal transformations===

In (1885/86), [[w:Sophus Lie]] identified the projective group of a general surface of second degree &lt;math&gt;\sum f_{ik}x_{i}'x_{k}'=0&lt;/math&gt; with the group of non-Euclidean motions.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1885/86), p. 411&lt;/ref&gt; In a thesis guided by Lie, [[w:Hermann Werner]] (1889) discussed this projective group by using the equation of a unit hypersphere as the surface of second degree (which was already given before by [[#Killing3|Killing (1887)]]), and also gave the corresponding infinitesimal projective transformations (Lie algebra):&lt;ref group=M&gt;Werner (1889), pp. 4, 28&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}=1\\
\hline x_{i}p_{\varkappa}-x_{\varkappa}p_{i},\quad p_{i}-x_{i}\sum_{1}^{n}{\scriptstyle j}\ x_{j}p_{j}\quad(i,\varkappa=1,\dots, n)\\
\text{where}\\
\left(Q_{i},Q_{\varkappa}\right)=R_{i,\varkappa};\ \left(Q_{i},Q_{j,\varkappa}\right)=\varepsilon_{i,j}Q_{\varkappa}-\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}Q_{j};\\
\left(R_{i,\varkappa},R_{\mu,\nu}\right)=\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\mu}R_{i,\nu}-\varepsilon_{\varkappa,\nu}R_{i,\mu}-\varepsilon_{,\mu}R_{\varkappa,\nu}+\varepsilon_{i,\nu}R_{\varkappa,\mu}\\
\left[\varepsilon_{i,\varkappa}\equiv0\ \text{for}\ i\ne\varkappa;\ \varepsilon_{i,i}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

More generally, Lie (1890)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1890a), p. 295;&lt;/ref&gt; defined non-Euclidean motions in terms of two forms &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\pm1=0&lt;/math&gt; in which the imaginary form with &lt;math&gt;+1&lt;/math&gt; denotes the group of elliptic motions (in Klein's terminology), the real form with −1 the group of hyperbolic motions, with the latter having the same form as Werner's transformation:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1890a), p. 311&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0\\
\hline p_{k}-x_{k}\sum j_{1}^{0}x_{j}p_{j},\quad x_{i}p_{k}-x_{k}p_{i}\quad(i,k=1\dots n)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Summarizing, Lie (1893) discussed the real continuous groups of the conic sections representing non-Euclidean motions, which in the case of hyperbolic motions have the form:

:&lt;math&gt;x^{2}+y^{2}-1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1893), p. 474&lt;/ref&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-1=0&lt;/math&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1893), p. 479&lt;/ref&gt; or &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lie (1893), p. 481&lt;/ref&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The group of hyperbolic motions is isomorphic to the Lorentz group. The interval &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-1=0&lt;/math&gt; becomes the Lorentz interval &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-x_{0}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt; by setting
&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;(x_{1},\dots,\ x_{n},\ 1)=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\dots,\ \frac{x_{n}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{0}}{x_{0}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane using the following invariant and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)'':&lt;ref group=M&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=1\\
X^{2}+Y^{2}-Z^{2}=X^{\prime2}+Y^{\prime2}-Z^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}X &amp; =aX'+a'Y'+a''Z'\\
Y &amp; =bX'+b'Y'+b''Z'\\
Z &amp; =cX'+c'Y'+c''Z'\\
\\
X' &amp; =aX+bY-cZ\\
Y' &amp; =a'X+b'Y-c'Z\\
Z' &amp; =-a''X-b''Y+c''Z
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}a^{2}+b^{2}-c^{2} &amp; =1\\
a^{\prime2}+b^{\prime2}-c^{\prime2} &amp; =1\\
a^{\prime\prime2}+b^{\prime\prime2}-c^{\prime\prime2} &amp; =-1\\
aa'+bb'-cc' &amp; =0\\
a'a''+b'b''-c'c'' &amp; =0\\
a''a+b''b-c''c &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

He gave the case of translation as follows:&lt;ref group=M name=gerard&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\
Y &amp; =Y'\\
Z &amp; =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z'
\end{align}
\ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\
Z_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{ch}OO'
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Hausdorff}} Hausdorff (1899) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Felix Hausdorff]] (1899) – citing Killing (1885) – discussed Weierstrass coordinates in the plane using the following invariant and its transformation:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Hausdorff (1899), p. 165, pp. 181-182&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}p^{2}-x^{2}-y^{2}=1\\
\hline \begin{align}x &amp; =a_{1}x'+a_{2}y'+x_{0}p'\\
y &amp; =b_{1}x'+b{}_{2}y'+y_{0}p'\\
p &amp; =e_{1}x'+e_{2}y'+p_{0}p'\\
\\
x' &amp; =a_{1}x+b_{1}y-e_{1}p\\
y' &amp; =a_{2}x+b_{2}y-e_{2}p\\
-p' &amp; =x_{0}x+y_{0}y-p_{0}p
\end{align}
\left|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}a_{1}^{2}+b_{1}^{2}-e_{1}^{2} &amp; =1\\
a_{2}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-e_{2}^{2} &amp; =1\\
-x_{0}^{2}-y_{0}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} &amp; =1\\
a_{2}x_{0}+b_{2}y_{0}-e_{2}p_{0} &amp; =0\\
a_{1}x_{0}+b_{1}y_{0}-e_{1}p_{0} &amp; =0\\
a_{1}a_{2}+b_{1}b_{2}-e_{1}e_{2} &amp; =0\\
\\
a_{1}^{2}+a_{2}^{2}-x_{0}^{2} &amp; =1\\
b_{1}^{2}+b_{2}^{2}-y_{0}^{2} &amp; =1\\
-e_{1}^{2}-e_{2}^{2}+p_{0}^{2} &amp; =1\\
b_{1}e_{1}+b_{2}e_{2}-y_{0}p_{0} &amp; =0\\
a_{1}e_{1}+a_{2}e_{2}-x_{0}p_{0} &amp; =0\\
a_{1}b_{1}+a_{2}b_{2}-x_{0}y_{0} &amp; =0
\end{align}
}\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1901-05) – Beltrami and Weierstrass coordinates ===
In (1901/02) [[w:Frederick S. Woods]] defined the following invariant quadratic form and its [[w:projective transformation]] in terms of Beltrami coordinates (he pointed out that this can be connected to hyperbolic geometry by setting &lt;math&gt;k=\sqrt{-1}R&lt;/math&gt; with ''R'' as real quantity):&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1901/02), p. 98, 104&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}k^{2}\left(u^{2}+v^{2}+w^{2}\right)+1=0\\
\hline \begin{align}u' &amp; =\frac{\alpha_{1}u+\alpha_{2}v+\alpha_{3}w+\alpha_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\
v' &amp; =\frac{\beta_{1}u+\beta_{2}v+\beta_{3}w+\beta_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}\\
w' &amp; =\frac{\gamma_{1}u+\gamma_{2}v+\gamma_{3}w+\gamma_{4}}{\delta_{1}u+\delta_{2}v+\delta_{3}w+\delta_{4}}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right)+\delta_{i}^{2} &amp; =k^{2}\\
(i=1,2,3)\\
k^{2}\left(\alpha_{4}^{2}+\beta_{4}^{2}+\gamma_{4}^{2}\right)+\delta_{4}^{2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}+\delta_{i}\delta_{h} &amp; =0\\
(i,h=1,2,3,4;\ i\ne h)
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1b}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

Alternatively, Woods (1903, published 1905) – citing Killing (1885) – used the invariant quadratic form in terms of Weierstrass coordinates and its transformation (with &lt;math&gt;k=\sqrt{-1}k&lt;/math&gt; for hyperbolic space):&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), pp. 45–46; p. 48)&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}\right)=1\\
ds^{2}=\frac{1}{k^{2}}dx_{0}^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\alpha_{1}x_{1}+\alpha_{2}x_{2}+\alpha_{3}x_{3}+\alpha_{0}x_{0}\\
x_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =\beta_{1}x_{1}+\beta_{2}x_{2}+\beta_{3}x_{3}+\beta_{0}x_{0}\\
x_{3}^{\prime} &amp; =\gamma_{1}x_{1}+\gamma_{2}x_{2}+\gamma_{3}x_{3}+\gamma_{0}x_{0}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\delta_{1}x_{1}+\delta_{2}x_{2}+\delta_{3}x_{3}+\delta_{0}x_{0}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\delta_{0}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{0}^{2}+\beta_{0}^{2}+\gamma_{0}^{2}\right) &amp; =1\\
\delta_{i}^{2}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}^{2}+\beta_{i}^{2}+\gamma_{i}^{2}\right) &amp; =k^{2}\\
(i=1,2,3)\\
\delta_{i}\delta_{h}+k^{2}\left(\alpha_{i}\alpha_{h}+\beta_{i}\beta_{h}+\gamma_{i}\gamma_{h}\right) &amp; =0\\
(i,h=0,1,2,3;\ i\ne h)
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=3)'' with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – used the invariant quadratic form and its Lorentz transformation equivalent to ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''&lt;ref group=M&gt;Liebmann (1904/05), p. 168; pp. 175–176&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}p^{\prime2}-x^{\prime2}-y^{\prime2}=1\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{1} &amp; =\alpha_{11}x+\alpha_{12}y+\alpha_{13}p\\
y_{1} &amp; =\alpha_{21}x+\alpha_{22}y+\alpha_{23}p\\
x_{1} &amp; =\alpha_{31}x+\alpha_{32}y+\alpha_{33}p\\
\\
x &amp; =\alpha_{11}x_{1}+\alpha_{21}y_{1}-\alpha_{31}p_{1}\\
y &amp; =\alpha_{12}x_{1}+\alpha_{22}y_{1}-\alpha_{32}p_{1}\\
p &amp; =-\alpha_{13}x_{1}-\alpha_{23}y_{1}+\alpha_{33}p_{1}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}\alpha_{33}^{2}-\alpha_{13}^{2}-\alpha_{23}^{2} &amp; =1\\
-\alpha_{31}^{2}+\alpha_{11}^{2}+\alpha_{21}^{2} &amp; =1\\
-\alpha_{32}^{2}+\alpha_{12}^{2}+\alpha_{22}^{2} &amp; =1\\
\alpha_{31}\alpha_{32}-\alpha_{11}\alpha_{12}-\alpha_{21}\alpha_{22} &amp; =0\\
\alpha_{32}\alpha_{33}-\alpha_{12}\alpha_{13}-\alpha_{22}\alpha_{23} &amp; =0\\
\alpha_{33}\alpha_{31}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{11}-\alpha_{23}\alpha_{21} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|1a}}) ''(n=2)''.&lt;/p&gt;

==References==
===Historical mathematical sources===
{{reflist|3|group=M}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bour56att}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chal82sec}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|chas29}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|fris76}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau98}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gau18}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|haus99}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|hill82}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac27}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac32b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|jac33}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil77}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil79}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil84}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag73}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|leb37}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie90}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lie93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic82}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|pic84c}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin81b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|poin87}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|sal62}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|som63}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wedd47}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|wern89}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}}

===Secondary sources===
{{reflist|3}}
{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L1}}

[[Category:Special Relativity]]
[[Category:History of Physics]]</text>
      <sha1>djil1v0sivb86xrg1npdhxpnzvldvza</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>History of Topics in Special Relativity/Lorentz transformation (hyperbolic)</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>267591</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413089</id>
      <parentid>2412608</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T06:36:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D.H</username>
        <id>52339</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="48514" xml:space="preserve">{{../Lorentz transformation (header)}}
==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions==
===Translation in the hyperbolic plane===
The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\
x_{1} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} &amp; =0\\
g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} &amp; =g_{11}^{2}\\
g_{01}^{2} &amp; =g_{10}^{2}
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; -g_{10}\\
-g_{01} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3a}}}}

which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt;. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle &lt;math&gt;i\eta=\phi&lt;/math&gt; in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\
\hline \left.\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta &amp; =-1 &amp; (a)\\
\cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta &amp; =1 &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\eta=v &amp; (c)\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\cosh\eta &amp; (d)\\
\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\sinh\eta &amp; (e)\\
\frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) &amp; (f)
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3b}}}}

Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]].

Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities &lt;math&gt;\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots&lt;/math&gt; as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\
\hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\
\begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\\
\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3c}}}}

Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]], while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther2|Günther (1880/81)]]. 

Using the idendity &lt;math&gt;\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}&lt;/math&gt;, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:&lt;ref name=rind&gt;Rindler (1969), p. 45&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
 &amp; \Rightarrow &amp; \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3d}}}} 

Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while the exponential form was explicitly used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]].

===Hyperbolic law of cosines===
In line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] one can use coordinates &lt;math&gt;[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]&lt;/math&gt; inside the [[w:unit circle]] &lt;math&gt;u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt;, thus the corresponding Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}) obtain the form:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
u_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\
u_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\
\\
u_{1} &amp; =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\
u_{2} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3e}}}}

Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]&lt;ref&gt;Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231&lt;/ref&gt; of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of &lt;math&gt;\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref name=pau&gt;Pauli (1921), p. 561&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=R name=var&gt;Varićak (1912), p. 108&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=barr&gt;Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\
u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\
u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\
\\
u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\
u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha'
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\cos\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
u\sin\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\sin\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\tan\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, &amp; \tan\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v}
\end{align}
\\
\Rightarrow &amp; u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha &amp; (b)\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha &amp; (a)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3f}}}}

The hyperbolic law of cosines (a) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (b) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\
\cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3g}}}}

Formulas (3b) resemble the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v/c'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]].

==Historical notation==
==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly===

[[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].&lt;ref group=M&gt;Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Volk (1976), p. 366&lt;/ref&gt; The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1735/40), § 19&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}&lt;/math&gt;

and in 1748:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1748a), section VIII&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}&lt;/math&gt;

while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lagrange (1770/71), section I&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt; These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Euler's formulas or &lt;math&gt;[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Lagrange's formulas.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition===

[[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,&lt;ref group=M&gt;Riccati (1757), p. 71&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13&lt;/ref&gt; in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\
\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\
\left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He furthermore showed that &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; follow by setting &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; in the above formulas.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition===

While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}&lt;/math&gt; of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 &amp; =\eta\eta &amp; (a)\\
1+\eta\eta &amp; =\xi\xi &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\eta}{\xi} &amp; =tang\ \phi=t\phi &amp; (c)\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (d)\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (e)\\
t\phi'' &amp; =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} &amp; (f)\\
t\phi' &amp; =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} &amp; (g)
\end{align}
\right|\begin{align}2u &amp; =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\
t\phi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\
e^{u} &amp; =\xi+\eta\\
e^{-u} &amp; =\xi-\eta
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1770), p. 335&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}t(y+z) &amp; =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) &amp; (f)\\
t(y-z) &amp; =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) &amp; (g)
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's &quot;cos&quot; and &quot;sin&quot; actually mean &quot;cosh&quot; and &quot;sinh&quot;):

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\sin(y+z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\
\sin(y-z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\
\cos(y+z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\
\cos(y-z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines===

After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bonola (1912), p. 79&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gray (1979), p. 242&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;When solved for &lt;math&gt;\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\
\left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\
\hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1})
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

(where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\
\hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\
\left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting ''a=a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences===
In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as&lt;ref group=M&gt;Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135&lt;/ref&gt;

:(1) &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} &amp; \qquad &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OA} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\
\mathrm{OD} &amp; \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} &amp;  &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OB} &amp; \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD}
\end{align}
\\
\left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

producing the invariant relation

:&lt;math&gt;(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\
\left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1).

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature&lt;ref&gt;Sommerville (1911), p. 297&lt;/ref&gt; based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)&lt;ref name=guder group=M&gt;Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19&lt;/ref&gt;  who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 508&lt;/ref&gt; in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:&lt;ref group=M name=escher&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 510&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt; and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition===

It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Glaisher (1878), p. 30&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, &amp; \sinh x\\
\sinh x, &amp; \cosh x
\end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{by multiplication:}\\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, &amp; s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\
c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, &amp; s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2}
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), &amp; \sinh(x+y)\\
\sinh(x+y), &amp; \cosh(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition ===

Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), p. 405&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x
\end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates ===

[[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=cox&gt;Cox (1881/82), p. 194&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\	
Z &amp; =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p	\\ \\
x &amp; =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\
z &amp; =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p	
\end{align}	
&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) ===
[[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}&lt;/math&gt;, which he rewrote as &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt;. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs &lt;math&gt;x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\
x_{a}+y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}}
\end{align}
\quad(a)\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\
2\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}
\end{align}
\quad(b)\end{matrix}\\
\hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}
\end{align}
\quad(c)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;whereas in accordance to expression &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;v&lt;1&lt;/math&gt; in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\
s_{a}&lt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1885/86), p. 167&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;=v'' as relative velocity.&lt;/p&gt;

In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}&lt;/math&gt; can have values &gt;0, &lt;0 or ∞.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

He also defined the triangle&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute===

[[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\
\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and used the following transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\
X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\
\hline \begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{1} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\
X_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{2} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\
X_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; \Xi_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; X_{3} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\
X_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; \Xi_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; X_{4} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

into which he put&lt;ref group=M name=linde&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{2} &amp; =x_{2}+ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\
X_{4} &amp; =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{3} &amp; =x_{2}-ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i},
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with &lt;math&gt;e^{\alpha i}=1&lt;/math&gt; and ''2k=1'' .&lt;/p&gt;

From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):&lt;ref group=M  name=linde /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{2} &amp; =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, &amp; x_{1} &amp; =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\
x_{3} &amp; =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, &amp; 2kx_{4} &amp; =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}.
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:&lt;ref group=M name=gerard&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\
Y &amp; =Y'\\
Z &amp; =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z'
\end{align}
\ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\
Z_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{ch}OO'
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form&lt;ref group=M name=killtra&gt;Killing (1893), p. 331&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=kill98&gt;Killing (1898), p. 133&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\
\hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\
\hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\
\text{or}\\
p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and &lt;math&gt;\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt;, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra===

[[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:&lt;ref group=M name=white&gt;Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}x' &amp; =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\
 &amp; \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory ===
[[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Elliott (1903), p. 109&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\
\hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 55&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 72&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\
x_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\
x_{3}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:&lt;ref group=M name=lieb&gt;Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity===
In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Frank (1909), pp. 423-425&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\
t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\
\hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\
\hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;
 	
=== {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\
	
\begin{aligned}x &amp; =x', &amp; t-z &amp; =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\
	
y &amp; =y', &amp; t+z &amp; =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta}
	
\end{aligned}
	
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):&lt;ref group=R name=var1&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 93&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}l' &amp; =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\
x' &amp; =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\
y' &amp; =y,\quad z'=z,\\
\operatorname{ch}u &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:&lt;ref group=R name=var1 /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)&lt;/math&gt;

He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\
\operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\
v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

==References==
===Historical mathematical sources===
{{reflist|3|group=M}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}}  
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}}

===Historical relativity sources===
{{reflist|3|group=R}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}}

===Secondary sources===
{{reflist|3}}
{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}}

[[Category:Special Relativity]]
[[Category:History of Physics]]</text>
      <sha1>kzlq215hf514wj8ao0n6ktjuappgb5b</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413101</id>
      <parentid>2413089</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:33:51Z</timestamp>
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        <username>D.H</username>
        <id>52339</id>
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      <comment>/* Translation in the hyperbolic plane */</comment>
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      <text bytes="48530" xml:space="preserve">{{../Lorentz transformation (header)}}
==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions==
===Translation in the hyperbolic plane===
The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\
x_{1} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} &amp; =0\\
g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} &amp; =g_{11}^{2}\\
g_{01}^{2} &amp; =g_{10}^{2}
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; -g_{10}\\
-g_{01} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3a}}}}

which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt;. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle &lt;math&gt;i\eta=\phi&lt;/math&gt; in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\
\hline \left.\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta &amp; =-1 &amp; (a)\\
\cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta &amp; =1 &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\eta=v &amp; (c)\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\cosh\eta &amp; (d)\\
\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\sinh\eta &amp; (e)\\
\frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) &amp; (f)
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3b}}}}

Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]].

Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities &lt;math&gt;\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots&lt;/math&gt; as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\
\hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\
\begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\\
\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3c}}}}

Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther2|Günther (1880/81)]]. 

Using the idendity &lt;math&gt;\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}&lt;/math&gt;, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:&lt;ref name=rind&gt;Rindler (1969), p. 45&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
 &amp; \Rightarrow &amp; \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3d}}}} 

Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while the exponential form was explicitly used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]].

===Hyperbolic law of cosines===
In line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] one can use coordinates &lt;math&gt;[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]&lt;/math&gt; inside the [[w:unit circle]] &lt;math&gt;u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt;, thus the corresponding Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}) obtain the form:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
u_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\
u_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\
\\
u_{1} &amp; =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\
u_{2} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3e}}}}

Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]&lt;ref&gt;Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231&lt;/ref&gt; of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of &lt;math&gt;\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref name=pau&gt;Pauli (1921), p. 561&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=R name=var&gt;Varićak (1912), p. 108&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=barr&gt;Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\
u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\
u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\
\\
u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\
u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha'
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\cos\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
u\sin\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\sin\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\tan\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, &amp; \tan\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v}
\end{align}
\\
\Rightarrow &amp; u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha &amp; (b)\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha &amp; (a)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3f}}}}

The hyperbolic law of cosines (a) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (b) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\
\cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3g}}}}

Formulas (3b) resemble the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v/c'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]].

==Historical notation==
==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly===

[[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].&lt;ref group=M&gt;Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Volk (1976), p. 366&lt;/ref&gt; The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1735/40), § 19&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}&lt;/math&gt;

and in 1748:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1748a), section VIII&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}&lt;/math&gt;

while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lagrange (1770/71), section I&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt; These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Euler's formulas or &lt;math&gt;[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Lagrange's formulas.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition===

[[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,&lt;ref group=M&gt;Riccati (1757), p. 71&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13&lt;/ref&gt; in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\
\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\
\left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He furthermore showed that &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; follow by setting &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; in the above formulas.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition===

While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}&lt;/math&gt; of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 &amp; =\eta\eta &amp; (a)\\
1+\eta\eta &amp; =\xi\xi &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\eta}{\xi} &amp; =tang\ \phi=t\phi &amp; (c)\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (d)\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (e)\\
t\phi'' &amp; =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} &amp; (f)\\
t\phi' &amp; =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} &amp; (g)
\end{align}
\right|\begin{align}2u &amp; =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\
t\phi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\
e^{u} &amp; =\xi+\eta\\
e^{-u} &amp; =\xi-\eta
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1770), p. 335&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}t(y+z) &amp; =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) &amp; (f)\\
t(y-z) &amp; =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) &amp; (g)
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's &quot;cos&quot; and &quot;sin&quot; actually mean &quot;cosh&quot; and &quot;sinh&quot;):

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\sin(y+z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\
\sin(y-z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\
\cos(y+z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\
\cos(y-z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines===

After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bonola (1912), p. 79&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gray (1979), p. 242&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;When solved for &lt;math&gt;\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\
\left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\
\hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1})
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

(where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\
\hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\
\left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting ''a=a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences===
In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as&lt;ref group=M&gt;Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135&lt;/ref&gt;

:(1) &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} &amp; \qquad &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OA} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\
\mathrm{OD} &amp; \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} &amp;  &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OB} &amp; \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD}
\end{align}
\\
\left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

producing the invariant relation

:&lt;math&gt;(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\
\left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1).

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature&lt;ref&gt;Sommerville (1911), p. 297&lt;/ref&gt; based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)&lt;ref name=guder group=M&gt;Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19&lt;/ref&gt;  who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 508&lt;/ref&gt; in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:&lt;ref group=M name=escher&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 510&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt; and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition===

It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Glaisher (1878), p. 30&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, &amp; \sinh x\\
\sinh x, &amp; \cosh x
\end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{by multiplication:}\\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, &amp; s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\
c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, &amp; s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2}
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), &amp; \sinh(x+y)\\
\sinh(x+y), &amp; \cosh(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition ===

Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), p. 405&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x
\end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates ===

[[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=cox&gt;Cox (1881/82), p. 194&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\	
Z &amp; =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p	\\ \\
x &amp; =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\
z &amp; =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p	
\end{align}	
&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) ===
[[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}&lt;/math&gt;, which he rewrote as &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt;. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs &lt;math&gt;x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\
x_{a}+y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}}
\end{align}
\quad(a)\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\
2\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}
\end{align}
\quad(b)\end{matrix}\\
\hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}
\end{align}
\quad(c)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;whereas in accordance to expression &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;v&lt;1&lt;/math&gt; in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\
s_{a}&lt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1885/86), p. 167&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;=v'' as relative velocity.&lt;/p&gt;

In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}&lt;/math&gt; can have values &gt;0, &lt;0 or ∞.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

He also defined the triangle&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute===

[[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\
\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and used the following transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\
X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\
\hline \begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{1} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\
X_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{2} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\
X_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; \Xi_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; X_{3} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\
X_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; \Xi_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; X_{4} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

into which he put&lt;ref group=M name=linde&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{2} &amp; =x_{2}+ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\
X_{4} &amp; =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{3} &amp; =x_{2}-ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i},
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with &lt;math&gt;e^{\alpha i}=1&lt;/math&gt; and ''2k=1'' .&lt;/p&gt;

From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):&lt;ref group=M  name=linde /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{2} &amp; =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, &amp; x_{1} &amp; =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\
x_{3} &amp; =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, &amp; 2kx_{4} &amp; =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}.
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:&lt;ref group=M name=gerard&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\
Y &amp; =Y'\\
Z &amp; =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z'
\end{align}
\ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\
Z_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{ch}OO'
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form&lt;ref group=M name=killtra&gt;Killing (1893), p. 331&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=kill98&gt;Killing (1898), p. 133&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\
\hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\
\hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\
\text{or}\\
p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and &lt;math&gt;\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt;, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra===

[[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:&lt;ref group=M name=white&gt;Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}x' &amp; =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\
 &amp; \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory ===
[[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Elliott (1903), p. 109&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\
\hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 55&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 72&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\
x_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\
x_{3}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:&lt;ref group=M name=lieb&gt;Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity===
In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Frank (1909), pp. 423-425&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\
t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\
\hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\
\hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;
 	
=== {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\
	
\begin{aligned}x &amp; =x', &amp; t-z &amp; =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\
	
y &amp; =y', &amp; t+z &amp; =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta}
	
\end{aligned}
	
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):&lt;ref group=R name=var1&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 93&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}l' &amp; =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\
x' &amp; =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\
y' &amp; =y,\quad z'=z,\\
\operatorname{ch}u &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:&lt;ref group=R name=var1 /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)&lt;/math&gt;

He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\
\operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\
v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

==References==
===Historical mathematical sources===
{{reflist|3|group=M}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}}  
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}}

===Historical relativity sources===
{{reflist|3|group=R}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}}

===Secondary sources===
{{reflist|3}}
{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}}

[[Category:Special Relativity]]
[[Category:History of Physics]]</text>
      <sha1>dt6viokpm7e2dd8vk1lahbqcvdl6f5k</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413102</id>
      <parentid>2413101</parentid>
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        <username>D.H</username>
        <id>52339</id>
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      <comment>/* Translation in the hyperbolic plane */</comment>
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      <text bytes="48530" xml:space="preserve">{{../Lorentz transformation (header)}}
==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions==
===Translation in the hyperbolic plane===
The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\
x_{1} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} &amp; =0\\
g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} &amp; =g_{11}^{2}\\
g_{01}^{2} &amp; =g_{10}^{2}
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; -g_{10}\\
-g_{01} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3a}}}}

which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt;. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle &lt;math&gt;i\eta=\phi&lt;/math&gt; in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\
\hline \left.\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta &amp; =-1 &amp; (a)\\
\cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta &amp; =1 &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\eta=v &amp; (c)\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\cosh\eta &amp; (d)\\
\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\sinh\eta &amp; (e)\\
\frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) &amp; (f)
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3b}}}}

Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]].

Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities &lt;math&gt;\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots&lt;/math&gt; as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\
\hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\
\begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\\
\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3c}}}}

Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. 

Using the idendity &lt;math&gt;\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}&lt;/math&gt;, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:&lt;ref name=rind&gt;Rindler (1969), p. 45&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
 &amp; \Rightarrow &amp; \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3d}}}} 

Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while the exponential form was explicitly used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]].

===Hyperbolic law of cosines===
In line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] one can use coordinates &lt;math&gt;[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]&lt;/math&gt; inside the [[w:unit circle]] &lt;math&gt;u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt;, thus the corresponding Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}) obtain the form:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
u_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\
u_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\
\\
u_{1} &amp; =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\
u_{2} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3e}}}}

Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]&lt;ref&gt;Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231&lt;/ref&gt; of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of &lt;math&gt;\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref name=pau&gt;Pauli (1921), p. 561&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=R name=var&gt;Varićak (1912), p. 108&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=barr&gt;Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\
u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\
u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\
\\
u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\
u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha'
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\cos\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
u\sin\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\sin\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\tan\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, &amp; \tan\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v}
\end{align}
\\
\Rightarrow &amp; u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha &amp; (b)\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha &amp; (a)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3f}}}}

The hyperbolic law of cosines (a) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (b) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\
\cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3g}}}}

Formulas (3b) resemble the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v/c'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]].

==Historical notation==
==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly===

[[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].&lt;ref group=M&gt;Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Volk (1976), p. 366&lt;/ref&gt; The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1735/40), § 19&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}&lt;/math&gt;

and in 1748:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1748a), section VIII&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}&lt;/math&gt;

while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lagrange (1770/71), section I&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt; These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Euler's formulas or &lt;math&gt;[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Lagrange's formulas.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition===

[[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,&lt;ref group=M&gt;Riccati (1757), p. 71&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13&lt;/ref&gt; in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\
\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\
\left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He furthermore showed that &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; follow by setting &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; in the above formulas.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition===

While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}&lt;/math&gt; of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 &amp; =\eta\eta &amp; (a)\\
1+\eta\eta &amp; =\xi\xi &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\eta}{\xi} &amp; =tang\ \phi=t\phi &amp; (c)\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (d)\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (e)\\
t\phi'' &amp; =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} &amp; (f)\\
t\phi' &amp; =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} &amp; (g)
\end{align}
\right|\begin{align}2u &amp; =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\
t\phi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\
e^{u} &amp; =\xi+\eta\\
e^{-u} &amp; =\xi-\eta
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1770), p. 335&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}t(y+z) &amp; =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) &amp; (f)\\
t(y-z) &amp; =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) &amp; (g)
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's &quot;cos&quot; and &quot;sin&quot; actually mean &quot;cosh&quot; and &quot;sinh&quot;):

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\sin(y+z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\
\sin(y-z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\
\cos(y+z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\
\cos(y-z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines===

After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bonola (1912), p. 79&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gray (1979), p. 242&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;When solved for &lt;math&gt;\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\
\left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\
\hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1})
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

(where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\
\hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\
\left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting ''a=a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences===
In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as&lt;ref group=M&gt;Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135&lt;/ref&gt;

:(1) &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} &amp; \qquad &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OA} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\
\mathrm{OD} &amp; \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} &amp;  &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OB} &amp; \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD}
\end{align}
\\
\left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

producing the invariant relation

:&lt;math&gt;(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\
\left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1).

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature&lt;ref&gt;Sommerville (1911), p. 297&lt;/ref&gt; based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)&lt;ref name=guder group=M&gt;Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19&lt;/ref&gt;  who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 508&lt;/ref&gt; in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:&lt;ref group=M name=escher&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 510&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt; and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition===

It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Glaisher (1878), p. 30&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, &amp; \sinh x\\
\sinh x, &amp; \cosh x
\end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{by multiplication:}\\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, &amp; s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\
c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, &amp; s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2}
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), &amp; \sinh(x+y)\\
\sinh(x+y), &amp; \cosh(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition ===

Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), p. 405&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x
\end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates ===

[[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=cox&gt;Cox (1881/82), p. 194&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\	
Z &amp; =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p	\\ \\
x &amp; =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\
z &amp; =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p	
\end{align}	
&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) ===
[[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}&lt;/math&gt;, which he rewrote as &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt;. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs &lt;math&gt;x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\
x_{a}+y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}}
\end{align}
\quad(a)\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\
2\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}
\end{align}
\quad(b)\end{matrix}\\
\hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}
\end{align}
\quad(c)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;whereas in accordance to expression &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;v&lt;1&lt;/math&gt; in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\
s_{a}&lt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1885/86), p. 167&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;=v'' as relative velocity.&lt;/p&gt;

In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}&lt;/math&gt; can have values &gt;0, &lt;0 or ∞.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

He also defined the triangle&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute===

[[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\
\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and used the following transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\
X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\
\hline \begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{1} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\
X_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{2} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\
X_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; \Xi_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; X_{3} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\
X_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; \Xi_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; X_{4} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

into which he put&lt;ref group=M name=linde&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{2} &amp; =x_{2}+ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\
X_{4} &amp; =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{3} &amp; =x_{2}-ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i},
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with &lt;math&gt;e^{\alpha i}=1&lt;/math&gt; and ''2k=1'' .&lt;/p&gt;

From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):&lt;ref group=M  name=linde /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{2} &amp; =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, &amp; x_{1} &amp; =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\
x_{3} &amp; =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, &amp; 2kx_{4} &amp; =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}.
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:&lt;ref group=M name=gerard&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\
Y &amp; =Y'\\
Z &amp; =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z'
\end{align}
\ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\
Z_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{ch}OO'
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form&lt;ref group=M name=killtra&gt;Killing (1893), p. 331&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=kill98&gt;Killing (1898), p. 133&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\
\hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\
\hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\
\text{or}\\
p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and &lt;math&gt;\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt;, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra===

[[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:&lt;ref group=M name=white&gt;Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}x' &amp; =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\
 &amp; \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory ===
[[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Elliott (1903), p. 109&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\
\hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 55&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 72&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\
x_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\
x_{3}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:&lt;ref group=M name=lieb&gt;Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity===
In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Frank (1909), pp. 423-425&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\
t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\
\hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\
\hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;
 	
=== {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\
	
\begin{aligned}x &amp; =x', &amp; t-z &amp; =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\
	
y &amp; =y', &amp; t+z &amp; =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta}
	
\end{aligned}
	
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):&lt;ref group=R name=var1&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 93&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}l' &amp; =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\
x' &amp; =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\
y' &amp; =y,\quad z'=z,\\
\operatorname{ch}u &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:&lt;ref group=R name=var1 /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)&lt;/math&gt;

He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\
\operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\
v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

==References==
===Historical mathematical sources===
{{reflist|3|group=M}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}}  
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}}

===Historical relativity sources===
{{reflist|3|group=R}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}}

===Secondary sources===
{{reflist|3}}
{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}}

[[Category:Special Relativity]]
[[Category:History of Physics]]</text>
      <sha1>bj17vjjp1psl6db9ft8gr055k7bihdq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413104</id>
      <parentid>2413102</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:39:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>D.H</username>
        <id>52339</id>
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      <comment>/* Translation in the hyperbolic plane */</comment>
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      <text bytes="48630" xml:space="preserve">{{../Lorentz transformation (header)}}
==Lorentz transformation via hyperbolic functions==
===Translation in the hyperbolic plane===
The case of a Lorentz transformation without spatial rotation is called a [[w:Lorentz boost]]. The simplest case can be given, for instance, by setting ''n=1'' in the [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1a|E:most general Lorentz transformation '''(1a)''']]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{00}+x_{1}g_{01}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}g_{10}+x_{1}g_{11}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}g_{00}-x_{1}^{\prime}g_{10}\\
x_{1} &amp; =-x_{0}^{\prime}g_{01}+x_{1}^{\prime}g_{11}
\end{align}
\left|\begin{align}g_{01}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{10}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{01}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{10} &amp; =0\\
g_{10}^{2}-g_{00}^{2} &amp; =-1\\
g_{11}^{2}-g_{01}^{2} &amp; =1\\
g_{10}g_{11}-g_{00}g_{01} &amp; =0
\end{align}
\rightarrow\begin{align}g_{00}^{2} &amp; =g_{11}^{2}\\
g_{01}^{2} &amp; =g_{10}^{2}
\end{align}
\right.
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; -g_{10}\\
-g_{01} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}g_{00} &amp; g_{01}\\
g_{10} &amp; g_{11}
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3a}}}}

which resembles precisely the relations of [[w:hyperbolic function]]s in terms of [[w:hyperbolic angle]] &lt;math&gt;\eta&lt;/math&gt;. Thus a Lorentz boost or [[w:hyperbolic rotation]] (being the same as a rotation around an imaginary angle &lt;math&gt;i\eta=\phi&lt;/math&gt; in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2b|E:'''(2b)''']] or a [[w:Translation (geometry)|translation]] in the hyperbolic plane in terms of the hyperboloid model) is given by

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline g_{00}=g_{11}=\cosh\eta,\ g_{01}=g_{10}=-\sinh\eta\\
\hline \left.\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}-x_{1}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}-x_{0}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{0}^{\prime}+x_{1}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\\
x_{1} &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime}v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}
\end{align}
\right|{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\sinh^{2}\eta-\cosh^{2}\eta &amp; =-1 &amp; (a)\\
\cosh^{2}\eta-\sinh^{2}\eta &amp; =1 &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\sinh\eta}{\cosh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\eta=v &amp; (c)\\
\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\cosh\eta &amp; (d)\\
\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}} &amp; =\sinh\eta &amp; (e)\\
\frac{\tanh q\pm\tanh\eta}{1\pm\tanh q\tanh\eta} &amp; =\tanh\left(q\pm\eta\right) &amp; (f)
\end{align}
}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\mathbf{x}' &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}\\
\mathbf{x} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\mathbf{x}'
\end{align}
\quad\right|\quad\det\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}=1&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3b}}}}

Hyperbolic identities (a,b) on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}) were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]], all identities (a,b,c,d,e,f) by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]]. Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}-A) were given by [[#Laisant|Laisant (1874)]], [[#Cox|Cox (1882)]], [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Gerard|Gérard (1892)]], [[#Killing2|Killing (1893, 1897/98)]], [[#Whitehead|Whitehead (1897/98)]], [[#Woods2|Woods (1903/05)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]] and [[#Liebmann|Liebmann (1904/05)]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]], while transformations similar to ({{equationNote|3b}}-C) have been used by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]]. In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[#Frank|Frank (1909)]] and [[#Varicak|Varićak (1910)]].

Rapidity can be composed of arbitrary many rapidities &lt;math&gt;\eta_{1},\eta_{2}\dots&lt;/math&gt; as per the [[w:Hyperbolic functions#Sums of arguments|w:angle sum laws of hyperbolic sines and cosines]], so that one hyperbolic rotation can represent the sum of many other hyperbolic rotations, analogous to the relation between [[w:List of trigonometric identities#Angle sum and difference identities|w:angle sum laws of circular trigonometry]] and spatial rotations. Alternatively, the hyperbolic angle sum laws ''themselves'' can be interpreted as Lorentz boosts, as demonstrated by using the parameterization of the [[w:unit hyperbola]]:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}=1\\
\hline \left[\eta=\eta_{2}-\eta_{1}\right]\\
\begin{align}x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{1}=\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta-\cosh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}\cosh\eta-x_{1}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{1}=\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)=-\sinh\eta_{2}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{2}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =-x_{0}\sinh\eta+x_{1}\cosh\eta\\
\\
x_{0} &amp; =\sinh\eta_{2}=\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\cosh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta\\
x_{1} &amp; =\cosh\eta_{2}=\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)=\sinh\eta_{1}\sinh\eta+\cosh\eta_{1}\cosh\eta &amp;  &amp; =x_{0}^{\prime}\sinh\eta+x_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

or in matrix notation

&lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \begin{align}\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{2}-\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; -\sinh\eta\\
-\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}\\
\begin{bmatrix}x_{1} &amp; x_{0}\\
x_{0} &amp; x_{1}
\end{bmatrix} &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{2} &amp; \sinh\eta_{2}\\
\sinh\eta_{2} &amp; \cosh\eta_{2}
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)\\
\sinh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right) &amp; \cosh\left(\eta_{1}+\eta\right)
\end{bmatrix}=\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta_{1} &amp; \sinh\eta_{1}\\
\sinh\eta_{1} &amp; \cosh\eta_{1}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix} &amp;  &amp; =\begin{bmatrix}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; x_{0}^{\prime}\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; x_{1}^{\prime}
\end{bmatrix}\cdot\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta
\end{bmatrix}
\end{align}
}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3c}}}}

Hyperbolic angle sum laws were given by [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] and [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768–1770)]] and many others, while matrix representations were given by [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]] and [[#Gunther1|Günther (1880/81)]]. 

Using the idendity &lt;math&gt;\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=e^{\eta}&lt;/math&gt;, Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) assumes a simple form by using [[w:squeeze mapping]]s in analogy to Euler's formula in [[../Lorentz transformation (imaginary)#math_2c|E:'''(2c)''']]:&lt;ref name=rind&gt;Rindler (1969), p. 45&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}-x_{0}^{2}+x_{1}^{2}=-x_{0}^{\prime2}+x_{1}^{\prime2}\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =k\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{1}{k}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
 &amp; \Rightarrow &amp; \begin{aligned}x_{1}^{\prime}-x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{\eta}\left(x_{1}-x_{0}\right)\\
x_{1}^{\prime}+x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =e^{-\eta}\left(x_{1}+x_{0}\right)
\end{aligned}
\end{matrix}\\
\hline k=e^{\eta}=\cosh\eta+\sinh\eta=\sqrt{\frac{1+\tanh\eta}{1-\tanh\eta}}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3d}}}} 

Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3d}}) for arbitrary ''k'' were given by many authors (see [[../Lorentz transformation (squeeze)|E:Lorentz transformations via squeeze mappings]]), while a form similar to &lt;math&gt;k=\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}&lt;/math&gt; was given by [[#Lipschitz1|Lipschitz (1885/86)]], and the exponential form was used by [[#Lindemann|Lindemann (1890/91)]], [[#Elliott|Elliott (1903)]], [[#Herglotz1|Herglotz (1909)]].

===Hyperbolic law of cosines===
In line with equation [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#math_1b|E:'''(1b)''']] one can use coordinates &lt;math&gt;[u_{1},\ u_{2}]=\left[\tfrac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \tfrac{x_{2}}{x_{0}}\right]&lt;/math&gt; inside the [[w:unit circle]] &lt;math&gt;u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}=1&lt;/math&gt;, thus the corresponding Lorentz transformations ({{equationNote|3b}}) obtain the form:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{align} &amp; \quad\quad(A) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(B) &amp;  &amp; \quad\quad(C)\\
u_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{-\sinh\eta+u_{1}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-\tanh\eta}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}-v}{1-u_{1}v}\\
u_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}}{\cosh\eta-u_{1}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1-u_{1}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-u_{1}v}\\
\\
u_{1} &amp; =\frac{\sinh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\cosh\eta}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+\tanh\eta}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{1}^{\prime}+v}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}\\
u_{2} &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}}{\cosh\eta+u_{1}^{\prime}\sinh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}\tanh\eta} &amp;  &amp; =\frac{u_{2}^{\prime}\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+u_{1}^{\prime}v}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3e}}}}

Transformations (A) were given by [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]] and [[#Killing2|Killing (1898)]], and transformations (C) by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] and [[#Schur|Schur (1885/86, 1900/02)]] in terms of [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]]&lt;ref&gt;Rosenfeld (1988), p. 231&lt;/ref&gt; of hyperbolic geometry. By using the scalar product of &lt;math&gt;\left[u_{1},u_{2}\right]&lt;/math&gt;, the resulting Lorentz transformation can be seen as equivalent to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref name=pau&gt;Pauli (1921), p. 561&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=R name=var&gt;Varićak (1912), p. 108&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=barr&gt;Barrett (2006), chapter 4, section 2&lt;/ref&gt;

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \begin{matrix}u^{2}=u_{1}^{2}+u_{2}^{2}\\
u'^{2}=u_{1}^{\prime2}+u_{2}^{\prime2}
\end{matrix}\left|\begin{matrix}u_{1}=u\cos\alpha\\
u_{2}=u\sin\alpha\\
\\
u_{1}^{\prime}=u'\cos\alpha'\\
u_{2}^{\prime}=u'\sin\alpha'
\end{matrix}\right|\begin{align}u\cos\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\cos\alpha'+v}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\cos\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\cos\alpha-v}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
u\sin\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'}, &amp; u'\sin\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\tan\alpha &amp; =\frac{u'\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u'\cos\alpha'+v}, &amp; \tan\alpha' &amp; =\frac{u\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{u\cos\alpha-v}
\end{align}
\\
\Rightarrow &amp; u=\frac{\sqrt{v^{2}+u^{\prime2}+2vu'\cos\alpha'-\left(vu'\sin\alpha'\right){}^{2}}}{1+vu'\cos\alpha'},\quad u'=\frac{\sqrt{-v^{2}-u^{2}+2vu\cos\alpha+\left(vu\sin\alpha\right){}^{2}}}{1-vu\cos\alpha}\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{\prime2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}-\frac{v}{\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}\frac{u}{\sqrt{1-u^{2}}}\cos\alpha &amp; (b)\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\xi}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}-\frac{\tanh\eta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\eta}}\frac{\tanh\zeta}{\sqrt{1-\tanh^{2}\zeta}}\cos\alpha\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \cosh\xi=\cosh\eta\cosh\zeta-\sinh\eta\sinh\zeta\cos\alpha &amp; (a)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3f}}}}

The hyperbolic law of cosines (a) was given by [[#Taurinus|Taurinus (1826) and Lobachevsky (1829/30)]] and others, while variant (b) was given by [[#Schur|Schur (1900/02)]]. By further setting ''u=u′'' it follows:

{{NumBlk|:|&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\cos\alpha=\frac{\cos\alpha'+v}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \sin\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1+v\cos\alpha'},\ \tan\alpha=\frac{\sin\alpha'\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha'+v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1-v}{1+v}}\tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}\\
\cos\alpha'=\frac{\cos\alpha-v}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \sin\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos\alpha},\ \tan\alpha'=\frac{\sin\alpha\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{\cos\alpha-v},\ \tan\frac{\alpha'}{2}=\sqrt{\frac{1+v}{1-v}}\tan\frac{\alpha}{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;|{{equationRef|3g}}}}

Formulas (3b) resemble the equations of an [[w:ellipse]] of [[w:Orbital eccentricity|eccentricity]] ''v/c'', [[w:eccentric anomaly]] α' and [[w:true anomaly]] α, first geometrically formulated by [[#Euler|Kepler (1609)]] and explicitly written down by [[#Euler|Euler (1735, 1748), Lagrange (1770)]] and many others in relation to planetary motions. They were also used by [[../Lorentz transformation (conformal)#Darboux|E:Darboux (1873)]] as a sphere transformation. In special relativity, these formulas describes the aberration of light, see [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#Velocity addition and aberration|E:velocity addition and aberration]].

==Historical notation==
==={{anchor|Euler}} Euler (1735) – True and eccentric anomaly===

[[w:Johannes Kepler]] (1609) geometrically formulated [[w:Kepler's equation]] and the relations between the [[w:mean anomaly]], [[w:true anomaly]], and [[w:eccentric anomaly]].&lt;ref group=M&gt;Kepler (1609), chapter 60. The editors of Kepler's collected papers remark (p. 482), that Kepler's relations correspond to &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \alpha=\beta+e\sin\beta}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\nu=\frac{e+\cos\beta}{1+e\cos\beta}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \cos\beta=\frac{\cos\nu-e}{1-e\cos\nu}}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Volk (1976), p. 366&lt;/ref&gt; The relation between the true anomaly ''z'' and the eccentric anomaly ''P'' was algebraically expressed by [[w:Leonhard Euler]] (1735/40) as follows:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1735/40), § 19&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{\cos P+v}{1+v\cos P},\ \cos P=\frac{\cos z-v}{1-v\cos z},\ \int P=\frac{\int z\sqrt{1-v^{2}}}{1-v\cos z}&lt;/math&gt;

and in 1748:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Euler (1748a), section VIII&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\cos z=\frac{n+\cos y}{1+n\cos y},\ \sin z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{1+n\cos y},\ \tan z=\frac{\sin y\sqrt{1-n^{2}}}{n+\cos y}&lt;/math&gt;

while [[w:Joseph-Louis Lagrange]] (1770/71) expressed them as follows&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lagrange (1770/71), section I&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\sin u=\frac{m\sin x}{1+n\cos x},\ \cos u=\frac{n+\cos x}{1+n\cos x},\ \operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}u=\frac{m}{1+n}\operatorname{tang}\frac{1}{2}x,\ \left(m^{2}=1-n^{2}\right)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt; These relations resemble formulas ({{equationNote|3g}}), while ({{equationNote|3f}}) follows by setting &lt;math&gt;[\cos z,\sin z]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Euler's formulas or &lt;math&gt;[\cos u,\sin u]=\left[u_{x},u_{y}\right]&lt;/math&gt; in Lagrange's formulas.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Riccati}} Riccati (1757) – hyperbolic addition===

[[w:Vincenzo Riccati]] introduced hyperbolic functions in 1757,&lt;ref group=M&gt;Riccati (1757), p. 71&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), pp. 7–13&lt;/ref&gt; in particular he formulated the angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Ch}\pi+\mathrm{Sh}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi}{r}\\
\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi+\pi)=\frac{\mathrm{Ch}\varphi\mathrm{Sh}\pi+\mathrm{Ch}\pi\mathrm{Sh}\varphi}{r}\\
\left[\mathrm{Ch}^{2}-\mathrm{Sh}^{2}=rr\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He furthermore showed that &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\varphi-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; follow by setting &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Ch}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Ch}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\mathrm{Sh}(\pi)\Rightarrow\mathrm{Sh}(-\pi)&lt;/math&gt; in the above formulas.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}). (In modern publications, Riccati's additional factor ''r'' is set to unity.)&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lambert}} Lambert (1768–1770) – hyperbolic addition===

While [[#Riccati|Riccati (1757)]] discussed the hyperbolic sine and cosine, [[w:Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (read 1767, published 1768) introduced the expression ''tang φ'' or abbreviated ''tφ'' as the [[w:tangens hyperbolicus]] &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}}&lt;/math&gt; of a variable ''u'', or in modern notation ''tφ=tanh(u)'':&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1761/68), pp. 309–318&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Barnett (2004), pp. 22–23&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\left.\begin{align}\xi\xi-1 &amp; =\eta\eta &amp; (a)\\
1+\eta\eta &amp; =\xi\xi &amp; (b)\\
\frac{\eta}{\xi} &amp; =tang\ \phi=t\phi &amp; (c)\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (d)\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{t\phi}{\sqrt{1-t\phi^{2}}} &amp; (e)\\
t\phi'' &amp; =\frac{t\phi+t\phi'}{1+t\phi\cdot t\phi'} &amp; (f)\\
t\phi' &amp; =\frac{t\phi''-t\phi}{1-t\phi\cdot t\phi''} &amp; (g)
\end{align}
\right|\begin{align}2u &amp; =\log\frac{1+t\phi}{1-t\phi}\\
\xi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}+e^{-u}}{2}\\
\eta &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{2}\\
t\phi &amp; =\frac{e^{u}-e^{-u}}{e^{u}+e^{-u}}\\
e^{u} &amp; =\xi+\eta\\
e^{-u} &amp; =\xi-\eta
\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;

In (1770) he rewrote the addition law for the hyperbolic tangens (f) or (g) as:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lambert (1770), p. 335&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}t(y+z) &amp; =(ty+tz):(1+ty\cdot tz) &amp; (f)\\
t(y-z) &amp; =(ty-tz):(1-ty\cdot tz) &amp; (g)
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The hyperbolic relations (a,b,c,d,e,f) are equivalent to the hyperbolic relations on the right of ({{equationNote|3b}}). Relations (f,g) can also be found in ({{equationNote|3e}}). By setting ''tφ=v/c'', formula (c) becomes the relative velocity between two frames, (d) the [[w:Lorentz factor]], (e) the [[w:proper velocity]], (f) or (g) becomes the Lorentz transformation of velocity (or relativistic [[w:velocity addition formula]]) for collinear velocities in [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4a|E:'''(4a)''']] and [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

Lambert also formulated the addition laws for the hyperbolic cosine and sine (Lambert's &quot;cos&quot; and &quot;sin&quot; actually mean &quot;cosh&quot; and &quot;sinh&quot;):

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}\sin(y+z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z+\cos y\sin z\\
\sin(y-z) &amp; =\sin y\cos z-\cos y\sin z\\
\cos(y+z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z+\sin y\sin z\\
\cos(y-z) &amp; =\cos y\cos z-\sin y\sin z
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The angle sum laws for hyperbolic sine and cosine can be interpreted as hyperbolic rotations of points on a hyperbola, as in Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Taurinus}} Taurinus (1826) – Hyperbolic law of cosines===

After the addition theorem for the tangens hyperbolicus was given by [[#Lambert|Lambert (1768)]], [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] was used by [[w:Franz Taurinus]] (1826), and later by [[w:Nikolai Lobachevsky]] (1829/30) and others, to formulate the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Taurinus (1826), p. 66; see also p. 272 in the translation by Engel and Stäckel (1899)&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Bonola (1912), p. 79&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gray (1979), p. 242&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;A=\operatorname{arccos}\frac{\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)-\cos\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\cos\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}{\sin\left(\beta\sqrt{-1}\right)\sin\left(\gamma\sqrt{-1}\right)}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;When solved for &lt;math&gt;\cos\left(\alpha\sqrt{-1}\right)&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the Lorentz transformation in Beltrami coordinates ({{equationNote|3f}}), and by defining the rapidities &lt;math&gt;{\scriptstyle \left(\left[\frac{U}{c},\ \frac{v}{c},\ \frac{u}{c}\right]=\left[\tanh\alpha,\ \tanh\beta,\ \tanh\gamma\right]\right)}&lt;/math&gt; it corresponds to the relativistic velocity addition formula [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']].&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Beltrami}} Beltrami (1868) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Eugenio Beltrami]] (1868a) introduced coordinates of the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry, and formulated the corresponding transformations in terms of homographies:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868a), pp. 287-288; Note I; Note II&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)du^{2}-2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}+v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}+u^{2}+v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
u^{2}+v^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline u''=\frac{aa_{0}\left(u'-r_{0}\right)}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\ v''=\frac{a_{0}w_{0}v'}{a^{2}-r_{0}u'},\\
\left(r_{0}=\sqrt{u_{0}^{2}+v_{0}^{2}},\ w_{0}=\sqrt{a^{2}-r_{0}^{2}}\right)\\
\hline ds^{2}=R^{2}\frac{\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)du^{2}+2uv\,du\,dv+\left(a^{2}-v^{2}\right)dv^{2}}{\left(a^{2}-u^{2}-v^{2}\right)^{2}}\\
(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1})
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

(where the disk radius ''a'' and the [[w:radius of curvature]] ''R'' are real in spherical geometry, in hyperbolic geometry they are imaginary), and for arbitrary dimensions in (1868b)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Beltrami (1868b), pp. 232, 240–241, 253–254&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx^{2}+dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}=a^{2}\\
\hline y_{1}=\frac{ab\left(x_{1}-a_{1}\right)}{a^{2}-a_{1}x_{1}}\ \text{or}\ x_{1}=\frac{a\left(ay_{1}+a_{1}b\right)}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{r}=\pm\frac{ay_{r}\sqrt{a^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}}{ab+a_{1}y_{1}}\ (r=2,3,\dots,n)\\
\hline ds=R\frac{\sqrt{dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+\cdots+dx_{n}^{2}-dx^{2}}}{x}\\
x^{2}=a^{2}+x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+\cdots+x_{n}^{2}\\
\left(R=R\sqrt{-1},\ x=x\sqrt{-1},\ a=a\sqrt{-1}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Setting ''a=a&lt;sub&gt;0&lt;/sub&gt;'' Beltrami's (1868a) formulas become formulas ({{equationNote|3e}}), or in his (1868b) formulas one sets ''a=b'' for arbitrary dimensions.&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Laisant2}} Laisant (1874) – Equipollences===
In his French translation of [[w:Giusto Bellavitis]]' principal work on [[w:Equipollence (geometry)|w:equipollences]], [[w:Charles-Ange Laisant]] (1874) added a chapter related to hyperbolas. The equipollence OM and its tangent MT of a hyperbola is defined by Laisant as&lt;ref group=M&gt;Laisant (1874b), pp. 134–135&lt;/ref&gt;

:(1) &lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix} &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq x\mathrm{OA}+y\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \mathrm{MT}\bumpeq y\mathrm{OA}+x\mathrm{OB}\\
 &amp; \left[x^{2}-y^{2}=1;\ x=\cosh t,\ y=\sinh t\right]\\
\Rightarrow &amp; \mathrm{OM}\bumpeq\cosh t\cdot\mathrm{OA}+\sinh t\cdot\mathrm{OB}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

Here, OA and OB are [[w:Conjugate diameters|conjugate semi-diameters]] of a hyperbola with OB being imaginary, both of which he related to two other conjugated semi-diameters OC and OD by the following transformation:

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}\mathrm{OC} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OA}+d\mathrm{OB} &amp; \qquad &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OA} &amp; \bumpeq c\mathrm{OC}-d\mathrm{OD}\\
\mathrm{OD} &amp; \bumpeq d\mathrm{OA}+c\mathrm{OB} &amp;  &amp;  &amp; \mathrm{OB} &amp; \bumpeq-d\mathrm{OC}+c\mathrm{OD}
\end{align}
\\
\left[c^{2}-d^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

producing the invariant relation

:&lt;math&gt;(\mathrm{OC})^{2}-(\mathrm{OD})^{2}\bumpeq(\mathrm{OA})^{2}-(\mathrm{OB})^{2}&lt;/math&gt;.

Substituting into (1), he showed that OM retains its form

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\mathrm{OM}\bumpeq(cx-dy)\mathrm{OC}+(cy-dx)\mathrm{OD}\\
\left[(cx-dy)^{2}-(cy-dx)^{2}=1\right]
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

He also defined velocity and acceleration by differentiation of (1).

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;These relations are equivalent to several Lorentz boosts or hyperbolic rotations producing the invariant Lorentz interval in line with ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Escherich}} Escherich (1874) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Gustav von Escherich]] (1874) discussed the plane of constant negative curvature&lt;ref&gt;Sommerville (1911), p. 297&lt;/ref&gt; based on the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model]] of hyperbolic geometry by [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]]. Similar to [[w:Christoph Gudermann]] (1830)&lt;ref name=guder group=M&gt;Gudermann (1830), §1–3, §18–19&lt;/ref&gt;  who introduced axial coordinates ''x''=tan(a) and ''y''=tan(b) in sphere geometry in order to perform coordinate transformations in the case of rotation and translation, Escherich used hyperbolic functions ''x''=tanh(a/k) and ''y''=tanh(b/k)&lt;ref group=M&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 508&lt;/ref&gt; in order to give the corresponding coordinate transformations for the hyperbolic plane, which for the case of translation have the form:&lt;ref group=M name=escher&gt;Escherich (1874), p. 510&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x=\frac{\sinh\frac{a}{k}+x'\cosh\frac{a}{k}}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;y=\frac{y'}{\cosh\frac{a}{k}+x'\sinh\frac{a}{k}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}), also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;\tfrac{a}{k}=\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt; and multiplying ''[x,y,x′,y′]'' by 1/''c'', and equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) by setting &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle (x,\ y,\ x',\ y')=\left(\frac{x_{1}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{2}}{x_{0}},\ \frac{x_{1}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}},\ \frac{x_{2}^{\prime}}{x_{0}^{\prime}}\right)&lt;/math&gt;. This is the relation between the [[w:Beltrami–Klein model|Beltrami coordinates]] in terms of Gudermann-Escherich coordinates, and the Weierstrass coordinates of the [[w:hyperboloid model]] introduced by [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing1|E:Killing (1878–1893)]], [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|E:Poincaré (1881)]], and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Cox|E:Cox (1881)]]. Both coordinate systems were compared by Cox (1881).&lt;ref group=M&gt;Cox (1881), p. 186&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Glaisher}} Glaisher (1878) – hyperbolic addition===

It was shown by [[w:James Whitbread Lee Glaisher]] (1878) that the hyperbolic addition laws can be expressed by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Glaisher (1878), p. 30&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\cosh x, &amp; \sinh x\\
\sinh x, &amp; \cosh x
\end{vmatrix}=1,\ \begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{by multiplication:}\\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}c_{1}c_{2}+s_{1}s_{2}, &amp; s_{1}c_{2}+c_{1}s_{2}\\
c_{1}s_{2}+s_{1}c_{2}, &amp; s_{1}s_{2}+c_{1}c_{2}
\end{vmatrix}=1\\
\text{where}\ \left[c_{1},c_{2},c_{3},c_{4}\right]=\left[\cosh x,\cosh y,\sinh x,\sinh y\right] \\
\Rightarrow\begin{vmatrix}\cosh(x+y), &amp; \sinh(x+y)\\
\sinh(x+y), &amp; \cosh(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\cosh y, &amp; \sinh y\\
\sinh y, &amp; \cosh y\end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gunther1}} Günther (1880/81) – hyperbolic addition ===

Following [[#Glaisher|Glaisher (1878)]], [[w:Siegmund Günther]] (1880/81) expressed the hyperbolic addition laws by matrix multiplication:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Günther (1880/81), p. 405&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x
\end{vmatrix}\cdot\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,x\,\mathfrak{Sin}\,y+\mathfrak{Cos}\,x\,\mathfrak{Cos}\,y
\end{vmatrix}\\
=\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y)\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,(x+y), &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,(x+y)
\end{vmatrix}=1
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;In this matrix representation, the analogy between the hyperbolic angle sum laws and the Lorentz boost becomes obvious: In particular, the matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{vmatrix}\mathfrak{Cos}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Sin}\,y\\
\mathfrak{Sin}\,y, &amp; \mathfrak{Cos}\,y \end{vmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing the hyperbolic addition is analogous to matrix &lt;math&gt;\scriptstyle\begin{bmatrix}\cosh\eta &amp; \sinh\eta\\
\sinh\eta &amp; \cosh\eta\end{bmatrix}&lt;/math&gt; producing Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3c}}).&lt;/p&gt;

=== {{anchor|Cox}} Cox (1881/82) – Weierstrass coordinates ===

[[w:Homersham Cox (mathematician)|w:Homersham Cox]] (1881/82) defined the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane with the ''y''-axis remaining unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=cox&gt;Cox (1881/82), p. 194&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =x\cosh p-z\sinh p\\	
Z &amp; =-x\sinh p+z\cosh p	\\ \\
x &amp; =X\cosh p+Z\sinh p\\
z &amp; =X\sinh p+Z\cosh p	
\end{align}	
&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lipschitz1}} Lipschitz (1885/86) ===
[[w:Rudolf Lipschitz]] (1885/86) formulated transformations leaving invariant the sum of squares &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}\dots+x_{n}^{2}=y_{1}^{2}+y_{2}^{2}+\dots+y_{n}^{2}&lt;/math&gt;, which he rewrote as &lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{2}-y_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-y_{2}^{2}+\dots+x_{n}^{2}-y_{n}^{2}=0&lt;/math&gt;. This led to the problem of finding transformations leaving invariant the pairs &lt;math&gt;x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}&lt;/math&gt; (''a''=1...n) for which he gave the following solution:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lipschitz (1886), pp. 90–92&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{a}^{2}-y_{a}^{2}=\mathfrak{x}_{a}^{2}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}^{2}\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{a}-y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}-\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)r_{a}\\
x_{a}+y_{a} &amp; =\left(\mathfrak{x}_{a}+\mathfrak{y}_{a}\right)\frac{1}{r_{a}}
\end{align}
\quad(a)\\
\hline \begin{matrix}\begin{align}2\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}\\
2\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\left(r_{a}-\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)x_{a}+\left(r_{a}+\frac{1}{r_{a}}\right)y_{a}
\end{align}
\quad(b)\end{matrix}\\
\hline \left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}\Rightarrow\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}
\end{align}
\quad(c)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;Equation (a) is identical to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}), while (c) is similar, though not identical, to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}-C). The difference stems from his definition&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{s_{a}+1}}{\sqrt{s_{a}-1}}\\
s_{a}&gt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;br&gt;whereas in accordance to expression &lt;math&gt;\sqrt{\tfrac{1+v}{1-v}}&lt;/math&gt; with &lt;math&gt;v&lt;1&lt;/math&gt; in ({{equationNote|3d}}) he should have stated &lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\left\{ \begin{matrix}r_{a}=\frac{\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}}\\
s_{a}&lt;1
\end{matrix}\right\}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;br&gt;Using the latter choice, equations (c) would assume a form equivalent to ({{equationNote|3b}}):&lt;br&gt;&lt;math&gt;\qquad\begin{align}\mathfrak{x}_{a} &amp; =\frac{x_{a}+s_{a}y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\\
\mathfrak{y}_{a} &amp; =\frac{s_{a}x_{a}+y_{a}}{\sqrt{1-s_{a}}\sqrt{1+s_{a}}}\end{align}&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/p&gt;

==={{Anchor|Schur}} Schur (1885/86, 1900/02) – Beltrami coordinates===

[[w:Friedrich Schur]] (1885/86) discussed spaces of constant Riemann curvature, and by following [[#Beltrami|Beltrami (1868)]] he used the transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1885/86), p. 167&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}=R^{2}\frac{y_{1}+a_{1}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\ x_{2}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{2}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}},\dots,\ x_{n}=R\sqrt{R^{2}-a_{1}^{2}}\frac{y_{n}}{R^{2}+a_{1}y_{1}}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] in arbitrary dimensions by setting ''R=c'' as the speed of light and ''a&lt;sub&gt;1&lt;/sub&gt;=v'' as relative velocity.&lt;/p&gt;

In (1900/02) he derived basic formulas of non-Eucliden geometry, including the case of translation for which he obtained the transformation similar to his previous one:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 290; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x'=\frac{x-a}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax},\quad y'=\frac{y\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}{1-\mathfrak{k}ax}&lt;/math&gt;

where &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}&lt;/math&gt; can have values &gt;0, &lt;0 or ∞.

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and therefore also equivalent to the relativistic velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] by setting ''a=v'' and &lt;math&gt;\mathfrak{k}=\tfrac{1}{c^{2}}&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

He also defined the triangle&lt;ref group=M&gt;Schur (1900/02), p. 291; (1909), p. 83&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}c^{2}}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}-\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}a^{2}}}\cdot\frac{b}{\sqrt{1-\mathfrak{k}b^{2}}}\cos\gamma&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to the hyperbolic law of cosines and the relativistic velocity addition ({{equationNote|3f}}, b) or [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4e|E:'''(4e)''']] by setting &lt;math&gt;[\mathfrak{k},\ c,\ a,\ b]=\left[\tfrac{1}{c^{2}},\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{\prime2}+u_{y}^{\prime2}},\ v,\ \sqrt{u_{x}^{2}+u_{y}^{2}}\right]&lt;/math&gt;.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Lindemann}} Lindemann (1890–91) – Weierstrass coordinates and Cayley absolute===

[[w:Ferdinand von Lindemann]] discussed hyperbolic geometry in terms of the [[w:Cayley–Klein metric]] in his (1890/91) edition of the lectures on geometry of [[w:Alfred Clebsch]]. Citing [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Killing|E:Killing (1885)]] and [[../Lorentz transformation (general)#Poincare|Poincaré (1887)]] in relation to the hyperboloid model in terms of Weierstrass coordinates for the hyperbolic plane and space, he set&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 477–478, 524&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{3}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{3}^{2}\\
\Omega_{xx}=x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=-4k^{2}\ \text{and}\ ds^{2}=dx_{1}^{2}+dx_{2}^{2}+dx_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}dx_{4}^{2}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

and used the following transformation&lt;ref group=M&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), pp. 361–362&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=0\\
X_{1}X_{4}+X_{2}X_{3}=\Xi_{1}\Xi_{4}+\Xi_{2}\Xi_{3}\\
\hline \begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{1} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{1}\\
X_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; \Xi_{2} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{4} &amp; X_{2} &amp; =\frac{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{2}\\
X_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; \Xi_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{3}\right)U_{2} &amp; X_{3} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{3}}{\lambda+\lambda_{3}}\Xi_{3}\\
X_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; \Xi_{4} &amp; =\left(\lambda+\lambda_{1}\right)U_{1} &amp; X_{4} &amp; =\frac{\lambda-\lambda_{1}}{\lambda+\lambda_{1}}\Xi_{4}
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

into which he put&lt;ref group=M name=linde&gt;Lindemann &amp; Clebsch (1890/91), p. 496&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X_{1} &amp; =x_{1}+2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{2} &amp; =x_{2}+ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{1} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{1}\right)e^{a},\\
X_{4} &amp; =x_{1}-2kx_{4}, &amp; X_{3} &amp; =x_{2}-ix_{3}, &amp; \lambda+\lambda_{3} &amp; =\left(\lambda-\lambda_{3}\right)e^{\alpha i},
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}) with &lt;math&gt;e^{\alpha i}=1&lt;/math&gt; and ''2k=1'' .&lt;/p&gt;

From that, he obtained the following Cayley absolute and the corresponding most general motion in hyperbolic space comprising ordinary rotations (''a''=0) or translations (α=0):&lt;ref group=M  name=linde /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x_{1}^{2}+x_{2}^{2}+x_{3}^{2}-4k^{2}x_{4}^{2}=0\\
\hline \begin{align}x_{2} &amp; =\xi_{2}\cos\alpha+\xi_{3}\sin\alpha, &amp; x_{1} &amp; =\xi_{1}\cos\frac{a}{i}+2ki\xi_{4}\sin\frac{a}{i},\\
x_{3} &amp; =-\xi_{2}\sin\alpha+\xi_{3}\cos\alpha, &amp; 2kx_{4} &amp; =i\xi_{1}\sin\frac{a}{i}+2k\xi_{4}\cos\frac{a}{i}.
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0 and ''2k=1''.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Gerard}} Gérard (1892) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Louis Gérard]] (1892) – in a thesis examined by Poincaré – discussed Weierstrass coordinates (without using that name) in the plane and gave the case of translation as follows:&lt;ref group=M name=gerard&gt;Gérard (1892), pp. 40–41&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}X &amp; =Z_{0}X'+X_{0}Z'\\
Y &amp; =Y'\\
Z &amp; =X_{0}X'+Z_{0}Z'
\end{align}
\ \text{with}\ \begin{align}X_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{sh}OO'\\
Z_{0} &amp; =\operatorname{ch}OO'
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Killing2}} Killing (1893,97) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Wilhelm Killing]] (1878–1880) gave case of translation in the form&lt;ref group=M name=killtra&gt;Killing (1893), p. 331&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;y_{0}=x_{0}\operatorname{Ch}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Sh}a,\quad y_{1}=x_{0}\operatorname{Sh}a+x_{1}\operatorname{Ch}a,\quad y_{2}=x_{2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

In 1898, Killing wrote that relation in a form similar to [[#Escherich|Escherich (1874)]], and derived the corresponding Lorentz transformation for the two cases were ''v'' is unchanged or ''u'' is unchanged:&lt;ref group=M name=kill98&gt;Killing (1898), p. 133&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\xi'=\frac{\xi\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+l\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}},\ \eta'=\frac{\eta}{\frac{\xi}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}}\\
\hline \frac{u}{p}=\xi,\ \frac{v}{p}=\eta\\
\hline p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l}+\frac{u}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad u'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\mu}{l}+u\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\mu}{l},\quad v'=v\\
\text{or}\\
p'=p\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}+\frac{v}{l}\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l},\quad u'=u,\quad v'=pl\operatorname{Sh}\frac{\nu}{l}+v\operatorname{Ch}\frac{\nu}{l}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;The upper transformation system is equivalent to Lorentz transformation ({{equationNote|3e}}) and the velocity addition [[../Lorentz transformation (velocity)#math_4d|E:'''(4d)''']] with ''l=c'' and &lt;math&gt;\mu=c\operatorname{atanh}\tfrac{v}{c}&lt;/math&gt;, the system below is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Whitehead}} Whitehead (1897/98) – Universal algebra===

[[w:Alfred North Whitehead]] (1898) discussed the kinematics of hyperbolic space as part of his study of [[w:universal algebra]], and obtained the following transformation:&lt;ref group=M name=white&gt;Whitehead (1898), pp. 459–460&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}x' &amp; =\left(\eta\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e+\left(\eta\sinh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}+\eta_{1}\cosh\frac{\delta}{\gamma}\right)e_{1}\\
 &amp; \qquad+\left(\eta_{2}\cos\alpha+\eta_{3}\sin\alpha\right)e_{2}+\left(\eta_{3}\cos\alpha-\eta_{2}\sin\alpha\right)e_{3}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with α=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Elliott}} Elliott (1903) – Invariant theory ===
[[w:Edwin Bailey Elliott]] (1903) discussed a special cyclical subgroup of ternary linear transformations for which the (unit) determinant of transformation is resoluble into three ordinary algebraical factors, which he pointed out is in direct analogy to a subgroup formed by the following transformations:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Elliott (1903), p. 109&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x=X\cosh\phi+Y\sinh\phi,\quad y=X\sinh\phi+Y\cosh\phi\\
\hline X+Y=e^{-\phi}(x+y),\quad X-Y=e^{\phi}(x-y)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) and ({{equationNote|3d}}). The mentioned subgroup corresponds to the one-parameter subgroup generated by Lorentz boosts.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Woods2}} Woods (1903) – Weierstrass coordinates ===
[[w:Frederick S. Woods]] (1903, published 1905) gave the case of translation in hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 55&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x_{1}\cos kl+x_{0}\frac{\sin kl}{k},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{2},\quad x_{2}^{\prime}=x_{3},\quad x_{0}^{\prime}=-x_{1}k\sin kl+x_{0}\cos kl&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with ''k''&lt;sup&gt;2&lt;/sup&gt;=-1.&lt;/p&gt;

and the loxodromic substitution for hyperbolic space:&lt;ref group=M&gt;Woods (1903/05), p. 72&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\begin{align}x_{1}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{1}\cosh\alpha-x_{0}\sinh\alpha\\
x_{2}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\cos\beta-x_{3}\sin\beta\\
x_{3}^{\prime} &amp; =x_{2}\sin\beta+x_{3}\cos\beta\\
x_{0}^{\prime} &amp; =-x_{1}\sinh\alpha+x_{0}\cosh\alpha
\end{align}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}) with β=0.&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Liebmann}} Liebmann (1904–05) – Weierstrass coordinates===

[[w:Heinrich Liebmann]] (1904/05) – citing Killing (1885), Gérard (1892), Hausdorff (1899) – gave the case of translation in the hyperbolic plane:&lt;ref group=M name=lieb&gt;Liebmann (1904/05), p. 174&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;x_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{ch}a+p'\operatorname{sh}a,\quad y_{1}^{\prime}=y',\quad p_{1}^{\prime}=x'\operatorname{sh}a+p'\operatorname{ch}a&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Frank}} Frank (1909) – Special relativity===
In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Philipp Frank]] (1909), who derived the Lorentz transformation using ''ψ'' as rapidity:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Frank (1909), pp. 423-425&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}x'=x\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi\\
t'=-x\varphi(a)\,{\rm sh}\,\psi+t\varphi(a)\,{\rm ch}\,\psi\\
\hline {\rm th}\,\psi=-a,\ {\rm sh}\,\psi=\frac{a}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ {\rm ch}\,\psi=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ \varphi(a)=1\\
\hline x'=\frac{x-at}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}},\ y'=y,\ z'=z,\ t'=\frac{-ax+t}{\sqrt{1-a^{2}}}
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;
 	
=== {{anchor|Herglotz1}} Herglotz (1909/10) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, [[w:Gustav Herglotz]] (1909/10) classified the one-parameter Lorentz transformations as loxodromic, hyperbolic, parabolic and elliptic, with the hyperbolic case being:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Herglotz (1909/10), pp. 404-408&lt;/ref&gt;
	
:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}Z=Z'e^{\vartheta}\\
	
\begin{aligned}x &amp; =x', &amp; t-z &amp; =(t'-z')e^{\vartheta}\\
	
y &amp; =y', &amp; t+z &amp; =(t'+z')e^{-\vartheta}
	
\end{aligned}
	
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;	
	
&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3d}}).&lt;/p&gt;

==={{anchor|Varicak}} Varićak (1910) – Special relativity===

In special relativity, hyperbolic functions were used by [[w:Vladimir Varićak]] in several papers starting from 1910, who represented the equations of special relativity on the basis of [[w:hyperbolic geometry]] in terms of Weierstrass coordinates. For instance, by setting ''l=ct'' and ''v/c=tanh(u)'' with ''u'' as rapidity he wrote the Lorentz transformation in agreement with ({{equationNote|4b}}):&lt;ref group=R name=var1&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 93&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{align}l' &amp; =-x\operatorname{sh}u+l\operatorname{ch}u,\\
x' &amp; =x\operatorname{ch}u-l\operatorname{sh}u,\\
y' &amp; =y,\quad z'=z,\\
\operatorname{ch}u &amp; =\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v}{c}\right)^{2}}}
\end{align}
&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;p style=&quot;background-color:Beige;border:1px solid black&quot;&gt;This is equivalent to Lorentz boost ({{equationNote|3b}}).&lt;/p&gt;

He showed the relation of rapidity to the [[w:Gudermannian function]] and the [[w:angle of parallelism]]:&lt;ref group=R name=var1 /&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\frac{v}{c}=\operatorname{th}u=\operatorname{tg}\psi=\sin\operatorname{gd}(u)=\cos\Pi(u)&lt;/math&gt;

He also related the velocity addition to the [[w:hyperbolic law of cosines]]:&lt;ref group=R&gt;Varićak (1910), p. 94&lt;/ref&gt;

:&lt;math&gt;\begin{matrix}\operatorname{ch}{u}=\operatorname{ch}{u_{1}}\operatorname ch{u_{2}}+\operatorname{sh}{u_{1}}\operatorname{sh}{u_{2}}\cos\alpha\\
\operatorname{ch}{u_{i}}=\frac{1}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}},\ \operatorname{sh}{u_{i}}=\frac{v_{i}}{\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{v_{i}}{c}\right)^{2}}}\\
v=\sqrt{v_{1}^{2}+v_{2}^{2}-\left(\frac{v_{1}v_{2}}{c}\right)^{2}}\ \left(a=\frac{\pi}{2}\right)
\end{matrix}&lt;/math&gt;

==References==
===Historical mathematical sources===
{{reflist|3|group=M}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68sag}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|bel68fond}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox81hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|cox82hom}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eli03}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|esch74}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul35}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|eul48a}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ger92}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|glai78}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|gud30}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|guen80}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kep09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil93}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|kil97}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lag70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lais74b}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam67}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lam70}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lieb04}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lind90}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|lip86}}  
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|ric57}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu85}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu00}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|schu09}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|tau26}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|whit98}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo01}} 
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/mathsource|woo03}}

===Historical relativity sources===
{{reflist|3|group=R}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|frank09a}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|herg10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var10}}
*{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/relsource|var12}}

===Secondary sources===
{{reflist|3}}
{{#section:History of Topics in Special Relativity/secsource|L3}}

[[Category:Special Relativity]]
[[Category:History of Physics]]</text>
      <sha1>qmlaru7w13yw3ajax2juc1dz1lgpd93</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>WikiJournal Preprints/Alternative androgen pathways</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>269289</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412868</id>
      <parentid>2412696</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T21:18:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>cut redundant references</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="99012" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed. Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; 

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>anj9ggztjcbw0e74ygmmbt5qnbkxqlv</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412869</id>
      <parentid>2412868</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T21:19:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
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      <comment>/* Introduction */</comment>
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      <text bytes="99012" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11514561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nahoum|first1=Virginie|last2=Gangloff|first2=Anne|last3=Legrand|first3=Pierre|last4=Zhu|first4=Dao-Wei|last5=Cantin|first5=Line|last6=Zhorov|first6=Boris S.|last7=Luu-The|first7=Van|last8=Labrie|first8=Fernand|last9=Breton|first9=Rock|year=2001|title=Structure of the human 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 in complex with testosterone and NADP at 1.25-A resolution|journal=J Biol Chem|volume=276|issue=45|pages=42091–8|doi=10.1074/jbc.M105610200|pmid=11514561|doi-access=free|last10=Lin|first10=Sheng-Xiang}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Dozmorov|first1=Mikhail G.|last2=Yang|first2=Qing|last3=Matwalli|first3=Adam|last4=Hurst|first4=Robert E.|last5=Culkin|first5=Daniel J.|last6=Kropp|first6=Bradley P.|last7=Lin|first7=Hsueh-Kung|year=2007|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol selectively activates the canonical PI3K/AKT pathway: a bioinformatics-based evidence for androgen-activated cytoplasmic signaling|journal=Genomic Med|volume=1|issue=3–4|pages=139–46|doi=10.1007/s11568-008-9018-9|pmc=2269037|pmid=18923939}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Nishiyama|first1=Tsutomu|last2=Ishizaki|first2=Fumio|last3=Takizawa|first3=Itsuhiro|last4=Yamana|first4=Kazutoshi|last5=Hara|first5=Noboru|last6=Takahashi|first6=Kota|year=2011|title=5α-Androstane-3α 17β-diol Will Be a Potential Precursor of the Most Active Androgen 5α-Dihydrotestosterone in Prostate Cancer|journal=Journal of Urology|volume=185|issue=4S|doi=10.1016/j.juro.2011.02.378}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; 

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>mnhme9tokijaeu78tuz9g31femfn9zi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412880</id>
      <parentid>2412869</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:22:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="97451" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; 

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>9617k6hrtltp5ahx2iocrrs8b6ipfqz</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412881</id>
      <parentid>2412880</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:31:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="97423" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30959151&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Circulating 11-oxygenated androgens across species |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=190 |pages=242–249 |year=2019 |pmid=30959151 |pmc=6733521 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.04.005|last1=Rege |first1=Juilee |last2=Garber |first2=Scott |last3=Conley |first3=Alan J. |last4=Elsey |first4=Ruth M. |last5=Turcu |first5=Adina F. |last6=Auchus |first6=Richard J. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>jou83gkgk94i8grrd1fhrx8g9pxxq2c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412882</id>
      <parentid>2412881</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:33:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="96971" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot; /&gt; Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>jmknrolm5b65q3ctjuhkyz395qvi44m</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412883</id>
      <parentid>2412882</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:38:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="96946" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>7sm171q2mphfmlnh9x5litsany1ym5f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412885</id>
      <parentid>2412883</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:41:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="96949" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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      <id>2412886</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:42:18Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
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      <text bytes="96950" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;NBK557634&quot;&gt;{{cite book|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK557634/|title=Biochemistry, Dihydrotestosterone|publisher=StatPearls|year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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      <id>2412887</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:43:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
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      <text bytes="96788" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
      <sha1>k48l5foqiynyzusmjkg4izyywq0gc4g</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413032</id>
      <parentid>2412887</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:17:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
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      <comment>/* 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="96799" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors{{specify}} suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.&lt;ref /&gt; The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}</text>
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      <id>2413033</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:18:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Maxim Masiutin</username>
        <id>2902665</id>
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      <text bytes="96799" xml:space="preserve">{{Article info
| first1 = Maxim G
| last1 = Masiutin
| orcid1 = 0000-0002-8129-4500
| correspondence1 = maxim@masiutin.com
| first2 = Maneesh K
| last2 = Yadav
| orcid2 = 0000-0002-4584-7606
| submitted = 4/22/2022
| contributors = 
| et_al = &lt;!--
* The Wikipedia source page was https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Androgen_backdoor_pathway
* No other people except the authors of the present article have contributed to the source page until this article was forked from that page on October 22, 2020 
* When I added the &quot;w1&quot; attribute to the &quot;Article info&quot; box, the &quot;et al.&quot; appears. The &quot;et_al = false&quot; attribute does not seem to work. There should be no &quot;et al.&quot;. I have not found any way to remove the &quot;et al.&quot; rather than removing the &quot;w1&quot; attribute.
* Only when I remove both the &quot;w1&quot; attribute here and the link to Wikipedia entry in the Wikidate item, the &quot;et al.&quot; disappears.
| et_al = false 
| w1 = Androgen backdoor pathway
--&gt;
| correspondence = 
| journal = WikiJournal of Medicine
| license = 
| abstract = The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; is sometimes used to specify different androgen steroidogenic pathways that avoid testosterone as an intermediate product. Although the term was initially defined as a metabolic route by which the 5α-reduction of 17α-hydroxyprogesterone ultimately leads to 5α-dihydrotestosterone, several other routes towards potent androgens have been discovered, which are also described as backdoor pathways. Some of the routes lead to 11-oxygenated androgens that are clinically relevant agonists of the androgen receptor. This review aims to provide a clear, comprehensive description that includes all currently known metabolic routes. Patient comprehension and the clinical diagnosis of relevant conditions such as hyperandrogenism can be impaired by the lack of clear and consistent knowledge of alternative androgen pathways; the authors hope this review will accurately disseminate such knowledge to facilitate the beneficial treatment of such patients.
| keywords = testosterone, 11-oxygenated androgen, 11-oxyandrogen, 11-ketotestosterone, hyperandrogenism
}}

==Introduction==
The classical view of androgen steroidogenesis involves the combination of adrenal and gonadal pathways that convert cholesterol to the androgen testosterone (T), which in turn converts to the potent androgen 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Broadly, androgens are understood to exert their primary effects through binding to cytosolic Androgen Receptor (AR) which is translocated to the nucleus upon androgen binding and ultimately results in the transcriptional regulation of a number of genes via Androgen Responsive Elements.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12089231&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Gelmann|first=Edward P.|year=2022|title=Molecular Biology of the Androgen Receptor|url=https://ascopubs.org/doi/10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|journal=Journal of Clinical Oncology|language=en|volume=20|issue=13|pages=3001–3015|doi=10.1200/JCO.2002.10.018|pmid=12089231 |issn=0732-183X}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

In 2003, a metabolic route to DHT that did not proceed through T was discovered in the tammar wallaby.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Wilson|first1=Jean D.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|last3=Leihy|first3=Michael W.|last4=Guryev|first4=Oleg L.|last5=Estabrook|first5=Ronald W.|last6=Osborn|first6=Susan M.|last7=Shaw|first7=Geoffrey|last8=Renfree|first8=Marilyn B.|title=5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol is formed in tammar wallaby pouch young testes by a pathway involving 5alpha-pregnane-3alpha,17alpha-diol-20-one as a key intermediate|journal=Endocrinology|year=2003 |volume=144|issue=2|pages=575–80|doi=10.1210/en.2002-220721|pmid=12538619|s2cid=84765868}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shortly after this study, it was hypothesized that human steroidogenic enzymes are capable of catalyzing this pathway and the potential clinical relevance in conditions involving androgen biosynthesis was proposed.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Auchus|first1=Richard J.|year=2004|title=The backdoor pathway to dihydrotestosterone|journal=Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism: TEM|volume=15|issue=9|pages=432–8|doi=10.1016/j.tem.2004.09.004|pmid=15519890|s2cid=10631647}}&lt;/ref&gt; Since then, steroidogenic androgen pathways to potent 11-oxygenated androgens have also been discovered and proposed as clinically relevant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=A new dawn for androgens: Novel lessons from 11-oxygenated C19 steroids |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441  |pages=76–85 |year=2017 |pmid=27519632 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.08.014|last1=Pretorius |first1=Elzette |last2=Arlt |first2=Wiebke |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |s2cid=4079662 |url=http://pure-oai.bham.ac.uk/ws/files/30346231/Pretorius_et_al_manuscript.pdf }}&lt;/ref&gt;
The discovery of these &quot;alternative androgen pathways&quot; can confound the search for clinical information when androgen steroidogenesis is relevant. Studies across different androgen pathways have also, confusingly, used different names for the same metabolic intermediates. In addition, pathways in studies sometimes differ in the precise initial/terminal molecules and the inclusion/exclusion of such points can hinder queries in electronic pathway databases. 
 	
Alternative androgen pathways are now known to be responsible for the production of biologically active androgens in humans, and there is growing evidence that they play a role in clinical conditions associated with hyperandrogenism.  While naming inconsistencies are notoriously common when it comes to biomolecules,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30736318&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pham|first1=Nhung|last2=van Heck|first2=Ruben G. A.|last3=van Dam|first3=Jesse C. J.|last4=Schaap|first4=Peter J.|last5=Saccenti|first5=Edoardo|last6=Suarez-Diez|first6=Maria|year=2019|title=Consistency, Inconsistency, and Ambiguity of Metabolite Names in Biochemical Databases Used for Genome-Scale Metabolic Modelling|journal=Metabolites|volume=9|issue=2|page=28|doi=10.3390/metabo9020028|issn=2218-1989|pmc=6409771|pmid=30736318|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; understanding androgen steroidogenesis at the level of detail presented in this paper and establishing consensus names and pathway specifications would facilitate access to information towards diagnosis and patient comprehension.

==History==

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
In 1987, Eckstein et al. incubated rat testicular microsomes in presence of radiolabeled steroids and demonstrated that 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol can be produced in immature rat testes from progesterone (P4), 17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) and androstenedione (A4) but preferentially from 17-OHP.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3828389&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Eckstein|first1=B.|last2=Borut|first2=A.|last3=Cohen|first3=S.|title=Metabolic pathways for androstanediol formation in immature rat testis microsomes|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - General Subjects |year=1987 |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3828389|volume=924|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1016/0304-4165(87)90063-8|issn=0006-3002|pmid=3828389}}&lt;/ref&gt; While &quot;androstanediol&quot; was used to denote both 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol and 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol, we use &quot;3α-diol&quot; to abbreviate 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol in this paper as it is a common convention and emphasizes it as the 3α-reduced derivative of DHT.

Tammar wallaby pouch young do not show sexually dimorphic circulating levels of T and DHT during prostate development, which led Shaw et al. to hypothesize in 2000 that another pathway was responsible for AR activation in this species.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot; /&gt; While 3α-diol has a reduced AR binding affinity relative to DHT by 5 orders of magnitude and is generally described as AR inactive, it was known 3α-diol can be oxidized back to DHT via the action of a number of dehydrogenases.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Penning|first=Trevor M.|year=1997|title=Molecular Endocrinology of Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases| url=https://academic.oup.com/edrv/article/18/3/281/2530742|journal=Endocrine Reviews|language=en|volume=18|issue=3|pages=281–305|doi=10.1210/edrv.18.3.0302|pmid=9183566 |s2cid=29607473 |issn=0163-769X}}&lt;/ref&gt; Shaw et al. showed that prostate formation in these wallaby is caused by circulating 3α-diol (generated in the testes) and led to their prediction that 3α-diol acts in target tissues via conversion to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid11035809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Shaw|first1=G.|last2=Renfree|first2=M. B.|last3=Leihy|first3=M. W.|last4=Shackleton|first4=C. H.|last5=Roitman|first5=E.|last6=Wilson|first6=J. D.|year=2000|title=Prostate formation in a marsupial is mediated by the testicular androgen 5 alpha-androstane-3 alpha,17 beta-diol|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|volume=97|issue=22|pages=12256–12259|bibcode=2000PNAS...9712256S|doi=10.1073/pnas.220412297|issn=0027-8424|pmc=17328|pmid=11035809|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2003, Wilson et al. incubated the testes of tammar wallaby pouch young with radiolabeled progesterone to show that 5α reductase expression in this tissue enabled a novel pathway from 17-OHP to 3α-diol without T as an intermediate:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12538619&quot; /&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17OHP) → 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The authors hypothesized that a high level of 5α-reductase in the virilizing wallaby testes causes most C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids to be 5α-reduced to become ready DHT precursors.

In 2004, Mahendroo et al. demonstrated that an overlapping novel pathway is operating in mouse testes, generalizing what had been demonstrated in tammar wallaby:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15249131&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Mahendroo|first1=Mala|last2=Wilson|first2=Jean D.|last3=Richardson|first3=James A.|last4=Auchus|first4=Richard J.|year=2004|title=Steroid 5alpha-reductase 1 promotes 5alpha-androstane-3alpha,17beta-diol synthesis in immature mouse testes by two pathways|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15249131|journal=Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology|volume=222|issue=1–2|pages=113–120|doi=10.1016/j.mce.2004.04.009|issn=0303-7207|pmid=15249131|s2cid=54297812}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;progesterone (P4) → 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) → 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5)→ 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The term &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; was coined by Auchus in 2004&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15519890&quot; /&gt; where it was defined as a route to DHT that: (1) bypasses conventional intermediates A4 and T; (2) involves 5α-reduction of the 21-carbon precursors (pregnanes) to 19-carbon products (androstanes) and (3) involves the 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol to DHT. This alternative pathway seems to explain how potent androgens are produced under certain normal and pathological conditions in humans when the canonical androgen biosynthetic pathway cannot fully explain the observed consequences. The pathway was described as:{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;17α-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) → 17-OH-DHP (5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione) → 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) → 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) → 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) → 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
The clinical relevance of these results was demonstrated in 2012 for the first time when Kamrath et al. attributed the urinary metabolites to the androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT in patients with steroid 21-hydroxylase (CYP21A2) deficiency.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt;

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
In 2011, Chang et al. demonstrated that an alternative pathway to DHT was dominant and possibly essential in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) by presenting evidence from cell culture and xenograft models:&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Chang|first1=K.-H.|last2=Li|first2=R.|last3=Papari-Zareei|first3=M.|last4=Watumull|first4=L.|last5=Zhao|first5=Y. D.|last6=Auchus|first6=R. J.|last7=Sharifi|first7=N.|year=2011|title=Dihydrotestosterone synthesis bypasses testosterone to drive castration-resistant prostate cancer|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|publisher=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=108|issue=33|pages=13728–13733|bibcode=2011PNAS..10813728C|doi=10.1073/pnas.1107898108|issn=0027-8424|pmc=3158152|pmid=21795608|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;{{unbulleted list|&lt;small&gt;androstenedione (A4) → androstanedione (5α-dione) →  5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)&lt;/small&gt;}}
While this pathway was described as the &quot;5α-dione pathway&quot; in a 2012 review,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22064602&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The 5α-androstanedione pathway to dihydrotestosterone in castration-resistant prostate cancer |journal=J Investig Med |volume=60 |issue=2 |pages=504–7 |year=2012 |pmid=22064602 |pmc=3262939 |doi=10.2310/JIM.0b013e31823874a4 |last1=Sharifi |first1=Nima }}&lt;/ref&gt; the existence of such a pathway in the prostate was hypothesized in a 2008 review by Luu-The et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Luu-The|first1=Van|last2=Bélanger|first2=Alain|last3=Labrie|first3=Fernand|year=2008|title=Androgen biosynthetic pathways in the human prostate|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=22|issue=2|pages=207–221|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2008.01.008|issn=1521-690X|pmid=18471780}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A modern outlook of the synthesis of the backdoor pathways to DHT and the 5α-dione pathway is shown in Figure 2.

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
11-Oxygenated androgens are the products of another alternative androgen pathway found in humans. While the 11-oxygenated C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroids 11OHA4 and 11KA4 were known since the 1950s to be products of the human adrenal, with negligible androgenic activity, but their role as substrates to potent androgens had been overlooked in humans though they were known to be the main androgens in teleost fishes.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27519632&quot; /&gt; 

Rege et al. in 2013 measured 11-oxygenated androgens in healthy women and showed the 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KT) and 11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHT) activation of human AR.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Rege|first1=Juilee|last2=Nakamura|first2=Yasuhiro|last3=Satoh|first3=Fumitoshi|last4=Morimoto|first4=Ryo|last5=Kennedy|first5=Michael R.|last6=Layman|first6=Lawrence C.|last7=Honma|first7=Seijiro|last8=Sasano|first8=Hironobu|last9=Rainey|first9=William E.|year=2013|title=Liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of human adrenal vein 19-carbon steroids before and after ACTH stimulation|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=98|issue=3|pages=1182–8|doi=10.1210/jc.2012-2912|pmc=3590473|pmid=23386646}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In 2013, Storbeck et al. demonstrated the existence of 11-oxygenated androgen pathways in androgen-dependent prostate cancer cell culture.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-Hydroxydihydrotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, novel C19 steroids with androgenic activity: a putative role in castration resistant prostate cancer? |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=377 |issue=1–2 |pages=135–46  |pmid=23856005 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2013.07.006 |s2cid=11740484 |last1=Storbeck |first1=Karl-Heinz |last2=Bloem |first2=Liezl M. |last3=Africander |first3=Donita |last4=Schloms |first4=Lindie |last5=Swart |first5=Pieter |last6=Swart |first6=Amanda C. |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The authors indicated that A4 is converted 1β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) which can ultimately be converted into 11KT and 11KDHT as shown in Figure 4. The authors found that 11KT activity is comparable to that of T, and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT) activity is comparable to that of DHT, while the activities of 11OHT and 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone (11OHDHT) were observed to be about half of T and DHT, respectively. However, androgen activity in that study was only assessed at a single concentration of 1 nM.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt; To confirm androgen activity of 11KT and 11KDHT, a study by Pretorius et al. performing full dose responses showed in 2016 that 11KT and 11KDHT both bind and activate the human AR with affinities, potencies, and efficacies that are similar to that of T and DHT, respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Pretorius|first1=Elzette|last2=Africander|first2=Donita J.|last3=Vlok|first3=Maré|last4=Perkins|first4=Meghan S.|last5=Quanson|first5=Jonathan|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2016|title=11-Ketotestosterone and 11-Ketodihydrotestosterone in Castration Resistant Prostate Cancer: Potent Androgens Which Can No Longer Be Ignored|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=11|issue=7|pages=e0159867|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159867|pmc=4956299|pmid=27442248|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; These findings were later confirmed in 2021&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34990809&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Handelsman|first1=David J.|last2=Cooper|first2=Elliot R.|last3=Heather|first3=Alison K.|year=2022|title=Bioactivity of 11 keto and hydroxy androgens in yeast and mammalian host cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=218|issue=|pages=106049|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.106049|pmid=34990809|s2cid=245635429}}&lt;/ref&gt; and 2022.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35046557&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Snaterse|first1=Gido|last2=Mies|first2=Rosinda|last3=Van Weerden|first3=Wytske M.|last4=French|first4=Pim J.|last5=Jonker|first5=Johan W.|last6=Houtsmuller|first6=Adriaan B.|last7=Van Royen|first7=Martin E.|last8=Visser|first8=Jenny A.|last9=Hofland|first9=Johannes|year=2022|title=Androgen receptor mutations modulate activation by 11-oxygenated androgens and glucocorticoids|url=https://pure.eur.nl/ws/files/48975803/s41391_022_00491_z.pdf|journal=Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis|doi=10.1038/s41391-022-00491-z|pmid=35046557|s2cid=246040148}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

Bloem et al. in 2015&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bloem|first1=Liezl M.|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=du Toit|first4=Therina|last5=Schloms|first5=Lindie|last6=Swart|first6=Amanda C.|year=2015|title=Advances in the analytical methodologies: Profiling steroids in familiar pathways-challenging dogmas|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25869556|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=153|pages=80–92|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2015.04.009|issn=1879-1220|pmid=25869556|s2cid=31332668}}&lt;/ref&gt; demonstrated that androgen pathways towards those 11-keto and 11β-hydroxy androgens can bypass A4 and T to produce 11KDHT in pathways similar to a backdoor pathway to DHT. This similarity led to the description of pathways from P4 and 17OHP to 11-oxyandrogens as &quot;backdoor&quot; pathways,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; which was further characterized in subsequent studies as contributing to active and biologically relevant androgens.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28774496&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Lise|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Van Rooyen|first3=Desmaré|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2017|title=Adrenal C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the C11-oxy C19 steroid pool via the backdoor pathway in the biosynthesis and metabolism of 21-deoxycortisol and 21-deoxycortisone|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0960076017302091|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=174|pages=86–95|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.07.034|pmid=28774496|s2cid=24071400}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277707&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Gent|first2=Rachelle|last3=Barnard|first3=Lise|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2018|title=The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=178|pages=203–212|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014|pmid=29277707|s2cid=3700135}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32007561&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Van Rooyen|first1=Desmaré|last2=Yadav|first2=Rahul|last3=Scott|first3=Emily E.|last4=Swart|first4=Amanda C.|year=2020|title=CYP17A1 exhibits 17αhydroxylase/17,20-lyase activity towards 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone metabolites in the C11-oxy backdoor pathway|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|volume=199|pages=105614|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2020.105614|pmid=32007561|s2cid=210955834}}&lt;/ref&gt;

A diagram of 11-oxygenated androgen steroidogenesis is shown in Figure 4.

==Definition==
We suggest the term &quot;alternative androgen pathway&quot; to refer to any pathway that produces potent androgens without a T intermediate. This subsumes all three groups of androgen pathways described in the previous section. A new term that describes the three groups pathways (as well as future discoveries) will allow a single entry point into scientific information when alternatives to canonical&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=O'Shaughnessy|first1=Peter J.|last2=Antignac|first2=Jean Philippe|last3=Le Bizec|first3=Bruno|last4=Morvan|first4=Marie-Line|last5=Svechnikov|first5=Konstantin|last6=Söder|first6=Olle|last7=Savchuk|first7=Iuliia|last8=Monteiro|first8=Ana|last9=Soffientini|first9=Ugo|year=2019|title=Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=2|pages=e3000002|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002|pmc=6375548|pmid=30763313|last10=Johnston|first10=Zoe C.|last11=Bellingham|first11=Michelle|last12=Hough|first12=Denise|last13=Walker|first13=Natasha|last14=Filis|first14=Panagiotis|last15=Fowler|first15=Paul A.|editor-last1=Rawlins|editor-first1=Emma}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; androgen pathway must be considered.

==Nomenclature and Background==
Complex naming rules for organic chemistry lead to the use of incorrect steroid names in studies. The presence of incorrect names impairs the ability to query information about androgen pathways. Since we were able to find many examples of incorrect names for molecules referred to in this paper in Google Scholar searches&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot; /&gt;, we have added this expository section on steroid nomenclature to facilitate the use of correct names.

Almost all biologically relevant steroids can be presented as a derivative of a parent hydrocarbon structure. These parent structures have specific names, such as pregnane, androstane, etc. The derivatives carry various functional groups called suffixes or prefixes after the respective numbers indicating their position in the steroid nucleus.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot; /&gt; The widely-used steroid names such as progesterone, testosterone or cortisol can also be used as base names to derive new names, however, by adding prefixes only rather than suffixes, e.g., the steroid 17α-hydroxyprogesterone has a hydroxy group (-OH) at position 17 of the steroid nucleus comparing to progesterone. The letters α and β&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |year=1989 |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=431 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=431|chapter=3S-1.4|quote=3S-1.4. Orientation of projection formulae
When the rings of a steroid are denoted as projections onto the plane of the paper, the formula is normally to be oriented as in 2a. An atom or group attached to a ring depicted as in the orientation 2a is termed α (alpha) if it lies below the plane of the paper or β (beta) if it lies above the plane of the paper. }}&lt;/ref&gt; denote absolute stereochemistry at chiral centers (a specific nomenclature distinct from the R/S convention&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-rs&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-91|pages=868|quote-page=868|quote=P-91.2.1.1 Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) stereodescriptors
Some stereodescriptors described in the Cahn-Ingold-Prelog (CIP) priority system, called ‘CIP stereodescriptors’, are recommended to specify the configuration of organic compounds, as described and exemplified in this Chapter and applied in Chapters P-1 through P-8, and in the nomenclature of natural products in Chapter P-10. The following stereodescriptors are used as preferred stereodescriptors (see P-92.1.2): (a) ‘R’ and ‘S’, to designate the absolute configuration of tetracoordinate (quadriligant) chirality centers;}}&lt;/ref&gt; of organic chemistry). In steroids drawn from the standard perspective used in this paper, α-bonds are depicted on figures as dashed wedges and β-bonds as solid wedges.

The molecule &quot;11-deoxycortisol&quot; is an example of a derived name that uses cortisol as a parent structure without an oxygen atom (hence &quot;deoxy&quot;) attached to position 11 (as a part of a hydroxy group).&lt;ref name=&quot;norc-deoxy&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-13.8.1.1|pages=66|quote-page=66|quote=P-13.8.1.1 The prefix ‘de’ (not ‘des’), followed by the name of a group or atom (other than hydrogen), denotes removal (or loss) of that group and addition of the necessary hydrogen atoms, i.e., exchange of that group with hydrogen atoms.

As an exception, ‘deoxy’, when applied to hydroxy compounds, denotes the removal of an oxygen atom from an –OH group with the reconnection of the hydrogen atom. ‘Deoxy’ is extensively used as a subtractive prefix in carbohydrate nomenclature (see P-102.5.3).}}&lt;/ref&gt;  The numbering of positions of carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus is set in a template found in the Nomenclature of Steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-numbering&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=430|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=3S-1.l. Numbering and ring letters
Steroids are numbered and rings are lettered as in formula 1|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt; that is used regardless of whether an atom is present in the steroid in question. Although the nomenclature defines more than 30 positions, we need just positions up to 21 for the steroids described here (see Figure 1).
[[File:steroid-numbering-to-21-opt.svg|thumb|Numbering of carbon atoms up to position 21 (positions 18 and 19 are omitted) in a hypothetical steroid nucleus, as defined by the Nomenclature of Steroids]]

Unsaturation (presence of double bonds between carbon atoms in the steroid nucleus) is indicated by changing -ane to -ene.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=436–437 |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099 |quote-page=436-437|quote=3S-2.5 Unsaturation
Unsaturation is indicated by changing -ane to -ene, -adiene, -yne etc., or -an- to -en-, -adien-, -yn- etc. Examples: 
Androst-5-ene, not 5-androstene
5α-Cholest-6-ene
5β-Cholesta-7,9(11)-diene
5α-Cholest-6-en-3β-ol
Notes
1) It is now recommended that the locant of a double bond is always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation.
[...]
3) The use of Δ (Greek capital delta) character is not recommended to designate unsaturation in individual names. It may be used, however, in generic terms, like ‘Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids’}}&lt;/ref&gt;
This change was traditionally done in the parent name, adding a prefix to denote the position, with or without Δ (Greek capital delta), for example, 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione) or 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione (also Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-androstene-3,11,17-trione). However, the Nomenclature of Steroids recommends the locant of a double bond to be always adjacent to the syllable designating the unsaturation, therefore, having it as a suffix rather than a prefix, and without the use of the Δ character, i.e. pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione. The double bond is designated by the lower-numbered carbon atom, i.e. &quot;Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-&quot; or &quot;4-ene&quot; means the double bond between positions 4 and 5. Saturation of double bonds (replacing a double bond between two carbon atoms with a single bond so that each of these atoms can attach one additional hydrogen atom) of a parent steroid can be done by adding &quot;dihydro-&quot; prefix,&lt;ref name=&quot;norc&quot;&gt;{{cite book|first1=Henri|last1=Favre|first2=Warren|last2=Powell|title=Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry - IUPAC Recommendations and Preferred Names 2013|publisher=The Royal Society of Chemistry|year=2014|isbn=978-0-85404-182-4|doi=10.1039/9781849733069|chapter=P-3|quote=P-31.2.2 General methodology
‘Hydro’ and ‘dehydro’ prefixes are associated with hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, respectively, of a double bond; thus, multiplying prefixes of even values, as ‘di’, ‘tetra’, etc. are used to indicate the saturation of double bond(s), for example ‘dihydro’, ‘tetrahydro’; or creation of double (or triple) bonds, as ‘didehydro’, etc. In names, they are placed immediately at the front of the name of the parent hydride and in front of any nondetachable prefixes. Indicated hydrogen atoms have priority over ‘hydro‘ prefixes for low locants. If indicated hydrogen atoms are present in a name, the ‘hydro‘ prefixes precede them.}}&lt;/ref&gt; i.e. saturation of a double bond between positions 4 and 5 of testosterone with two hydrogen atoms may yield 4,5α-dihydrotestosterone or 4,5β-dihydrotestosterone. Generally, when there is no ambiguity, one number of a hydrogen position from a steroid with a saturated bond may be omitted, leaving only the position of the second hydrogen atom, e.g., 5α-dihydrotestosterone or 5β-dihydrotestosterone. Some steroids are traditionally grouped as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids (with a double bond between carbons 5 and 6 junctions (Figure 1)) and some as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; steroids (with a double bond between carbons 4 and 5), respectively.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21051590&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=The molecular biology, biochemistry, and physiology of human steroidogenesis and its disorders |journal=Endocr Rev |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=81–151  |pmid=21051590 |pmc=3365799 |doi=10.1210/er.2010-0013|last1=Miller |first1=Walter L. |last2=Auchus |first2=Richard J.|year=2011 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-unsaturation&quot;/&gt; Canonical androgen synthesis is generally described as having a Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from cholesterol to pregnenolone (P5) to 17α-hydroxypregnenolone (17OHP5) to DHEA to androstenediol (A5)) and of the Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; pathway (from P4 to 17-OHP to A4 to T). The abbreviations like &quot;P4&quot; and &quot;A4&quot; are used for convenience to designate them as Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, while &quot;P5&quot; and &quot;A5&quot; - as Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt;-steroids, respectively.

The suffix -ol denotes a hydroxy group, while the suffix -one denotes an oxo group. When two or three identical groups are attached to the base structure at different positions, the suffix is ​​indicated as -diol or -triol for hydroxy, and -dione or -trione for oxo groups, respectively. For example, 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one has a hydrogen atom at the 5α position (hence the &quot;5α-&quot; prefix), two hydroxy groups (-OH) at the 3α and 17α positions (hence &quot;3α,17α-diol&quot; suffix) and an oxo group (=O) at the position 20 (hence the &quot;20-one&quot; suffix). However, erroneous use of suffixes can be found, e.g., &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnan17diol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?&amp;q=%225%CE%B1-pregnan-17%CE%B1-diol-3%2C11%2C20-trione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-diol-3,11,20-trione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt; [''sic''] — since it has just one hydroxy group (at 17α) rather than two, then the suffix should be -ol, rather than -diol, so that the correct name to be &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione&quot;.

According to the rule set in the Nomenclature of Steroids, the terminal &quot;e&quot; in the parent structure name should be elided before the vowel (the presence or absence of a number does not affect such elision).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-parent-elisions&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989 |journal=Eur J Biochem |volume=186 |issue=3 |pages=441  |doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x |pmid=2606099|quote-page=441|quote=3S-4. FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
3S-4.0. General
Nearly all biologically important steroids are derivatives of the parent hydrocarbons (cf. Table 1) carrying various functional groups.
[...]
Suffixes are added to the name of the saturated or unsaturated parent system (see 33-2.5), the terminal e of -ane, -ene, -yne, -adiene etc. being elided before a vowel (presence or absence of numerals has no effect on such elisions).}}&lt;/ref&gt; This means, for instance, that if the suffix immediately appended to the parent structure name begins with a vowel, the trailing &quot;e&quot; is removed from that name. An example of such removal is &quot;5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot;, where the last &quot;e&quot; of &quot;pregnane&quot; is dropped due to the vowel (&quot;o&quot;) at the beginning of the suffix -ol. Some authors incorrectly use this rule, eliding the terminal &quot;e&quot; where it should be kept, or vice versa.&lt;ref name=&quot;google-pregnane17ol&quot;&gt;{{cite web | url=https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%225%CE%B1-pregnane-17%CE%B1-ol-3%2C20-dione%22| title=Google Scholar search results for &quot;5α-pregnane-17α-ol-3,20-dione&quot; that is an incorrect name| year=2022}}&lt;/ref&gt;

In the term &quot;11-oxygenated&quot; applied to a steroid, &quot;oxygenated&quot; refers to the presence of the oxygen atom in a group; this term is consistently used within the chemistry of the steroids&lt;ref name=&quot;chemster&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Makin|first1=H.L.J.|last2=Trafford|first2=D.J.H.|year=1972|title=The chemistry of the steroids|journal=Clinics in Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=1|issue=2|pages=333–360|doi=10.1016/S0300-595X(72)80024-0}}&lt;/ref&gt; since as early as 1950s.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid13167092&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Bongiovanni|first1=A. M.|last2=Clayton|first2=G. W.|year=1954|title=Simplified method for estimation of 11-oxygenated neutral 17-ketosteroids in urine of individuals with adrenocortical hyperplasia|url=|journal=Proc Soc Exp Biol Med|volume=85|issue=3|pages=428–9|doi=10.3181/00379727-85-20905|pmid=13167092|s2cid=8408420}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt; Some studies use the term &quot;11-oxyandrogens&quot;&lt;ref name=&quot;11oxyhs&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Slaunwhite|first1=W.Roy|last2=Neely|first2=Lavalle|last3=Sandberg|first3=Avery A.|year=1964|title=The metabolism of 11-Oxyandrogens in human subjects|journal=Steroids|volume=3|issue=4|pages=391–416|doi=10.1016/0039-128X(64)90003-0}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Wettstaedt|first2=Lisa|last3=Boettcher|first3=Claudia|last4=Hartmann|first4=Michaela F.|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|year=2018|title=Androgen excess is due to elevated 11-oxygenated androgens in treated children with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|journal=The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=178|pages=221–228|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.016|issn=0960-0760|pmid=29277706|s2cid=3709499}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt; potentially as an abbreviation for 11-oxygenated androgens, to emphasize that they all have an oxygen atom attached to carbon at position 11.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt; However, in chemical nomenclature, the prefix &quot;oxy&quot; refers to an ether, i.e., a compound with an oxygen atom connected to two alkyl or aryl groups (-O-), therefore, using the part &quot;oxy&quot; for a steroid may be misleading.

The oxo group (=O) bound to a carbon atom forms a larger, ketone group (R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O), hence the prefix &quot;11-keto&quot; used in the medical literature to denote an oxo group bound to carbon at position 11. However, the 1989 recommendations of the Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature discourage the application of the prefix &quot;keto&quot; for steroid names, and favor the prefix &quot;oxo&quot; (e.g., 11-oxo steroids rather than 11-keto steroids), because keto denotes &quot;R&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;C=O&quot;, while only &quot;=O&quot; is attached in steroids to the carbon at a particular position. Therefore, the same carbon atom should not be specified twice.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2606099-keto&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=1989|title=IUPAC-IUB Joint Commission on Biochemical Nomenclature (JCBN). The nomenclature of steroids. Recommendations 1989|journal=Eur J Biochem|volume=186|issue=3|pages=429–58|doi=10.1111/j.1432-1033.1989.tb15228.x|pmid=2606099|quote=The prefix oxo- should also be used in connection with generic terms, e.g., 17-oxo steroids. The term ‘17-keto steroids’, often used in the medical literature, is incorrect because C-17 is specified twice, as the term keto denotes C=O|quote-page=430}}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Biochemistry ==
A more detailed description of each alternative androgen pathway described in the History section is provided below. Protein names are abbreviated by the standard gene names that they are encoded by (e.g., 5α-reductases type 1 is abbreviated by SRD5A1). Full enzyme names can be found in the Abbreviations section.

=== Backdoor Pathways to 5α-Dihydrotestosterone ===
While 5α-reduction is the last transformation in canonical androgen steroidogenesis, it is the first step in the backdoor pathways to 5α-dihydrotestosterone that acts on either 17-OHP or P4 which are ultimately converted to DHT.[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway.svg|thumb|left|The androgen backdoor pathways from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone or progesterone towards 5α-dihydrotestosterone roundabout testosterone and androstenedione (red arrows), as well as the &quot;5α-dione&quot; pathway that starts with 5α-reduction of androstenedione, embedded within canonical steroidogenesis (black arrows). Genes corresponding to the enzymes for catalysis are shown in boxed text with the associated arrow. Some additional proteins that are required for specific transformations (such as Steroidogenic acute regulatory protein (STAR), Cytochromes b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, Cytochrome P450 reductase (POR)) are not shown for clarity.]]
====17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway ====
[[File:Androgen backdoor pathway from 17-OHP to DHT.svg|thumb|right|The steroids involved in the metabolic pathway from 17α-hydroxyprogesterone to 5α-dihydrotestosterone with roundabout of testosterone. The red circle indicates the change in molecular structure compared to the precursor.]]
The first step of this pathway is the 5α-reduction of 17-OHP to 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (17-OH-DHP, since it is also known as 17α-hydroxy-dihydroprogesterone). The reaction is catalyzed by SRD5A1,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; though some authors{{specify}} suggest SRD5A2 may also catalyze this reaction in some contexts.

17-OH-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (5α-Pdiol) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2 and AKR1C4)&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Flück|first1=Christa E.|last2=Meyer-Böni|first2=Monika|last3=Pandey|first3=Amit V.|last4=Kempná|first4=Petra|last5=Miller|first5=Walter L.|last6=Schoenle|first6=Eugen J.|last7=Biason-Lauber|first7=Anna|year=2011|title=Why boys will be boys: two pathways of fetal testicular androgen biosynthesis are needed for male sexual differentiation|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=89|issue=2|pages=201–218|doi=10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.06.009|issn=1537-6605|pmc=3155178|pmid=21802064}}&lt;/ref&gt; or 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (HSD17B6), that also has  3α-reduction activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9188497&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Expression cloning and characterization of oxidative 17beta- and 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases from rat and human prostate |journal=J Biol Chem |volume=272 |issue=25 |pages=15959–66  |pmid=9188497 |doi=10.1074/jbc.272.25.15959|doi-access=free |last1=Biswas |first1=Michael G. |last2=Russell |first2=David W. |year=1997 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22114194&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Estrogen receptor β and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6, a growth regulatory pathway that is lost in prostate cancer |journal=Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A |volume=108 |issue=50 |pages=20090–4 |pmid=22114194 |pmc=3250130 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1117772108|doi-access=free |last1=Muthusamy |first1=Selvaraj |last2=Andersson |first2=Stefan |last3=Kim |first3=Hyun-Jin |last4=Butler |first4=Ryan |last5=Waage |first5=Linda |last6=Bergerheim |first6=Ulf |last7=Gustafsson |first7=Jan-Åke |year=2011 |bibcode=2011PNAS..10820090M }}&lt;/ref&gt; 5α-Pdiol is also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone or 17-OH-allopregnanolone.

5α-Pdiol is then converted to 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (AST) by 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 which cleaves a side-chain (C17-C20 bond) from the steroid nucleus, converting a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (a pregnane) to C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; steroid (an androstane or androgen).  AST, in its turn, is 17β-reduced to 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (3α-diol) by 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 or type 5 (HSD17B3 and AKR1C3).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; The final step is 3α-oxidation of 3α-diol in target tissues to DHT by an enzyme that has 3α-hydroxysteroid oxidase activity, such as AKR1C2,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12604227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Rizner TL, Lin HK, Penning TM |title=Role of human type 3 3alpha-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (AKR1C2) in androgen metabolism of prostate cancer cells |journal=Chem Biol Interact |volume=143-144 |issue= |pages=401–9 |date=February 2003 |pmid=12604227 |doi=10.1016/s0009-2797(02)00179-5}}&lt;/ref&gt; HSD17B6, HSD17B10, RDH16, RDH5, and DHRS9.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;/&gt; This oxidation is not required in the canonical pathway.

The pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|17-OHP → 17-OH-DHP → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

====Progesterone Pathway====
The pathway from P4 to DHT is similar to that described above from 17-OHP to DHT, but the initial substrate for 5α-reductase here is P4 rather than 17-OHP. In male fetuses, placental P4 acts as a substrate during the biosynthesis of backdoor androgens, which occur in multiple tissues. Enzymes related to this backdoor pathway in the human male fetus are mainly expressed in non-gonadal tissues, and the steroids involved in this pathway are also primarily present in non-gonadal tissues.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt; 

The first step in this pathway is 5α-reduction of P4 towards 5α-dihydroprogesterone (5α-DHP) by SRD5A1. 5α-DHP is then converted to 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (AlloP5) via 3α-reduction by a 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isozyme (AKR1C2/AKR1C4). AlloP5 is then converted to 5α-Pdiol by the 17α-hydroxylase activity of CYP17A1. This metabolic pathway proceeds analogously to DHT as  the 17α-Hydroxyprogesterone Pathway.

The pathway  can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|P4 → 5α-DHP → AlloP5 → 5α-Pdiol → AST → 3α-diol → DHT}}

=== 5α-Dione Pathway ===
5α-reduction is also the initial transformation of the 5α-dione pathway where A4 is converted to androstanedione (5α-dione) by SRDA51 and then directly to DHT by either HSD17B3 or AKR1C3. While this pathway is unlikely to be biological relevance in healthy humans,  it has been found operating in castration-resistant prostate cancer.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;

The 5α-dione can also transformed into AST, which can then either converted back to 5α-dione or be transformed into DHT along the common part of the backdoor pathways to DHT (i.e., via 3α-diol).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18923939&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Nishiyama2011&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid9183566&quot;/&gt; 

This pathway can be summarized as:{{unbulleted list|A4 → 5α-dione → DHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21795608&quot;/&gt;}}

=== 11-Oxygenated Androgen Pathways ===
[[File:Routes to 11-oxyandrogens.svg|thumb|Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens in humans|thumb|left|Abbreviated routes to 11-oxygenated androgens with transformations annotated with gene names of corresponding enzymes. Certain CYP17A1 mediated reactions that transform 11-oxygenated androgens classes (grey box) are omitted for clarity. Δ&lt;sup&gt;5&lt;/sup&gt; compounds that are transformed to Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt; compounds are also omitted for clarity.]]

Routes to 11-oxygenated androgens&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27442248&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32203405&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Gent|first1=R.|last2=Du Toit|first2=T.|last3=Bloem|first3=L. M.|last4=Swart|first4=A. C.|year=2019|title=The 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase isoforms: pivotal catalytic activities yield potent C11-oxy C19 steroids with HSD11B2 favouring 11-ketotestosterone, 11-ketoandrostenedione and 11-ketoprogesterone biosynthesis|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=189|issue=|pages=116–126|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.02.013|pmid=30825506|s2cid=73490363}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25869556&quot; /&gt; (Figure 4) also fall under our definition of alternative androgen pathways. These routes begin with four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP, A4 and T) and can then enter a lattice-like organization of possible transformations between 19-carbon steroid products. Wether or not a steroid is subject to a given transformation path depends on health status and the expression of a given enzyme in the tissue where that steroid is synthesized or transported to. All the steroid products in this lattice have a hydroxy group (-OH) or an oxo group (=O) covalently bound to the carbon atom at position 11 (see Figure 1). Only four 11-oxygenated steroids are known to be androgenic: 11OHT, 11OHDHT, 11KT and 11KDHT with activities that are correspondingly comparable to T and DHT.  The relative importance of the androgens depends on activity, circulating levels and stability. It may be that 11KT is the main androgen in women since it circulates at similar level to T but 11KT levels may not decline with age as T does (though some evidence suggests that they do&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31390028&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Skiba|first1=Marina A.|last2=Bell|first2=Robin J.|last3=Islam|first3=Rakibul M.|last4=Handelsman|first4=David J.|last5=Desai|first5=Reena|last6=Davis|first6=Susan R.|year=2019|title=Androgens During the Reproductive Years: What Is Normal for Women?|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=104|issue=11|pages=5382–5392|doi=10.1210/jc.2019-01357|pmid=31390028|s2cid=199467054}}&lt;/ref&gt;). While KDHT is equipotent to DHT, circulating levels of KDHT are lower than DHT and SRD5A1 mediated transformation of KT to KDHT does not seem be significant.

The other steroid products 11OHA4 and 11KA4 have been established as not having any androgen activity, but remain important molecules in this context since they act as androgen precursors.

The complex lattice structure see in Figure 4 can be understood broadly as the four Δ&lt;sup&gt;4&lt;/sup&gt;  steroid entry points that can undergo a common sequence of three transformations:

1. 11β-hydroxylation by CYP11B1/2.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;Haru1980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Haru|first1=Shibusawa|last2=Yumiko|first2=Sano|last3=Shoichi|first3=Okinaga|last4=Kiyoshi|first4=Arai|year=1980|title=Studies on 11β-hydroxylase of the human fetal adrenal gland|journal=Journal of Steroid Biochemistry|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=13|issue=8|pages=881–887|doi=10.1016/0022-4731(80)90161-2|issn=0022-4731|pmid=6970302}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22101210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schloms|first1=Lindie|last2=Storbeck|first2=Karl-Heinz|last3=Swart|first3=Pieter|last4=Gelderblom|first4=Wentzel C.A.|last5=Swart|first5=Amanda C.|year=2012|title=The influence of Aspalathus linearis (Rooibos) and dihydrochalcones on adrenal steroidogenesis: quantification of steroid intermediates and end products in H295R cells|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=128|issue=3–5|pages=128–38|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2011.11.003|pmid=22101210|s2cid=26099234}}&lt;/ref&gt;

2. 5α-reduction by SRD5A1/2

3. Reversible 3α-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol

These steroids correspond to the &quot;11OH&quot; column in Figure 4. This sequence is replicated in the parallel column of &quot;11K&quot; steroids, in which are a result of 11β-reduction/oxidation of the ketone/alcohol (HSD11B1 catalyzes both oxidation and reduction while HSD11B2 only catalyzes the oxidation).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;

There are additional transformations in the lattice that cross the derivatives of the entry points. AKR1C3 catalyzes (reversibly in some cases) 17β-reduction of the ketone/alcohol to transform between steroids that can be derived from T and A4. Steroids that can be derived from P4 can also be transformed to those that can be derived from 17OHP via CYP17A1 17α-hydroxylase activity. Some members of the 17OHP derived steroids can be transformed to A4 derived members via CYP17A1 17,20 lyase activity.

The next sections describe what are understood to be the primary routes to androgens amongst the many possible routes visible in Figure 4.

==== C&lt;sub&gt;19&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
A4 that is synthesized in the adrenal where it can undergo 11β-hydroxylation to yield 11OHA4, an important circulating androgen precursor, which is further transformed to 11KA4 and then KT (primarily outside the adrenal in peripheral tissue): {{unbulleted list|A4 → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}
This route is regarded as the primary 11-oxygenated androgen pathway in healthy humans. It is thought that the T entry point also operates in normal human physiology, but much less that A4: {{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11OHA4 → 11KA4 → 11KT}}{{unbulleted list|T → 11OHT → 11KT}}
The diminished role of these pathways is supported by that fact that the adrenal significantly more produces 11OHA4 than OHT&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23386646&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29936123&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Barnard|first1=Monique|last2=Quanson|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Mostaghel|first3=Elahe|last4=Pretorius|first4=Elzette|last5=Snoep|first5=Jacky L.|last6=Storbeck|first6=Karl-Heinz|year=2018|title=11-Oxygenated androgen precursors are the preferred substrates for aldo-keto reductase 1C3 (AKR1C3): Implications for castration resistant prostate cancer|journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol|volume=183|issue=|pages=192–201|doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.06.013|pmc=6283102|pmid=29936123}}&lt;/ref&gt; .

==== C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; Steroid Entry Points ====
Currently there is no good evidence for 11-oxygenated androgens from the C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid entry points (P4, 17OHP) operating in healthy humans. These entry points are relevant in the clinical context as discussed in the next section.

==Clinical Significance ==
=== 11-Oxygenated Androgens ===
Measurements of the levels of circulating 11KT, in a 2021 study, Schiffer et al. identified 11KT biosynthesis in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (in blood samples), which produced eight times the amount of 11KT compared to T. The lag time before isolation of cellular components from whole blood increased serum 11KT concentrations in a time-dependent manner, with a significant increase observed from two hours after blood collection. These results emphasize that care should be taken when performing lab tests—to avoid falsely elevated 11KT levels.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33444228&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schiffer|first1=Lina|last2=Bossey|first2=Alicia|last3=Kempegowda|first3=Punith|last4=Taylor|first4=Angela E.|last5=Akerman|first5=Ildem|last6=Scheel-Toellner|first6=Dagmar|last7=Storbeck|first7=Karl-Heinz|last8=Arlt|first8=Wiebke|year=2021|title=Peripheral blood mononuclear cells preferentially activate 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=184|issue=3|pages=353–363|doi=10.1530/EJE-20-1077|issn=1479-683X|pmc=7923147|pmid=33444228}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Unlike T and A4, 11-oxygenated androgens are not known to be aromatized to estrogens in the human body''.''&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32862221&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |last1=Nagasaki |first1=Keisuke |last2=Takase |first2=Kaoru |last3=Numakura |first3=Chikahiko |last4=Homma |first4=Keiko |last5=Hasegawa |first5=Tomonobu |last6=Fukami |first6=Maki |title=Foetal virilisation caused by overproduction of non-aromatisable 11-oxy C19 steroids in maternal adrenal tumour |journal=Human Reproduction  |year=2020 |volume=35 |issue=11 |pages=2609–2612 |doi=10.1093/humrep/deaa221 |pmid=32862221 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = 11-Oxygenated Estrogens Are a Novel Class of Human Estrogens but Do not Contribute to the Circulating Estrogen Pool | journal = Endocrinology | volume = 162 | issue = 3 | pmid = 33340399 | pmc = 7814299 | doi = 10.1210/endocr/bqaa231 | last1 = Barnard | first1 = Lise | last2 = Schiffer | first2 = Lina | last3 = Louw Du-Toit | first3 = Renate | last4 = Tamblyn | first4 = Jennifer A. | last5 = Chen | first5 = Shiuan | last6 = Africander | first6 = Donita | last7 = Arlt | first7 = Wiebke | last8 = Foster | first8 = Paul A. | last9 = Storbeck | first9 = Karl-Heinz |year = 2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt; &lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Kamrath|first1=Clemens|last2=Hochberg|first2=Ze'ev|last3=Hartmann|first3=Michaela F.|last4=Remer|first4=Thomas|last5=Wudy|first5=Stefan A.|title=Increased activation of the alternative &quot;backdoor&quot; pathway in patients with 21-hydroxylase deficiency: evidence from urinary steroid hormone analysis|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22170725|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|year=2012 |volume=97|issue=3|pages=E367–375|doi=10.1210/jc.2011-1997|issn=1945-7197|pmid=22170725|s2cid=3162065 }}&lt;/ref&gt; The inability of aromatase to convert the 11-oxygenated androgens to estrogens may contribute to the 11-oxygenated androgens circulating at higher levels than other androgens in women, except perhaps DHEA.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid15994348&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Direct agonist/antagonist functions of dehydroepiandrosterone | journal = Endocrinology | year = 2005 | volume = 146 | issue = 11 | pages = 4568–76 | pmid = 15994348 | doi = 10.1210/en.2005-0368 | doi-access = free | last1 = Chen | first1 = Fang | last2 = Knecht | first2 = Kristin | last3 = Birzin | first3 = Elizabeth | last4 = Fisher | first4 = John | last5 = Wilkinson | first5 = Hilary | last6 = Mojena | first6 = Marina | last7 = Moreno | first7 = Consuelo Tudela | last8 = Schmidt | first8 = Azriel | last9 = Harada | first9 = Shun-Ichi | last10 = Freedman | first10 = Leonard P. | last11 = Reszka | first11 = Alfred A. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16159155&quot;&gt;{{cite journal  |title = Chemistry and structural biology of androgen receptor | journal = Chemical Reviews | volume = 105 | issue = 9 | pages = 3352–70 | pmid = 16159155 | pmc = 2096617 | doi = 10.1021/cr020456u | last1 = Gao | first1 = Wenqing | last2 = Bohl | first2 = Casey E. | last3 = Dalton | first3 = James T. | year = 2005 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2021 study,  However, it is possible that 11-oxygenated estrogens may be produced in some conditions such as feminizing adrenal carcinoma.&lt;ref name=&quot;MAHESH196351&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = Isolation of estrone and 11β-hydroxy estrone from a feminizing adrenal carcinoma | journal = Steroids | volume = 1 | number = 1 | pages = 51–61 |year = 1963 |issn = 0039-128X| doi = 10.1016/S0039-128X(63)80157-9 | url = https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0039128X63801579 |first1=Virendra |last1=Mahesh |first2=Walter |last2=Herrmann}}&lt;/ref&gt; DHT, an androgen that can also be produced in a backdoor pathway, is also a non-aromatizable androgen.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid2943941&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Stimulation of aromatase activity by dihydrotestosterone in human skin fibroblasts |journal=J Steroid Biochem |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=165–9 |year=1986 |pmid=2943941 |doi=10.1016/0022-4731(86)90296-7 |last1=Chabab |first1=Aziz |last2=Sultan |first2=Charles |last3=Fenart |first3=Odile |last4=Descomps |first4=Bernard }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid10332569&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Dihydrotestosterone: a rationale for its use as a non-aromatizable androgen replacement therapeutic agent |journal=Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=501–6 |year=1998 |pmid=10332569 |doi=10.1016/s0950-351x(98)80267-x |last1=Swerdloff |first1=Ronald S. |last2=Wang |first2=Christina }}&lt;/ref&gt;

Most conditions highlighted in the following sections have had demonstrations of potential roles for 11-oxygenated androgens.
=== Hyperandrogenism ===
Alternative androgen pathways are not always considered in the clinical evaluation of patients with hyperandrogenism, i.e., androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Sumińska|first1=Marta|last2=Bogusz-Górna|first2=Klaudia|last3=Wegner|first3=Dominika|last4=Fichna|first4=Marta|year=2020|title=Non-Classic Disorder of Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Clinical Dilemmas in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency Combined with Backdoor Androgen Pathway. Mini-Review and Case Report|journal=Int J Mol Sci|volume=21|issue=13|page=4622|doi=10.3390/ijms21134622|pmc=7369945|pmid=32610579|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; Hyperandrogenism may lead to symptoms like acne, hirsutism, alopecia, premature adrenarche, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea, polycystic ovaries and infertility.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid16772149&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yildiz|first1=Bulent O.|year=2006|title=Diagnosis of hyperandrogenism: clinical criteria|journal=Best Practice &amp; Research. Clinical Endocrinology &amp; Metabolism|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=20|issue=2|pages=167–176|doi=10.1016/j.beem.2006.02.004|issn=1521-690X|pmid=16772149}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24184282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Peigné|first1=Maëliss|last2=Villers-Capelle|first2=Anne|last3=Robin|first3=Geoffroy|last4=Dewailly|first4=Didier|year=2013|title=Hyperandrogénie féminine|journal=Presse Medicale (Paris, France)|language=fr|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=42|issue=11|pages=1487–1499|doi=10.1016/j.lpm.2013.07.016|issn=0755-4982|pmid=24184282|s2cid=28921380}}&lt;/ref&gt; Not considering alternative androgen pathways in clinical hyperandrogenism investigations may obfuscate the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32610579&quot; /&gt;

Despite the prevailing dogma that T and DHT are the primary human androgens, this paradigm applies only to healthy men.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2017|title=Clinical significance of 11-oxygenated androgens|journal=Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes|volume=24|issue=3|pages=252–259|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000334|pmc=5819755|pmid=28234803}}&lt;/ref&gt; Although T has been traditionally used as a biomarker of androgen excess,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32912651&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Yang|first1=Yabo|last2=Ouyang|first2=Nengyong|last3=Ye|first3=Yang|last4=Hu|first4=Qin|last5=Du|first5=Tao|last6=Di|first6=Na|last7=Xu|first7=Wenming|last8=Azziz|first8=Ricardo|last9=Yang|first9=Dongzi|year=2020|title=The predictive value of total testosterone alone for clinical hyperandrogenism in polycystic ovary syndrome|journal=Reprod Biomed Online|volume=41|issue=4|pages=734–742|doi=10.1016/j.rbmo.2020.07.013|pmid=32912651|s2cid=221625488|last10=Zhao|first10=Xiaomiao}}&lt;/ref&gt; it correlates poorly with clinical findings of androgen excess.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28234803&quot; /&gt; If the levels of T appear to be normal, ignoring the alternative androgen pathways may lead to diagnostic errors since hyperandrogenism may be caused by potent androgens such as DHT produced by a backdoor pathway and 11-oxygenated androgens also produced from 21-carbon steroid (pregnane) precursors in a backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33415088&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Balsamo|first1=Antonio|last2=Baronio|first2=Federico|last3=Ortolano|first3=Rita|last4=Menabo|first4=Soara|last5=Baldazzi|first5=Lilia|last6=Di Natale|first6=Valeria|last7=Vissani|first7=Sofia|last8=Cassio|first8=Alessandra|year=2020|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasias Presenting in the Newborn and Young Infant|journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics|publisher=Frontiers Media SA|volume=8|page=593315|doi=10.3389/fped.2020.593315|issn=2296-2360|pmc=7783414|pmid=33415088|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29277706&quot; /&gt; 

It had been suggested that 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (11OHA4) and its urinary metabolites could have clinical applications used as a biomarkers of adrenal origin of androgen excess in women. Increased adrenal 11OHA4 production was characterized, using changes in A4:11OHA4 and 11β-hydroxyandrosterone:11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratios, in cushing syndrome, hirsutism, CAH and PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1623996&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Carmina|first1=E.|last2=Stanczyk|first2=F. Z.|last3=Chang|first3=L.|last4=Miles|first4=R. A.|last5=Lobo|first5=R. A.|year=1992|title=The ratio of androstenedione:11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione is an important marker of adrenal androgen excess in women|journal=Fertil Steril|volume=58|issue=1|pages=148–52|doi=10.1016/s0015-0282(16)55152-8|pmid=1623996}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid14417423&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lipsett|first1=Mortimer B.|last2=Riter|first2=Barbara|year=1960|title=Urinary ketosteroids and pregnanetriol in hirsutism|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=20|issue=2|pages=180–6|doi=10.1210/jcem-20-2-180|pmid=14417423}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33340399&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid3129451&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Polson|first1=D. W.|last2=Reed|first2=M. J.|last3=Franks|first3=S.|last4=Scanlon|first4=M. J.|last5=James|first5=V. H. T.|year=1988|title=Serum 11 beta-hydroxyandrostenedione as an indicator of the source of excess androgen production in women with polycystic ovaries|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=66|issue=5|pages=946–50|doi=10.1210/jcem-66-5-946|pmid=3129451}}&lt;/ref&gt; These ratios have still not been established as a standard clinical as a diagnostic tool.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a well known disease of hyperandrogenism, but the contributions of the backdoor pathway to DHT remain under appreciated.  CAH refers to a group of autosomal recessive disorders characterized by impaired cortisol biosynthesis&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28576284&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2017|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Lancet|volume=390|issue=10108|pages=2194–2210|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(17)31431-9|pmid=28576284|vauthors=El-Maouche D, Arlt W, Merke DP}}&lt;/ref&gt; caused by a deficiency in any of the enzymes required to produce cortisol in the adrenal.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid12930931&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=August 2003|title=Congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=N Engl J Med|volume=349|issue=8|pages=776–88|doi=10.1056/NEJMra021561|pmid=12930931|vauthors=Speiser PW, White PC}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30272171&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|year=2018|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia Due to Steroid 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=103|issue=11|pages=4043–4088|doi=10.1210/jc.2018-01865|pmc=6456929|pmid=30272171}}&lt;/ref&gt; This deficiency leads to an excessive accumulation of steroid precursors that are converted to androgens. 

In a 2016 study, Turcu et al.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Nanba|first2=Aya T.|last3=Chomic|first3=Robert|last4=Upadhyay|first4=Sunil K.|last5=Giordano|first5=Thomas J.|last6=Shields|first6=James J.|last7=Merke|first7=Deborah P.|last8=Rainey|first8=William E.|last9=Auchus|first9=Richard J.|year=2016|title=Adrenal-derived 11-oxygenated 19-carbon steroids are the dominant androgens in classic 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=174|issue=5|pages=601–9|doi=10.1530/EJE-15-1181|pmc=4874183|pmid=26865584}}&lt;/ref&gt; showed that in classic CAH due to CYP21A2 deficiency both conventional and 11-oxygenated androgens were elevated 3-4 fold in CAH patients receiving glucocorticoid therapy compared to healthy controls.  The levels of 11-oxygenated androgens correlated positively with conventional androgens in women but negatively in men. The levels of 11KT were 4 times higher compared to that of T in women with the condition.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt; 

In CAH due to 21-hydroxylase&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid22170725&quot; /&gt; (CYP17A1) or cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) deficiency,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot; /&gt; the associated elevated 17-OHP levels result in flux through the backdoor pathway to DHT that begins with 5α-reduction. This pathway may be activated regardless of age and sex.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26038201&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2015|title=Adrenal Steroidogenesis and Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia|journal=Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America|publisher=Elsevier BV|volume=44|issue=2|pages=275–296|doi=10.1016/j.ecl.2015.02.002|issn=0889-8529|pmc=4506691703046|pmid=26038201}}&lt;/ref&gt;  Fetal excess of 17-OHP in CAH may contribute to  DHT synthesis and lead to external genital virilization in newborn girls with CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot; /&gt; P4 levels may also be elevated in CAH,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=A. F.|last2=Rege|first2=J.|last3=Chomic|first3=R.|last4=Liu|first4=J.|last5=Nishimoto|first5=H. K.|last6=Else|first6=T.|last7=Moraitis|first7=A. G.|last8=Palapattu|first8=G. S.|last9=Rainey|first9=W. E.|year=2015|title=Profiles of 21-Carbon Steroids in 21-hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=100|issue=6|pages=2283–2290|doi=10.1210/jc.2015-1023|pmc=4454804|pmid=25850025|last10=Auchus|first10=R. J.}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31505456&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=November 2019|title=Influence of hormones on the immunotolerogenic molecule HLA-G: a cross-sectional study in patients with congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=Eur J Endocrinol|volume=181|issue=5|pages=481–488|doi=10.1530/EJE-19-0379|pmid=31505456|vauthors=Nguyen LS, Rouas-Freiss N, Funck-Brentano C, Leban M, Carosella ED, Touraine P, Varnous S, Bachelot A, Salem JE}}&lt;/ref&gt; leading to androgen excess via the backdoor pathway from P4 to DHT.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28188961&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|date=May 2017|title=High serum progesterone associated with infertility in a woman with nonclassic congenital adrenal hyperplasia|url=|journal=J Obstet Gynaecol Res|volume=43|issue=5|pages=946–950|doi=10.1111/jog.13288|pmid=28188961|vauthors=Kawarai Y, Ishikawa H, Segawa T, Teramoto S, Tanaka T, Shozu M}}&lt;/ref&gt; 17-OHP and P4 may also serve as substrates to 11-oxygenated androgens in CAH.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Elman|first3=Meredith S|last4=Avila|first4=Nilo A|last5=Marko|first5=Jamie|last6=Rao|first6=Hamsini|last7=Tsodikov|first7=Alexander|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P|year=2017|title=11-Oxygenated Androgens Are Biomarkers of Adrenal Volume and Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=102|issue=8|pages=2701–2710|doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3989|pmc=5546849|pmid=28472487}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid26865584&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid29718004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=White|first1=Perrin C.|year=2018|title=Update on diagnosis and management of congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency|journal=Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes, and Obesity|volume=25|issue=3|pages=178–184|doi=10.1097/MED.0000000000000402|pmid=29718004|s2cid=26072848}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34867794&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Turcu|first1=Adina F.|last2=Mallappa|first2=Ashwini|last3=Nella|first3=Aikaterini A.|last4=Chen|first4=Xuan|last5=Zhao|first5=Lili|last6=Nanba|first6=Aya T.|last7=Byrd|first7=James Brian|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Merke|first9=Deborah P.|year=2021|title=24-Hour Profiles of 11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids and Δ5-Steroid Sulfates during Oral and Continuous Subcutaneous Glucocorticoids in 21-Hydroxylase Deficiency|journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne)|volume=12|issue=|pages=751191|doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.751191|pmc=8636728|pmid=34867794|doi-access=free}}&lt;/ref&gt; In males with CAH, 11-oxygenated androgens may lead to development of testicular adrenal rest tumors.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid25850025&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28472487&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34390337&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Schröder|first1=Mariska A M.|last2=Turcu|first2=Adina F.|last3=o'Day|first3=Patrick|last4=Van Herwaarden|first4=Antonius E.|last5=Span|first5=Paul N.|last6=Auchus|first6=Richard J.|last7=Sweep|first7=Fred C G J.|last8=Claahsen-Van Der Grinten|first8=Hedi L.|year=2022|title=Production of 11-Oxygenated Androgens by Testicular Adrenal Rest Tumors|journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab|volume=107|issue=1|pages=e272–e280|doi=10.1210/clinem/dgab598|pmc=8684463|pmid=34390337}}&lt;/ref&gt;
=== Disorders of Sex Development ===
Both canonical and the backdoor androgen pathway to DHT are required for normal human male genital development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30943210&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|last2=Auchus|first2=Richard J.|year=2019|title=The &quot;backdoor pathway&quot; of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development|journal=PLOS Biology|volume=17|issue=4|pages=e3000198|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198|pmc=6464227|pmid=30943210}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35793998&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Hyun Gyung|last2=Kim|first2=Chan Jong|year=2022|title=Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development|journal=Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab|volume=27|issue=2|pages=83–89|doi=10.6065/apem.2244124.062|pmid=35793998|s2cid=250155674}}&lt;/ref&gt; Deficiencies in the backdoor pathway to DHT from 17-OHP or from P4&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23073980&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Fukami|first1=Maki|last2=Homma|first2=Keiko|last3=Hasegawa|first3=Tomonobu|last4=Ogata|first4=Tsutomu|year=2013|title=Backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis: implications for normal and abnormal human sex development|journal=Developmental Dynamics|volume=242|issue=4|pages=320–9|doi=10.1002/dvdy.23892|pmid=23073980|s2cid=44702659}}&lt;/ref&gt; lead to underverilization of the male fetus,&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid24793988&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways |journal=Ann Endocrinol (Paris) |volume=75 |issue=2 |pages=40–7 |year=2014 |pmid=24793988 |doi=10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002 |last1=Flück |first1=Christa E. |last2=Pandey |first2=Amit V. }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid8636249&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Prismatic cases: 17,20-desmolase (17,20-lyase) deficiency |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=81 |issue=2 |pages=457–9 |year=1996 |pmid=8636249 |doi=10.1210/jcem.81.2.8636249 |url=|last1=Zachmann |first1=M. }}&lt;/ref&gt; as placental P4 is a precursor to DHT in the backdoor pathway.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30763313&quot;/&gt;

In 2011 Flück et al. described a case of five 46,XY (male) patients from two families with DSD, caused by mutations in AKR1C2 and/or AKR1C4, an enzyme required for a backdoor pathway to DHT, but not the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis. In these patients, mutations in the AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 were excluded, and disorders in the canonical pathway of androgen biosynthesis have also been excluded, however, they had genital ambiguity. The 46,XX (female) relatives of affected patients, having the same mutations, were phenotypically normal and fertile. Although both AKR1C2 and AKR1C4 are needed for DHT synthesis in a backdoor pathway (Figure 2), the study found that mutations in AKR1C2 only were sufficient for disruption.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid21802064&quot;/&gt; However, these AKR1C2/AKR1C4 variants leading to DSD are rare and have been only so far reported in just those two families.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals |journal=Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=36 |issue=1 |pages=101593 |year=2022 |pmid=34711511 |doi=10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency syndrome due to variants in CYP17A1, cytochrome b&lt;sub&gt;5&lt;/sub&gt;, and POR may also disrupt a backdoor pathway to DHT, as the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 is required for both canonical and backdoor androgen pathways (Figure 2). This rare deficiency can lead to DSD in both sexes with affected girls are asymptomatic until puberty, when they show amenorrhea.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34711511&quot;/&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may play important roles in DSDs.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Turning the spotlight on the C11-oxy androgens in human fetal development |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=212 |issue= |pages=105946  |pmid=34171490 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105946|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2021 |s2cid=235603586 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34987475&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Disorders of Sex Development of Adrenal Origin |journal=Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) |volume=12 |issue= |pages=770782 |pmid=34987475 |pmc=8720965 |doi=10.3389/fendo.2021.770782 |doi-access=free |last1=Finkielstain |first1=Gabriela P. |last2=Vieites |first2=Ana |last3=Bergadá |first3=Ignacio |last4=Rey |first4=Rodolfo A. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31611378&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Reisch|first1=Nicole|last2=Taylor|first2=Angela E.|last3=Nogueira|first3=Edson F.|last4=Asby|first4=Daniel J.|last5=Dhir|first5=Vivek|last6=Berry|first6=Andrew|last7=Krone|first7=Nils|last8=Auchus|first8=Richard J.|last9=Shackleton|first9=Cedric H. L.|title=Alternative pathway androgen biosynthesis and human fetal female virilization|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|year=2019 |volume=116|issue=44|pages=22294–22299|doi=10.1073/pnas.1906623116|issn=1091-6490|pmc=6825302|pmid=31611378|doi-access=free }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11-oxygenated androgen fetal biosynthesis may coincide with the key stages of production of cortisol — at weeks 8–9, 13–24, and from 31 and onwards. In these stages, impaired CYP17A1 and CYP21A2 activity lead to increased ACTH due to cortisol deficiency and the accumulation of precursors that serve as substrates for CYP11B1 in pathways to 11-oxygenated androgens, which cause abnormal female fetal development.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34171490&quot;/&gt;

=== Polycystic Ovary Syndrome ===
In PCOS, DHT may be produced in the backdoor androgen pathway from upregulation of SRD5A1 activity.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27471004&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=441 |issue= |pages=116–123 |pmid=27471004 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029|last1=Marti |first1=Nesa |last2=Galván |first2=José A. |last3=Pandey |first3=Amit V. |last4=Trippel |first4=Mafalda |last5=Tapia |first5=Coya |last6=Müller |first6=Michel |last7=Perren |first7=Aurel |last8=Flück |first8=Christa E. |year=2017 |s2cid=22185557 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid1968168&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Stewart|first1=P. M.|last2=Shackleton|first2=C. H.|last3=Beastall|first3=G. H.|last4=Edwards|first4=C. R.|title=5 alpha-reductase activity in polycystic ovary syndrome|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/1968168|journal=Lancet (London, England)|year=1990 |volume=335|issue=8687|pages=431–433|doi=10.1016/0140-6736(90)90664-q|issn=0140-6736|pmid=1968168|s2cid=54422650 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid19567518&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Increased 5 alpha-reductase activity and adrenocortical drive in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=94 |issue=9 |pages=3558–66  |pmid=19567518 |doi=10.1210/jc.2009-0837 |last1=Vassiliadi |first1=Dimitra A. |last2=Barber |first2=Thomas M. |last3=Hughes |first3=Beverly A. |last4=McCarthy |first4=Mark I. |last5=Wass |first5=John A. H. |last6=Franks |first6=Stephen |last7=Nightingale |first7=Peter |last8=Tomlinson |first8=Jeremy W. |last9=Arlt |first9=Wiebke |last10=Stewart |first10=Paul M. |year=2009 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32247282&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | last1=Swart | first1=Amanda C. | last2=du Toit | first2=Therina | last3=Gourgari | first3=Evgenia | last4=Kidd | first4=Martin | last5=Keil | first5=Meg | last6=Faucz | first6=Fabio R. | last7=Stratakis | first7=Constantine A. | title=Steroid hormone analysis of adolescents and young women with polycystic ovarian syndrome and adrenocortical dysfunction using UPC2-MS/MS | journal=Pediatric Research | publisher=Springer Science and Business Media LLC | volume=89 | issue=1  | year=2021 | issn=0031-3998 | pmid=32247282 | pmc=7541460 | doi=10.1038/s41390-020-0870-1 | pages=118–126}}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgens may also play an important role in PCOS.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxyandrogens in Adolescents With Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Endocr Soc |year=2022 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=bvac037|pmid=35611324 |pmc=9123281 |doi=10.1210/jendso/bvac037|last1=Taylor |first1=Anya E. |last2=Ware |first2=Meredith A. |last3=Breslow |first3=Emily |last4=Pyle |first4=Laura |last5=Severn |first5=Cameron |last6=Nadeau |first6=Kristen J. |last7=Chan |first7=Christine L. |last8=Kelsey |first8=Megan M. |last9=Cree-Green |first9=Melanie }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32637065&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Implicating androgen excess in propagating metabolic disease in polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Ther Adv Endocrinol Metab |volume=11 |issue= |pages=2042018820934319 |pmid=32637065 |pmc=7315669 |doi=10.1177/2042018820934319|last1=Kempegowda |first1=Punith |last2=Melson |first2=Eka |last3=Manolopoulos |first3=Konstantinos N. |last4=Arlt |first4=Wiebke |last5=o'Reilly |first5=Michael W. |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid27901631&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Are the Predominant Androgens in Polycystic Ovary Syndrome |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=102 |issue=3 |pages=840–848  |pmid=27901631 |pmc=5460696 |doi=10.1210/jc.2016-3285 |last1=o'Reilly |first1=Michael W. |last2=Kempegowda |first2=Punith |last3=Jenkinson |first3=Carl |last4=Taylor |first4=Angela E. |last5=Quanson |first5=Jonathan L. |last6=Storbeck |first6=Karl-Heinz |last7=Arlt |first7=Wiebke |year=2017 }}&lt;/ref&gt; In a 2017 study, O'Reilly et al. revealed that 11-oxygenated androgens are the predominant androgens in women with PCOS, while in healthy control subjects, classic androgens constitute the majority of the circulating androgen pool; nevertheless, the levels of 11KT exceeded those of T in both groups, specifically, 3.4 fold in the PCOS group.  Recent investigations have reported circulating levels of 11KA4, 11KT and 11OHT levels in PCOS as well as 11-oxygenated pregnanes. Serum 11OHT and 11KT levels have been show to be elevated in PCOS  and correlate with body mass index.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30012903&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-oxygenated C19 steroids as circulating androgens in women with polycystic ovary syndrome |journal=Endocr J |volume=65 |issue=10 |pages=979–990 |pmid=30012903 |doi=10.1507/endocrj.EJ18-0212|last1=Yoshida |first1=Tomoko |last2=Matsuzaki |first2=Toshiya |last3=Miyado |first3=Mami |last4=Saito |first4=Kazuki |last5=Iwasa |first5=Takeshi |last6=Matsubara |first6=Yoichi |last7=Ogata |first7=Tsutomu |last8=Irahara |first8=Minoru |last9=Fukami |first9=Maki |year=2018 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Significantly elevated 11KT levels have been detected in the daughters of PCOS mothers and in obese girls while 11OHA4, 11KA4 and 11OHT levels were comparable.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid32797203&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=11-Oxygenated C19 Steroids Do Not Distinguish the Hyperandrogenic Phenotype of PCOS Daughters from Girls with Obesity |journal=J Clin Endocrinol Metab |volume=105 |issue=11 |pages= e3903–e3909 |pmid=32797203 |pmc=7500474 |doi=10.1210/clinem/dgaa532|last1=Torchen |first1=Laura C. |last2=Sisk |first2=Ryan |last3=Legro |first3=Richard S. |last4=Turcu |first4=Adina F. |last5=Auchus |first5=Richard J. |last6=Dunaif |first6=Andrea |year=2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 11KT has also been shown to be elevated together with decreased 11KA4 levels in PCOS patients with micronodular adrenocortical hyperplasia. In addition 11OHAST, 11OHEt, DHP4 and 11KDHP4 levels were elevated and 11OHP4, 21dF and 11KDHP4 were elevated in patients with inadequate dexamethasone responses.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31450227&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|last1=Miller|first1=Walter L.|year=2019|title=Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia: Time to Replace 17OHP with 21-Deoxycortisol|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31450227|journal=Hormone Research in Paediatrics|volume=91|issue=6|pages=416–420|doi=10.1159/000501396|issn=1663-2826|pmid=31450227|s2cid=201733086}}&lt;/ref&gt; Metformin treatment had no effect on 11-oxygenated androgens in PCOS adolescents in a 2022 study, despite lower levels of T after treatment.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid35611324&quot; /&gt;
=== Prostate Cancer ===
High levels of 11KT, 11KDHT and 11OHDHT have also been detected in prostate cancer tissue (~10–20 ng/g) and in circulation, 11KT (~200–350nM) and 11KDHT (~20nM) being the most abundant.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot; /&gt; There is some preliminary evidence that 11-oxygenated androgen pathway may play an important role at the stage of prostatic carcinogenesis.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot; /&gt;

Androgen deprivation is a therapeutic approach to prostrate cancer that can be implemented by castration to eliminate gonadal T, but metastatic tumors may then develop into castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Although castration results in 90-95% reduction of serum T, DHT in the prostate is only decreased by 50%, supporting the notion that the prostrate expresses necessary enzymes to produce DHT without testicular T.{{cn}} The 5α-dione pathway was discovered in the context of CPRC (see History), and is known to mitigate the effects of androgen depravation therapy.

11-Oxygenated androgens contribute significantly to the androgen pool&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot; /&gt; and play a previously overlooked role in the reactivation of androgen signaling in the CRPC patient.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid34520388&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |vauthors=Ventura-Bahena A, Hernández-Pérez JG, Torres-Sánchez L, Sierra-Santoyo A, Escobar-Wilches DC, Escamilla-Núñez C, Gómez R, Rodríguez-Covarrubias F, López-González ML, Figueroa M |title=Urinary androgens excretion patterns and prostate cancer in Mexican men |journal=Endocr Relat Cancer |volume=28 |issue=12 |pages=745–756 |date=October 2021 |pmid=34520388 |doi=10.1530/ERC-21-0160 |url=}}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid28939401&quot;&gt;{{cite journal |title=Inefficient UGT-conjugation of adrenal 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione metabolites highlights C11-oxy C19 steroids as the predominant androgens in prostate cancer |journal=Mol Cell Endocrinol |volume=461 |issue= |pages=265–276  |pmid=28939401 |doi=10.1016/j.mce.2017.09.026|last1=Du Toit |first1=Therina |last2=Swart |first2=Amanda C. |year=2018 |s2cid=6335125 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid30825506&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23856005&quot; /&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31900912&quot;&gt;{{cite journal | title = Canonical and Noncanonical Androgen Metabolism and Activity | journal = Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology | volume = 1210 | pages = 239–277  | pmid = 31900912 | doi = 10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_11 | isbn = 978-3-030-32655-5 | s2cid = 209748543 | last1 = Storbeck | first1 = Karl-Heinz | last2 = Mostaghel | first2 = Elahe A. | year = 2019 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid23685396&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11β-hydroxyandrostenedione, the product of androstenedione metabolism in the adrenal, is metabolized in LNCaP cells by 5α-reductase yielding 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione |journal=J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol |volume=138 |issue= |pages=132–42  |pmid=23685396 |doi=10.1016/j.jsbmb.2013.04.010 |s2cid=3404940 |last1=Swart |first1=Amanda C. |last2=Schloms |first2=Lindie |last3=Storbeck |first3=Karl-Heinz |last4=Bloem |first4=Liezl M. |last5=Toit |first5=Therina du |last6=Quanson |first6=Jonathan L. |last7=Rainey |first7=William E. |last8=Swart |first8=Pieter |year=2013 }}&lt;/ref&gt; Serum 11KT levels are higher than any other androgen in 97% of CRPC patients, accounting for 60% of the total active androgen pool, and are not affected by castration.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid33974560&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=11-Ketotestosterone is the predominant active androgen in prostate cancer patients after castration |journal=JCI Insight |volume=6 |issue=11  |pmid=33974560 |pmc=8262344 |doi=10.1172/jci.insight.148507 |last1=Snaterse |first1=G. |last2=Van Dessel |first2=L. F. |last3=Van Riet |first3=J. |last4=Taylor |first4=A. E. |last5=Van Der Vlugt-Daane |first5=M. |last6=Hamberg |first6=P. |last7=De Wit |first7=R. |last8=Visser |first8=J. A. |last9=Arlt |first9=W. |last10=Lolkema |first10=M. P. |last11=Hofland |first11=J. |year=2021 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

=== Benign Prostatic Hyperplasia; Chronic Prostatitis/Chronic Pelvic Pain Syndrome ===
Androgens play a vital role in the development, growth and maintenance of the prostate.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot; /&gt; Therefore, the role of androgens should be seriously considered not only in CRPC, but other prostate-related conditions such as BPH&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18471780&quot;/&gt; and chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome (CP/CPPS).&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title=Adrenocortical hormone abnormalities in men with chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome |journal=Urology |volume=71 |issue=2 |pages=261–6  |pmid=18308097 |pmc=2390769 |doi=10.1016/j.urology.2007.09.025 |last1=Dimitrakov |first1=Jordan |last2=Joffe |first2=Hylton V. |last3=Soldin |first3=Steven J. |last4=Bolus |first4=Roger |last5=Buffington |first5=C.A. Tony |last6=Nickel |first6=J. Curtis |year=2008 }}&lt;/ref&gt; 

11-oxygenated androgen pathways have been observed in BPH cell models (11OHP4 and 11KP4, a C&lt;sub&gt;21&lt;/sub&gt; steroid, to 11KDHT), BPH patient tissue biopsy and in their serum.&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid31626910&quot;&gt;{{cite journal|title = The 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione pathway and C11-oxy C21 backdoor pathway are active in benign prostatic hyperplasia yielding 11keto-testosterone and 11keto-progesterone | journal = The Journal of Steroid Biochemistry and Molecular Biology | volume = 196 | pages = 105497  | pmid = 31626910 | doi = 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105497 | s2cid = 204734045 | url = | last1 = Du Toit | first1 = Therina | last2 = Swart | first2 = Amanda C. |year = 2020 }}&lt;/ref&gt;

== Future Directions ==
Relative steroid serum levels in CP/CPPS have suggested that CYP21A2 deficiency may play a role in the disease&lt;ref name=&quot;pmid18308097&quot; /&gt; and that non-classic CAH due to 21-hydroxylase deficiency may be a comorbidity. Given the potential roles that alternative androgen pathways play in the previously described disease areas, it seems that CP/CPPS would seem to be a good candidate to investigate the same way. We are not aware of any work looking at the roles of alternative androgen pathways in CP/CPPS.

==PubChem CIDs==
In order to unambiguously define all the steroids mentioned in the present review, their respective PubChem IDs are listed below. PubChem is a database of molecules, maintained by the National Center for Biotechnology Information of the United States National Institutes of Health. The IDs given below are intended to eliminate ambiguity caused by the use of different synonyms for the same metabolic intermediate by different authors when describing the androgen backdoor pathways. 

11dF: 440707; 11K-5αdione: 11185733; 11KA4: 223997; 11KAST: 102029; 11KDHP4: 968899; 11KDHT: 11197479; 11KP4: 94166; 11KPdiol: 92264183; 11KPdione: 99568471; 11KT: 104796; 11OH-3αdiol: 349754907; 11OH-5αdione: 59087027; 11OHA4: 94141; 11OHAST: 10286365; 11OHDHP4: 11267580; 11OHDHT: 10018051; 11OHEt: 101849; 11OHP4: 101788; 11OHPdiol: 99601857; 11OHPdione: 99572627; 11OHT: 114920; 17OHP5: 3032570; 17-OHP: 6238; 17-OH-DHP: 11889565; 21dE: 102178; 21dF: 92827; 3,11diOH-DHP4: 10125849; 3α-diol: 15818; 3β-diol: 242332; 5α-DHP: 92810; 5α-dione: 222865; 5α-Pdiol: 111243; A4: 6128; A5: 10634; A5-S: 13847309; ALF: 104845; AlloP5: 92786; AST: 5879; DHEA: 5881; DHEA-S: 12594; DHT: 10635; DOC: 6166; P4: 5994; P5: 8955; T: 6013.

== Abbreviations ==
=== Steroids ===
* '''11dF''' 11-deoxycortisol (also known as Reichstein's substance S)
* '''11K-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol-11-one
* '''11K-5αdione''' 5α-androstane-3,11,17-trione (also known as 11-ketoandrostanedione or 11-keto-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11KA4''' 11-ketoandrostenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,11,17-trione or androst-4-ene-3,11,17-trione or adrenosterone or Reichstein's substance G)
* '''11KAST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-11,17-dione (also known as 11-ketoandrosterone)
* '''11KDHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3,11,20-trione (also known as 11-ketodihydroprogesterone or allopregnanetrione)
* '''11KDHT''' 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (also known as &quot;5α-dihydro-11-keto testosterone&quot; or 5α-dihydro-11-keto-testosterone)
* '''11KP4''' 4-pregnene-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-ene-3,11,20-trione or 11-ketoprogesterone)
* '''11KPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-11,20-dione
* '''11KPdione''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione
* '''11KT''' 11-ketotestosterone (also known as 4-androsten-17β-ol-3,11-dione)
* '''11OH-3αdiol''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β,17β-triol
* '''11OH-5αdione''' 5α-androstan-11β-ol-3,17-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxy-5α-androstanedione)
* '''11OHA4''' 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione (also known as 4-androsten-11β-ol-3,17-dione or androst-4-en-11β-ol-3,17-dione)
* '''11OHAST''' 5α-androstane-3α,11β-diol-17-one (also known as 11β-hydroxyandrosterone)
* '''11OHDHP4''' 5α-pregnan-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''11OHDHT''' 11β-hydroxydihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-dihydro-11β-hydroxytestosterone or 5α-androstane-11β,17β-diol-3-one or 11β,17β-dihydroxy-5α-androstan-3-one)
* '''11OHEt''' 11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5β-androstan-17-one)
* '''11OHP4''' 4-pregnen-11β-ol-3,20-dione (also known as pregn-4-en-11β-ol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycorticosterone or 11β-hydroxyprogesterone)
* '''11OHPdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β,17α-triol-20-one
* '''11OHPdione''' 5α-pregnane-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione
* '''11OHT''' 11β-hydroxytestosterone
* '''17OHP5''' 17α-hydroxypregnenolone
* '''17-OH-DHP''' 5α-pregnan-17α-ol-3,20-dione (also known as 17α-hydroxydihydroprogesterone)
* '''17-OHP''' 17α-hydroxyprogesterone
* '''21dE''' 4-pregnen-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione (also known as pregn-4-en-17α-ol-3,11,20-trione or 21-deoxycortisone)
* '''21dF''' 4-pregnene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione (also known as 11β,17α-dihydroxyprogesterone or pregn-4-ene-11β,17α-diol-3,20-dione or 21-deoxycortisol or 21-desoxyhydrocortisone)
* '''3,11diOH-DHP4''' 5α-pregnane-3α,11β-diol-20-one (also known as 3α,11β-dihydroxy-5α-pregnan-20-one)
* '''3α-diol''' 5α-androstane-3α,17β-diol (also known by abbreviation &quot;5α-Adiol&quot; or &quot;5α-adiol&quot;), also known as 3α-androstanediol
* '''3β-diol''' 5α-androstane-3β,17β-diol (also known as 3β-androstanediol)
* '''5α-DHP''' 5α-dihydroprogesterone
* '''5α-dione''' androstanedione (also known as 5α-androstane-3,17-dione)
* '''5α-Pdiol''' 5α-pregnane-3α,17α-diol-20-one (also known as 17α-hydroxyallopregnanolone)
* '''A4''' androstenedione (also known as 4-androstene-3,17-dione or androst-4-ene-3,17-dione)
* '''A5''' androstenediol (also known as 5-androstene-3β,17β-diol or androst-5-ene-3β,17β-diol)
* '''A5-S''' androstenediol sulfate
* '''ALF''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (also known, when used as a medication, as alfaxalone or alphaxalone)
* '''AlloP5''' 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-20-one (also known as allopregnanolone)
* '''AST''' 5α-androstan-3α-ol-17-one (also known androsterone)
* '''DHEA''' dehydroepiandrosterone (also known as 3β-hydroxyandrost-5-en-17-one or androst-5-en-3β-ol-17-one)
* '''DHEA-S''' dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate
* '''DHT''' 5α-dihydrotestosterone (also known as 5α-androstan-17β-ol-3-one)
* '''DOC''' 11-deoxycorticosterone (also known as Reichstein's substance Q)
* '''P4''' progesterone
* '''P5''' pregnenolone
* '''T''' testosterone

=== Enzymes (Abbreviated by their Gene Names) ===
* '''AKR1C2''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C2 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3)
* '''AKR1C3''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C3 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2; also known as 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 5 (HSD17B5)) 
* '''AKR1C4''' aldo-keto reductase family 1 member C4 (also known as 3α-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1)
* '''CYP11A1''' cytochrome P450 cholesterol side-chain cleavage enzyme (also known by abbreviation &quot;P450scc&quot;)
* '''CYP11B1''' steroid 11β-hydroxylase
* '''CYP11B2''' aldosterone synthase
* '''CYP17A1''' steroid 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (also known as cytochrome P450c17)
* '''CYP21A2''' steroid 21α-hydroxylase (also known as 21-hydroxylase, or cytochrome P450c21) 
* '''DHRS9''' dehydrogenase/reductase SDR family member 9
* '''HSD11B1''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1
* '''HSD11B2''' 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2
* '''HSD17B3''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 
* '''HSD17B6''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 6 (also known as retinol dehydrogenase-like hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, RL-HSD)
* '''HSD17B10''' 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 10
* '''POR''' cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase
* '''RDH16''' retinol dehydrogenase 16 (also known as RODH4)
* '''RDH5''' retinol dehydrogenase 5
* '''SRD5A1''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 1
* '''SRD5A2''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 2
* '''SRD5A3''' 3-oxo-5α-steroid 4-dehydrogenase (also known as steroid 5α-reductase) type 3

=== Conditions ===
* '''BPH''' benign prostatic hyperplasia 
* '''CAH''' congenital adrenal hyperplasia
* '''CP/CPPS''' chronic prostatitis/chronic pelvic pain syndrome
* '''CRPC''' castration-resistant prostate cancer
* '''DSD''' disorder of sex development
* '''PCOS''' polycystic ovary syndrome

=== Other ===
* '''ACTH''' adrenocorticotropic hormone
* '''STAR''' steroidogenic acute regulatory protein

== Additional Information ==
=== Competing Interests ===
The authors have no competing interest.
=== Funding ===
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship and publication of this article.
=== Notes on The Use of Abbreviations ===
The authors sometimes used &quot;full name – abbreviation&quot; pairs repeatedly throughout the article for easier following.

=== Referencing Convention ===
{{ordered list
|When particular results or conclusions of particular research or review are discussed, it is mentioned by the year when it was published and the last name of the first author with &quot;et al.&quot;. The year may not necessarily be mentioned close to the name.
|To back up a particular claim which is an exact claim (such as which enzyme catalyzes a particular reaction), the supporting article is cited in the text as a number in square brackets from the numbered list of references, without mentioning the year and the name. The same technique is applied to support a generalization (e.g., &quot;the prevailing dogma&quot;, &quot;not always considered&quot;, &quot;canonical androgen steroidogenesis&quot;) — in such case, there is a reference to one or more supporting reviews without explicitly mentioning these reviews in the text.
|When multiple studies that confirm the same finding (or that are on a similar topic) are cited, they are also cited as described in p.2., i.e., giving reference numbers in square brackets and without mentioning the year and the name.}}

== References ==
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      <text bytes="16487" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Future Directions in Treatment for Anxiety''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Wendy K. Silverman, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Wendy Silverman begins by explaining the history surrounding the diagnosis of anxiety disorder including prevalence. She then describes the types of targets treatment for anxiety has such as behavioral targets and biological/neural. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has long been one of the most common treatments for anxiety disorders; however, CBT does not work for everyone. Predictors of poor outcome with CBT from trials include severe anxiety especially social anxiety disorder, low SES, and OCD. One CBT based therapy for anxiety, Mind My Mind (MMM) has undergone trails to see its effectiveness in treating anxiety. These trails showed good results with children reporting decreased anxiety and total difficulties and teachers reporting positive effects. Research has shown that parents are often detrimental to treatment when their children have anxiety because the parents often behave in ways that maintain the child's anxiety. While we know this, few studies assess parent involvement in treatment of youth anxiety. Dr. Silverman and colleagues conducted several trials looking at parent involvement in CBT used to treat anxiety in youth. They found that reducing parent psychological control and adding the use of negative reinforcement improved CBT outcomes. Dr. Silverman and colleagues also studied a version of CBT augmented with attention retraining in children who are resistant to CBT alone and found mean anxiety scores to be significantly lower at post than pre with medium to large effect sizes. This research shows that attention retraining is a cost effective add viable augmentation to CBT for those who are resistant to CBT alone. While this research is promising, there are many avenues that need to be explored with these treatments including moderators and rates of change.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8DdyxsGAME&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Future Directions in Brief Interventions for Specific Phobia''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. [[Thomas Ollendick|Thomas Ollendick, Ph.D.]]'''

==== Description ====
''Dr. Thomas Ollendick discusses the Future Directions in brief interventions for specific phobia.''

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Future Directions in Peer Relations''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Mitch J. Prinstein, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Prinstein begins his address by outlining the history of peer relations and the background of the links between peer relations and psychopathology. He then describes how positive peer relations may have protective factors for health including reduced inflammation problems, decreased hypertension, and decreased obesity. Research has found that negative or problematic peer relations can lead to health risk behaviors such as substance abuse and risky sexual behaviors. Peer problems and deviant peer group affiliation as well as peers who engage in similar behaviors lead to health risk behaviors. A meta-analysis found that peers influence susceptibility when it comes to how adolescents behave. Peer influence susceptibility can be measured by both self report indices and performance-based measurement (observing simulated chat room and other tasks designed to measure peer relations). There are also physiological measures of peer relations such as looking at fMRIs and cortisol levels. These studies have found that peer relations change our body's stress reactivity response and our body's regulation following stress. There are also neural signals for social exclusion in the form of pain signals. Social exclusion signals the most powerful signal to change behavior in adolescents. Interpersonal stress is also seen as a predictor of depression in youth. Dr. Prinstein concludes his talk by describing the work still remaining to do in this area such as examining the role of peers on physical health, potential mechanisms, and how knowing more about peer relations can help improve adolescent development. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prinstein|first=Mitchell J.|last2=Giletta|first2=Matteo|date=2020-07-03|title=Future Directions in Peer Relations Research|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|journal=Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology|volume=49|issue=4|pages=556–572|doi=10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|issn=1537-4416|pmid=32347752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWQQPfeZHUw&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;index=3&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== ''The Revise and Resubmit Process when Publishing in Peer-Reviewed Journals'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Think about some of the greatest, most thought-provoking journal articles you ever read. Chances are that each of them went through extensive revisions not only during the drafting process, but also throughout the review process, on the path to the journal editor eventually accepting it for publication. You probably know that successful researchers have to accept, cope with, and overcome rejection on the path to publishing their work. The same can be said for those perennial circumstances, when editors and/or peer reviewers tell an author, “I think you are on the right track, but your paper still needs some work.” That’s the revise and resubmit process in a nutshell, and this workshop focuses on delivering concrete strategies for navigating this process.''

=== ''Seeking Out Career Paths in Philanthropy and Consulting'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Saajan Bhakta, Ph.D. and Dr. Amelia Aldao, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Many of us are curious about whether career path options exist other than the usual paths discussed within our own programs (e.g., policy, practice, research, teaching), and how viable pursuing these paths might be. Wouldn’t it be great if you had access to a workshop with strategies on how to “break into” areas of work that involve intersecting with philanthropic organizations and consulting firms? For those of you who answered “yes” to this question, we have a workshop for that at Forum 2021, led by two experts in the philanthropic and consultation spaces! Following the workshop, we will have options for small-group consultations with workshop leaders so that you have opportunities to get answers to questions that are specific to your goals, interests, and needs.''

=== ''Addressing Pipeline Issues in the Mental Health Workforce'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Riana Anderson, Ph.D. and Dr. Melanie Wilcox, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''One of the most intransigent issues facing work in mental health involves key barriers to building a research, policy, and practice workforce that is as diverse as the population surrounding that workforce. These barriers often take the form of “leaks” in the pipeline from formative training stages (e.g., high school, undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral training) all the way to later professional career stages (e.g., post-doctoral, early- and mid-career positions). What strategies are available to address these “pipeline leaks,” and how can we get involved in this important work? This workshop will address your burning questions regarding how you can get involved in addressing pipeline leaks in the mental health workforce.''

=== ''Networking in the Context of Social Distancing'' ===
'''Presented by [[Lucina Uddin|Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D]]. and Dr. Jessica Schleider, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Are you tired of zoom? Don’t you wish you had a chance to connect with people again, maybe even in tightly packed, intimate quarters like―gasp!―social hours at conferences? Well, we may still have to wait a while for that, but your career pursuits probably can’t wait for that in-person networking engine to rev up again. We heard the voices of our Forum 2020 attendees, and they were clamoring for advice on how to network when it’s just you and your mobile devices. A couple of social media superstars in mental health and neuroscience research are here to help with strategies on how to network when social distancing is the norm.''  

=== ''Fusing Writing Mechanics and Storytelling Principles in Academic Writing''[edit | edit source] ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''In a Forum 2019 workshop, we discussed several “active ingredients” of writing: core features of narrative structure that help us produce clear, concise academic papers. These ingredients factor prominently in each of our “recipes,” the papers we write. That said, we also know that all recipes include both active ingredients and “other” ingredients that are nonetheless crucial in preparation of the final product. In academic writing, these take the form of writing mechanics like use of transitions, understanding sentence structure, and making decisions surrounding whether to use technical versus non-technical language to make important points. During this workshop, we will immerse ourselves in these mechanics, supported by examples of their use in academic work.''

=== ''Racism is the Default'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eleanor K. Seaton, Ph.D.'''

===== Description[edit | edit source] =====
''Racism is multidimensional with individual and institutional levels. Despite the ubiquity of the term, there is no single solution that will combat and eliminate racism from our society. However, “un-doing” racism and becoming antiracist starts with unpacking and understanding the essence of racism, who is racist, how racism impacts the broader society historically and currently, and what it means to be antiracist. Dr. Eleanor Seaton will facilitate this workshop on understanding the elemental aspects of racism and antiracism, with suggestions for how to get involved with the movement to end racism and become antiracist.''

=== ''Previously Rejected Manuscripts for Publication'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''The acclaimed boxing trainer Whitey Bimstein famously said, “Show me an undefeated fighter and I’ll show [you] a guy who’s never fought anybody.” If you were to ask a room of 100 successful researchers if they regularly get their manuscripts rejected, and 95 researchers raised their hands, know that the other 5 lied to you. Rejection happens to everyone and it happens throughout one’s career. The experience is also normatively disorienting. When you get a manuscript rejected for publication, doesn’t it feel like you fell down unexpectedly, and you don’t quite know how to get back up? If you’re new to publishing and you regularly find yourself on the ground, you’re probably doing it right, but you could also use some advice on what to do next. This workshop will cover strategies for learning from rejection, revising your manuscript, and carving a new path toward publication.''

=== ''Navigating Problematic Mentoring Relationships'' ===

===== Description =====
''As a trainee, working with a mentor is like learning from a “research caregiver.” Unlike the caregiving environments you were used to before your research training, you actually get to choose the caregiver(s) who raise you! Here’s the thing though: Mentors and trainees create “family environments” like any other family unit. That is, they can create environments that range from supportive and nurturing, to the opposite of those two things! Are you running into “family issues” surrounding work with one or more of your mentors? We assembled a team of experienced colleagues who can help you with strategies for navigating these very kinds of relationships.''

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==

=== '''Joseph DeLuca, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the City University of New York

====== About the award recipient ======
Joe is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Joe is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, specializing in serious mental illness research and clinical work, particularly the early stages of psychosis. Joe received his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the CUNY Graduate Center (via John Jay College) in 2020 and completed his clinical psychology internship at the VA Maryland Health Care System/University of Maryland School of Medicine Psychology Internship Consortium.  Joe will be starting his new position as an assistant professor at Fairfield University in Connecticut.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nNQJeh8iUw&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Hannah Lawrence, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the University of Maine

====== About the award recipient ======
Hannah is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Hannah is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Harvard Medical School &amp; McLean Hospital.  She received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Maine, and completed her internship at Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. Her research examines the role of mental imagery in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders. She has a particular interest in examining physiological and affective response to maladaptive imagery-based cognition, such as imagery-based rumination, and evaluating and developing imagery-based treatments for depressed and/or suicidal youth.  Hannah will be starting as an assistant professor at Oregon State University.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqZDCV0H054&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Kelsey Ramsey, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from the Catholic University of America

====== About the award recipient ======
Kesley is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is a Postdoctoral Researcher at Johns Hopkins Medicine.  Kesley received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the Catholic University of America with a concentration in children, families, and cultures.  She is broadly interested in understanding the mechanisms that underlie the etiology of and treatment for different neuropsychiatric conditions, specifically anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette Syndrome, and obsessive-compulsive related disorders (OCRD).

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_0IhjiHwJ4&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Ki Eun (Kay) Shin, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University

====== About the award recipient ======
Kay is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She was a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Teachers College, Columbia University.  Kay received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from Pennsylvania State University and completed her internship at State University of New York Upstate Medical University.  Her research examines cognitive and emotional mechanisms of anxiety and depressive disorders and suicidality by leveraging mobile-based assessments to capture psychological processes as they unfold in real time, in the &quot;real world&quot; outside the laboratory.  Kay currently holds a position as an assistant professor in the Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program at Long Island University, in New York.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGYy3tZNTWE&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].
=== '''Anna Vannucci''' ===
* Currently a doctoral student at Columbia University

====== About the award recipient ======
Anna is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is currently a graduate student in Psychology at Columbia University.  Anna is interested in understanding how neural and emotional development processes link early life experiences to risk and resilience for psychopathology across childhood and adolescence. 

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4S_F99qcbA&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].</text>
      <sha1>6afkc43jde5p037cpha0hsfnb0706pe</sha1>
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      <id>2412838</id>
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        <username>Ncharamut</username>
        <id>2824970</id>
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      <comment>/* About the award recipient */ created references section</comment>
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      <text bytes="16505" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Future Directions in Treatment for Anxiety''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Wendy K. Silverman, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Wendy Silverman begins by explaining the history surrounding the diagnosis of anxiety disorder including prevalence. She then describes the types of targets treatment for anxiety has such as behavioral targets and biological/neural. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has long been one of the most common treatments for anxiety disorders; however, CBT does not work for everyone. Predictors of poor outcome with CBT from trials include severe anxiety especially social anxiety disorder, low SES, and OCD. One CBT based therapy for anxiety, Mind My Mind (MMM) has undergone trails to see its effectiveness in treating anxiety. These trails showed good results with children reporting decreased anxiety and total difficulties and teachers reporting positive effects. Research has shown that parents are often detrimental to treatment when their children have anxiety because the parents often behave in ways that maintain the child's anxiety. While we know this, few studies assess parent involvement in treatment of youth anxiety. Dr. Silverman and colleagues conducted several trials looking at parent involvement in CBT used to treat anxiety in youth. They found that reducing parent psychological control and adding the use of negative reinforcement improved CBT outcomes. Dr. Silverman and colleagues also studied a version of CBT augmented with attention retraining in children who are resistant to CBT alone and found mean anxiety scores to be significantly lower at post than pre with medium to large effect sizes. This research shows that attention retraining is a cost effective add viable augmentation to CBT for those who are resistant to CBT alone. While this research is promising, there are many avenues that need to be explored with these treatments including moderators and rates of change.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8DdyxsGAME&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Future Directions in Brief Interventions for Specific Phobia''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. [[Thomas Ollendick|Thomas Ollendick, Ph.D.]]'''

==== Description ====
''Dr. Thomas Ollendick discusses the Future Directions in brief interventions for specific phobia.''

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Future Directions in Peer Relations''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Mitch J. Prinstein, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Prinstein begins his address by outlining the history of peer relations and the background of the links between peer relations and psychopathology. He then describes how positive peer relations may have protective factors for health including reduced inflammation problems, decreased hypertension, and decreased obesity. Research has found that negative or problematic peer relations can lead to health risk behaviors such as substance abuse and risky sexual behaviors. Peer problems and deviant peer group affiliation as well as peers who engage in similar behaviors lead to health risk behaviors. A meta-analysis found that peers influence susceptibility when it comes to how adolescents behave. Peer influence susceptibility can be measured by both self report indices and performance-based measurement (observing simulated chat room and other tasks designed to measure peer relations). There are also physiological measures of peer relations such as looking at fMRIs and cortisol levels. These studies have found that peer relations change our body's stress reactivity response and our body's regulation following stress. There are also neural signals for social exclusion in the form of pain signals. Social exclusion signals the most powerful signal to change behavior in adolescents. Interpersonal stress is also seen as a predictor of depression in youth. Dr. Prinstein concludes his talk by describing the work still remaining to do in this area such as examining the role of peers on physical health, potential mechanisms, and how knowing more about peer relations can help improve adolescent development. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prinstein|first=Mitchell J.|last2=Giletta|first2=Matteo|date=2020-07-03|title=Future Directions in Peer Relations Research|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|journal=Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology|volume=49|issue=4|pages=556–572|doi=10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|issn=1537-4416|pmid=32347752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWQQPfeZHUw&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;index=3&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== ''The Revise and Resubmit Process when Publishing in Peer-Reviewed Journals'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Think about some of the greatest, most thought-provoking journal articles you ever read. Chances are that each of them went through extensive revisions not only during the drafting process, but also throughout the review process, on the path to the journal editor eventually accepting it for publication. You probably know that successful researchers have to accept, cope with, and overcome rejection on the path to publishing their work. The same can be said for those perennial circumstances, when editors and/or peer reviewers tell an author, “I think you are on the right track, but your paper still needs some work.” That’s the revise and resubmit process in a nutshell, and this workshop focuses on delivering concrete strategies for navigating this process.''

=== ''Seeking Out Career Paths in Philanthropy and Consulting'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Saajan Bhakta, Ph.D. and Dr. Amelia Aldao, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Many of us are curious about whether career path options exist other than the usual paths discussed within our own programs (e.g., policy, practice, research, teaching), and how viable pursuing these paths might be. Wouldn’t it be great if you had access to a workshop with strategies on how to “break into” areas of work that involve intersecting with philanthropic organizations and consulting firms? For those of you who answered “yes” to this question, we have a workshop for that at Forum 2021, led by two experts in the philanthropic and consultation spaces! Following the workshop, we will have options for small-group consultations with workshop leaders so that you have opportunities to get answers to questions that are specific to your goals, interests, and needs.''

=== ''Addressing Pipeline Issues in the Mental Health Workforce'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Riana Anderson, Ph.D. and Dr. Melanie Wilcox, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''One of the most intransigent issues facing work in mental health involves key barriers to building a research, policy, and practice workforce that is as diverse as the population surrounding that workforce. These barriers often take the form of “leaks” in the pipeline from formative training stages (e.g., high school, undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral training) all the way to later professional career stages (e.g., post-doctoral, early- and mid-career positions). What strategies are available to address these “pipeline leaks,” and how can we get involved in this important work? This workshop will address your burning questions regarding how you can get involved in addressing pipeline leaks in the mental health workforce.''

=== ''Networking in the Context of Social Distancing'' ===
'''Presented by [[Lucina Uddin|Dr. Lucina Uddin, Ph.D]]. and Dr. Jessica Schleider, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''Are you tired of zoom? Don’t you wish you had a chance to connect with people again, maybe even in tightly packed, intimate quarters like―gasp!―social hours at conferences? Well, we may still have to wait a while for that, but your career pursuits probably can’t wait for that in-person networking engine to rev up again. We heard the voices of our Forum 2020 attendees, and they were clamoring for advice on how to network when it’s just you and your mobile devices. A couple of social media superstars in mental health and neuroscience research are here to help with strategies on how to network when social distancing is the norm.''  

=== ''Fusing Writing Mechanics and Storytelling Principles in Academic Writing''[edit | edit source] ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''In a Forum 2019 workshop, we discussed several “active ingredients” of writing: core features of narrative structure that help us produce clear, concise academic papers. These ingredients factor prominently in each of our “recipes,” the papers we write. That said, we also know that all recipes include both active ingredients and “other” ingredients that are nonetheless crucial in preparation of the final product. In academic writing, these take the form of writing mechanics like use of transitions, understanding sentence structure, and making decisions surrounding whether to use technical versus non-technical language to make important points. During this workshop, we will immerse ourselves in these mechanics, supported by examples of their use in academic work.''

=== ''Racism is the Default'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Eleanor K. Seaton, Ph.D.'''

===== Description[edit | edit source] =====
''Racism is multidimensional with individual and institutional levels. Despite the ubiquity of the term, there is no single solution that will combat and eliminate racism from our society. However, “un-doing” racism and becoming antiracist starts with unpacking and understanding the essence of racism, who is racist, how racism impacts the broader society historically and currently, and what it means to be antiracist. Dr. Eleanor Seaton will facilitate this workshop on understanding the elemental aspects of racism and antiracism, with suggestions for how to get involved with the movement to end racism and become antiracist.''

=== ''Previously Rejected Manuscripts for Publication'' ===
'''Presented by Dr. Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
''The acclaimed boxing trainer Whitey Bimstein famously said, “Show me an undefeated fighter and I’ll show [you] a guy who’s never fought anybody.” If you were to ask a room of 100 successful researchers if they regularly get their manuscripts rejected, and 95 researchers raised their hands, know that the other 5 lied to you. Rejection happens to everyone and it happens throughout one’s career. The experience is also normatively disorienting. When you get a manuscript rejected for publication, doesn’t it feel like you fell down unexpectedly, and you don’t quite know how to get back up? If you’re new to publishing and you regularly find yourself on the ground, you’re probably doing it right, but you could also use some advice on what to do next. This workshop will cover strategies for learning from rejection, revising your manuscript, and carving a new path toward publication.''

=== ''Navigating Problematic Mentoring Relationships'' ===

===== Description =====
''As a trainee, working with a mentor is like learning from a “research caregiver.” Unlike the caregiving environments you were used to before your research training, you actually get to choose the caregiver(s) who raise you! Here’s the thing though: Mentors and trainees create “family environments” like any other family unit. That is, they can create environments that range from supportive and nurturing, to the opposite of those two things! Are you running into “family issues” surrounding work with one or more of your mentors? We assembled a team of experienced colleagues who can help you with strategies for navigating these very kinds of relationships.''

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==

=== '''Joseph DeLuca, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the City University of New York

====== About the award recipient ======
Joe is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Joe is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, specializing in serious mental illness research and clinical work, particularly the early stages of psychosis. Joe received his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the CUNY Graduate Center (via John Jay College) in 2020 and completed his clinical psychology internship at the VA Maryland Health Care System/University of Maryland School of Medicine Psychology Internship Consortium.  Joe will be starting his new position as an assistant professor at Fairfield University in Connecticut.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nNQJeh8iUw&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Hannah Lawrence, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the University of Maine

====== About the award recipient ======
Hannah is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Hannah is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Harvard Medical School &amp; McLean Hospital.  She received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Maine, and completed her internship at Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. Her research examines the role of mental imagery in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders. She has a particular interest in examining physiological and affective response to maladaptive imagery-based cognition, such as imagery-based rumination, and evaluating and developing imagery-based treatments for depressed and/or suicidal youth.  Hannah will be starting as an assistant professor at Oregon State University.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqZDCV0H054&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Kelsey Ramsey, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from the Catholic University of America

====== About the award recipient ======
Kesley is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is a Postdoctoral Researcher at Johns Hopkins Medicine.  Kesley received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the Catholic University of America with a concentration in children, families, and cultures.  She is broadly interested in understanding the mechanisms that underlie the etiology of and treatment for different neuropsychiatric conditions, specifically anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette Syndrome, and obsessive-compulsive related disorders (OCRD).

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_0IhjiHwJ4&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Ki Eun (Kay) Shin, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University

====== About the award recipient ======
Kay is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She was a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Teachers College, Columbia University.  Kay received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from Pennsylvania State University and completed her internship at State University of New York Upstate Medical University.  Her research examines cognitive and emotional mechanisms of anxiety and depressive disorders and suicidality by leveraging mobile-based assessments to capture psychological processes as they unfold in real time, in the &quot;real world&quot; outside the laboratory.  Kay currently holds a position as an assistant professor in the Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program at Long Island University, in New York.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGYy3tZNTWE&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].
=== '''Anna Vannucci''' ===
* Currently a doctoral student at Columbia University

====== About the award recipient ======
Anna is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is currently a graduate student in Psychology at Columbia University.  Anna is interested in understanding how neural and emotional development processes link early life experiences to risk and resilience for psychopathology across childhood and adolescence. 

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4S_F99qcbA&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

== References ==</text>
      <sha1>dd8vcvg3hjjqeckudw2mfzuo0zumnxw</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412840</id>
      <parentid>2412838</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T15:45:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ncharamut</username>
        <id>2824970</id>
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      <comment>/* Workshops */ fixed formatting</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="16433" xml:space="preserve">== '''Addresses''' ==

=== '''''Future Directions Address 1: Future Directions in Treatment for Anxiety''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Wendy K. Silverman, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Wendy Silverman begins by explaining the history surrounding the diagnosis of anxiety disorder including prevalence. She then describes the types of targets treatment for anxiety has such as behavioral targets and biological/neural. Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) has long been one of the most common treatments for anxiety disorders; however, CBT does not work for everyone. Predictors of poor outcome with CBT from trials include severe anxiety especially social anxiety disorder, low SES, and OCD. One CBT based therapy for anxiety, Mind My Mind (MMM) has undergone trails to see its effectiveness in treating anxiety. These trails showed good results with children reporting decreased anxiety and total difficulties and teachers reporting positive effects. Research has shown that parents are often detrimental to treatment when their children have anxiety because the parents often behave in ways that maintain the child's anxiety. While we know this, few studies assess parent involvement in treatment of youth anxiety. Dr. Silverman and colleagues conducted several trials looking at parent involvement in CBT used to treat anxiety in youth. They found that reducing parent psychological control and adding the use of negative reinforcement improved CBT outcomes. Dr. Silverman and colleagues also studied a version of CBT augmented with attention retraining in children who are resistant to CBT alone and found mean anxiety scores to be significantly lower at post than pre with medium to large effect sizes. This research shows that attention retraining is a cost effective add viable augmentation to CBT for those who are resistant to CBT alone. While this research is promising, there are many avenues that need to be explored with these treatments including moderators and rates of change.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v8DdyxsGAME&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''''Future Directions Address 2: Future Directions in Brief Interventions for Specific Phobia''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. [[Thomas Ollendick|Thomas Ollendick, Ph.D.]]'''

==== Description ====
''Dr. Thomas Ollendick discusses the Future Directions in brief interventions for specific phobia.''

=== '''''Future Directions Address 3: Future Directions in Peer Relations''''' ===

'''Presented by Dr. Mitch J. Prinstein, Ph.D.'''

==== Description ====
Dr. Prinstein begins his address by outlining the history of peer relations and the background of the links between peer relations and psychopathology. He then describes how positive peer relations may have protective factors for health including reduced inflammation problems, decreased hypertension, and decreased obesity. Research has found that negative or problematic peer relations can lead to health risk behaviors such as substance abuse and risky sexual behaviors. Peer problems and deviant peer group affiliation as well as peers who engage in similar behaviors lead to health risk behaviors. A meta-analysis found that peers influence susceptibility when it comes to how adolescents behave. Peer influence susceptibility can be measured by both self report indices and performance-based measurement (observing simulated chat room and other tasks designed to measure peer relations). There are also physiological measures of peer relations such as looking at fMRIs and cortisol levels. These studies have found that peer relations change our body's stress reactivity response and our body's regulation following stress. There are also neural signals for social exclusion in the form of pain signals. Social exclusion signals the most powerful signal to change behavior in adolescents. Interpersonal stress is also seen as a predictor of depression in youth. Dr. Prinstein concludes his talk by describing the work still remaining to do in this area such as examining the role of peers on physical health, potential mechanisms, and how knowing more about peer relations can help improve adolescent development. &lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Prinstein|first=Mitchell J.|last2=Giletta|first2=Matteo|date=2020-07-03|title=Future Directions in Peer Relations Research|url=https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|journal=Journal of Clinical Child &amp; Adolescent Psychology|volume=49|issue=4|pages=556–572|doi=10.1080/15374416.2020.1756299|issn=1537-4416|pmid=32347752}}&lt;/ref&gt;

Watch the YouTube video recording of the address [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eWQQPfeZHUw&amp;list=PLL9x03xRknCzlbIybLdjfqr7-sa53PilK&amp;index=3&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

== '''Workshops''' ==

=== ''The Revise and Resubmit Process when Publishing in Peer-Reviewed Journals'' ===
'''Presented by Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Think about some of the greatest, most thought-provoking journal articles you ever read. Chances are that each of them went through extensive revisions not only during the drafting process, but also throughout the review process, on the path to the journal editor eventually accepting it for publication. You probably know that successful researchers have to accept, cope with, and overcome rejection on the path to publishing their work. The same can be said for those perennial circumstances, when editors and/or peer reviewers tell an author, “I think you are on the right track, but your paper still needs some work.” That’s the revise and resubmit process in a nutshell, and this workshop focuses on delivering concrete strategies for navigating this process.

=== ''Seeking Out Career Paths in Philanthropy and Consulting'' ===
'''Presented by Saajan Bhakta, Ph.D. and Amelia Aldao, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Many of us are curious about whether career path options exist other than the usual paths discussed within our own programs (e.g., policy, practice, research, teaching), and how viable pursuing these paths might be. Wouldn’t it be great if you had access to a workshop with strategies on how to “break into” areas of work that involve intersecting with philanthropic organizations and consulting firms? For those of you who answered “yes” to this question, we have a workshop for that at Forum 2021, led by two experts in the philanthropic and consultation spaces! Following the workshop, we will have options for small-group consultations with workshop leaders so that you have opportunities to get answers to questions that are specific to your goals, interests, and needs.

=== ''Addressing Pipeline Issues in the Mental Health Workforce'' ===
'''Presented by Riana Anderson, Ph.D. and Melanie Wilcox, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
One of the most intransigent issues facing work in mental health involves key barriers to building a research, policy, and practice workforce that is as diverse as the population surrounding that workforce. These barriers often take the form of “leaks” in the pipeline from formative training stages (e.g., high school, undergraduate, master’s, and doctoral training) all the way to later professional career stages (e.g., post-doctoral, early- and mid-career positions). What strategies are available to address these “pipeline leaks,” and how can we get involved in this important work? This workshop will address your burning questions regarding how you can get involved in addressing pipeline leaks in the mental health workforce.

=== ''Networking in the Context of Social Distancing'' ===
'''Presented by [[Lucina Uddin|Lucina Uddin, Ph.D]]. and Jessica Schleider, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
Are you tired of zoom? Don’t you wish you had a chance to connect with people again, maybe even in tightly packed, intimate quarters like―gasp!―social hours at conferences? Well, we may still have to wait a while for that, but your career pursuits probably can’t wait for that in-person networking engine to rev up again. We heard the voices of our Forum 2020 attendees, and they were clamoring for advice on how to network when it’s just you and your mobile devices. A couple of social media superstars in mental health and neuroscience research are here to help with strategies on how to network when social distancing is the norm.  

=== ''Fusing Writing Mechanics and Storytelling Principles in Academic Writing''[edit | edit source] ===
'''Presented by Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
In a Forum 2019 workshop, we discussed several “active ingredients” of writing: core features of narrative structure that help us produce clear, concise academic papers. These ingredients factor prominently in each of our “recipes,” the papers we write. That said, we also know that all recipes include both active ingredients and “other” ingredients that are nonetheless crucial in preparation of the final product. In academic writing, these take the form of writing mechanics like use of transitions, understanding sentence structure, and making decisions surrounding whether to use technical versus non-technical language to make important points. During this workshop, we will immerse ourselves in these mechanics, supported by examples of their use in academic work.

=== ''Racism is the Default'' ===
'''Presented by Eleanor K. Seaton, Ph.D.'''

===== Description[edit | edit source] =====
Racism is multidimensional with individual and institutional levels. Despite the ubiquity of the term, there is no single solution that will combat and eliminate racism from our society. However, “un-doing” racism and becoming antiracist starts with unpacking and understanding the essence of racism, who is racist, how racism impacts the broader society historically and currently, and what it means to be antiracist. Dr. Eleanor Seaton will facilitate this workshop on understanding the elemental aspects of racism and antiracism, with suggestions for how to get involved with the movement to end racism and become antiracist.

=== ''Previously Rejected Manuscripts for Publication'' ===
'''Presented by Andres De Los Reyes, Ph.D.'''

===== Description =====
The acclaimed boxing trainer Whitey Bimstein famously said, “Show me an undefeated fighter and I’ll show [you] a guy who’s never fought anybody.” If you were to ask a room of 100 successful researchers if they regularly get their manuscripts rejected, and 95 researchers raised their hands, know that the other 5 lied to you. Rejection happens to everyone and it happens throughout one’s career. The experience is also normatively disorienting. When you get a manuscript rejected for publication, doesn’t it feel like you fell down unexpectedly, and you don’t quite know how to get back up? If you’re new to publishing and you regularly find yourself on the ground, you’re probably doing it right, but you could also use some advice on what to do next. This workshop will cover strategies for learning from rejection, revising your manuscript, and carving a new path toward publication.

=== ''Navigating Problematic Mentoring Relationships'' ===

===== Description =====
As a trainee, working with a mentor is like learning from a “research caregiver.” Unlike the caregiving environments you were used to before your research training, you actually get to choose the caregiver(s) who raise you! Here’s the thing though: Mentors and trainees create “family environments” like any other family unit. That is, they can create environments that range from supportive and nurturing, to the opposite of those two things! Are you running into “family issues” surrounding work with one or more of your mentors? We assembled a team of experienced colleagues who can help you with strategies for navigating these very kinds of relationships.

== '''Ceremony for the ''Future Directions Launch Award''''' ==

=== '''Joseph DeLuca, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the City University of New York

====== About the award recipient ======
Joe is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Joe is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, specializing in serious mental illness research and clinical work, particularly the early stages of psychosis. Joe received his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the CUNY Graduate Center (via John Jay College) in 2020 and completed his clinical psychology internship at the VA Maryland Health Care System/University of Maryland School of Medicine Psychology Internship Consortium.  Joe will be starting his new position as an assistant professor at Fairfield University in Connecticut.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0nNQJeh8iUw&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Hannah Lawrence, Ph.D.''' ===

* Received Ph.D. from the University of Maine

====== About the award recipient ======
Hannah is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  Hannah is a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Harvard Medical School &amp; McLean Hospital.  She received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the University of Maine, and completed her internship at Warren Alpert Medical School of Brown University. Her research examines the role of mental imagery in the etiology and treatment of mood disorders. She has a particular interest in examining physiological and affective response to maladaptive imagery-based cognition, such as imagery-based rumination, and evaluating and developing imagery-based treatments for depressed and/or suicidal youth.  Hannah will be starting as an assistant professor at Oregon State University.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DqZDCV0H054&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Kelsey Ramsey, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from the Catholic University of America

====== About the award recipient ======
Kesley is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is a Postdoctoral Researcher at Johns Hopkins Medicine.  Kesley received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from the Catholic University of America with a concentration in children, families, and cultures.  She is broadly interested in understanding the mechanisms that underlie the etiology of and treatment for different neuropsychiatric conditions, specifically anxiety, obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette Syndrome, and obsessive-compulsive related disorders (OCRD).

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F_0IhjiHwJ4&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

=== '''Ki Eun (Kay) Shin, Ph.D.''' ===
* Received Ph.D. from Pennsylvania State University

====== About the award recipient ======
Kay is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She was a Postdoctoral Researcher at the Teachers College, Columbia University.  Kay received her Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology from Pennsylvania State University and completed her internship at State University of New York Upstate Medical University.  Her research examines cognitive and emotional mechanisms of anxiety and depressive disorders and suicidality by leveraging mobile-based assessments to capture psychological processes as they unfold in real time, in the &quot;real world&quot; outside the laboratory.  Kay currently holds a position as an assistant professor in the Clinical Psychology Doctoral Program at Long Island University, in New York.

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TGYy3tZNTWE&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].
=== '''Anna Vannucci''' ===
* Currently a doctoral student at Columbia University

====== About the award recipient ======
Anna is a recipient of the 2021 Future Directions Launch Award.  She is currently a graduate student in Psychology at Columbia University.  Anna is interested in understanding how neural and emotional development processes link early life experiences to risk and resilience for psychopathology across childhood and adolescence. 

Watch the YouTube video recording of the remarks [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M4S_F99qcbA&amp;feature=youtu.be&amp;ab_channel=JCCAPFutureDirectionsForum here].

== References ==</text>
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== {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and achievement]] (Book chapter, 2011)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
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== {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] ==

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and achievement]] (Book chapter, 2011)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
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= '''&lt;sub&gt;&lt;big&gt;Hi, Unit 7124 students.  Regarding &lt;u&gt;Social Contributions.&lt;/u&gt;  Please refrain from making any direct edits other than to leave a comment under the 'Social Contributions' banner found at the bottom of this page.  Otherwise I welcome you providing your social contribution via direct message (talk page) or via email at u943292@uni.canberra.edu.au.  Thank you.&lt;/big&gt;&lt;/sub&gt;''' =


== {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]] 

Social Contributions - Comments.     

== See also ==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2011/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and achievement]] (Book chapter, 2011)

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Self-efficacy]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1557" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{title|Social contributions}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

A &quot;social contribution&quot; in the context of [[motivation and emotion]] is a public edit which in some way directly or indirectly improves the quality of book chapters that other people are working on.

This page provides a brief overview, with links to more detailed information.

* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] - have you made a social contribution and summarised it on your Wikiversity user page?
* What are “social contributions”?
** Any publicly viewable contribution to the internet that enhances the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book project]] beyond the chapter you are working on.
* Why social contributions?
** Reward student engagement
** Encourage and support peer feedback
** Enhance communication skills
* How to make social contributions
** Contributions can be made via:
*** Wikiversity book chapter (past and present)
**** Editing
**** Commenting
*** {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum posts
*** Twitter - use {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}}
** Summarise contributions on Wikiversity user page with links to evidence
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]
* More info:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|Social contribution]]
** [Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions|Summarising social contributions]]&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1583" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{title|Social contributions}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

A &quot;social contribution&quot; in the context of [[motivation and emotion]] is an edit or discussion/social media post which in some way directly or indirectly improves the quality of book chapters that other people are working on.

This page provides a brief overview, with links to more detailed information.

* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] - have you made a social contribution and summarised it on your Wikiversity user page?
* What are “social contributions”?
** Any publicly viewable contribution to the internet that enhances the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book project]] beyond the chapter you are working on.
* Why social contributions?
** Reward student engagement
** Encourage and support peer feedback
** Enhance communication skills
* How to make social contributions
** Contributions can be made via:
*** Wikiversity book chapter (past and present)
**** Editing
**** Commenting
*** {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum posts
*** Twitter - use {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}}
** Summarise contributions on Wikiversity user page with links to evidence
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]
* More info:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|Social contribution]]
** [Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions|Summarising social contributions]]&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity]]</text>
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      <text bytes="1584" xml:space="preserve">&lt;noinclude&gt;{{title|Social contributions}}&lt;/noinclude&gt;

A &quot;social contribution&quot; in the context of [[motivation and emotion]] is an edit or discussion/social media post which in some way directly or indirectly improves the quality of book chapters that other people are working on.

This page provides a brief overview, with links to more detailed information.

* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]] - have you made a social contribution and summarised it on your Wikiversity user page?
* What are “social contributions”?
** Any publicly viewable contribution to the internet that enhances the [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book project]] beyond the chapter you are working on.
* Why social contributions?
** Reward student engagement
** Encourage and support peer feedback
** Enhance communication skills
* How to make social contributions
** Contributions can be made via:
*** Wikiversity book chapter (past and present)
**** Editing
**** Commenting
*** {{Motivation and emotion/Canvas}} discussion forum posts
*** Twitter - use {{Motivation and emotion/Hashtag}}
** Summarise contributions on Wikiversity user page with links to evidence
* [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Search for chapters to improve|Search for chapters to improve]]
* More info:
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter#Socialcontribution|Social contribution]]
** [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter/Summarising social contributions|Summarising social contributions]]&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity]]</text>
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Have you:
# selected a topic?
# edited the chapter page?
# created a heading structure?
# added dot points for each section?
# embedded and captioned a relevant image?
# added at least one internal link (See also) and at least one external link (External links)?
# made at least one [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Social contributions|social contribution]] and summarised it on your user page?
# checked the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic#Marking criteria|marking criteria]]?

For more info, see the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development author guidelines]].&lt;noinclude&gt;
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic]]&lt;/noinclude&gt;</text>
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==Motivation[[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - ==
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - u3205429
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>/* MotivationAcademic help-seeking - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - */</comment>
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==Motivation[[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - ==
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - u3205429
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[User:MyUserName|OliviaFabrizio]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation[[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - ==
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - u3205429
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* MotivationAcademic help-seeking - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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==Motivation ==
[[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - u3205429
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - u3205429
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <comment>Fix user name [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]</comment>
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==Motivation ==
# [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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==Motivation ==
# [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:u3100193|u3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>SunandaUC</username>
        <id>2947974</id>
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      <minor />
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==Motivation ==
# [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation Atu3202070|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - SunandaUC
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:u3100193|u3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413297</id>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>/* Motivation */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="21118" xml:space="preserve">{{/Banner}}
==Motivation ==
# [[Academic help-seeking]] - What are the barriers and enablers of AHS and how can AHS be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Academic self-regulation/]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered? - [[U3216563]]
# [[/Actively open-minded thinking/]] - How can AOT be used to improve human performance? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Active transport motivation/]] - What motivates use of active transport and how can people be encouraged to use it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Antidepressants and motivation/]] - What are the effects of popular antidepressants on motivation? - [[User:U3222363|U3222363]]
# [[/Approach motivation/]] - What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour? - [[User:U3189370|U3189370]]
# [[/Behavioural economics and motivation/]] - What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? - [[User:U3141987|U3141987]]
# [[/Behavioural model of health services/]] - What is the BMHS and how can it be used? - SoSilverLibby
# [[/Beneficence as a psychological need/]] - What is beneficence and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|CaitlinEmc]]
# [[/Brief motivational interviewing as a health intervention/]] - How can brief motivational interviewing be used as a health intervention? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Choice overload/]] - What is choice overload? What is the optimal amount of choice? - [[UserGeorgiaFairweather|GeorgiaFairweather]]
# [[/Chunking and goal pursuit/]] - How does chunking affect goal pursuit? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Cognitive entrenchment/]] - What is cognitive entrenchment and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Climate change helplessness/]] - How does learned helpless impact motivation to engage in behaviours to limit climate change? - [[User:U3193000|U3193000]]
# [[/Closeness communication bias/]] - What is the CCB, why does it occur, and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3215103|U3215103]]
# [[/Commitment bias/]] - What motivates escalation of commitment even it does not lead to desirably outcomes? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Conspiracy theory motivation/]] - What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories? - [[User:KingMob221|KingMob221]]
# [[/Construal level theory/]] - What is construal level theory and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Courage motivation/]] - What is courage, what motivates courage, and how can courage be enhanced? -[[User:Hanarose123|Hanarose123]]
# [[/Death drive/]] - What is the death drive and how can it be negotiated? - [[User:U3086459|U3086459]]
# [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Drugs-violence nexus and motivation|Drugs-violence nexus and motivation]] - What is the role of motivation in the drugs-violence nexus? -  [[Atu3202070|Atu3202070]]
# [[/Episodic future thinking and delay discounting/]] - What is the relationship between between EFT and DD? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Episodic memory and planning/]] - What role does episodic memory play in planning? - [[User:MyUserName|U3246310]]
# [[/Equity theory/]] - What is equity theory and how can it be applied? - [[EKS2001|EKS2001]]
# [[/ERG theory/]] - What is Alderfer's ERG theory? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Frame of reference and motivation/]] - How does frame of reference affect motivation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Freedom and motivation/]] - What is the effect of freedom on motivation? - [[Cedevlin9|Cedevlin9]]
# [[/Fully functioning person/]] - What is a FFP and how can full functioning be developed? - [[User:Sebastian Armstrong|Sebastian Armstrong]]
# [[/Functional fixedness/]] - What is functional fixedness and how can it be overcome? - [[User:U3214117|U3214117]]
# [[/Functional imagery training/]] - What is FIT and how can it be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gamification and work motivation/]] - How can gamification enhance work motivation? - [[U3211125|U3211125]]
# [[/Giving up goals/]] - When should we give up goals and when should we persist? - [[User:MyUserName|U3161584]]
# [[/Green prescription motivation/]] - What motivates green prescription compliance? - [[User:Earthxangel|Earthxangel]]
# [[/Health belief model/]] - What is the HBM and how can it be used to enhance motivation for health-promoting behaviour? - [[SoSilverLibby]]
# [[/Help-seeking among boys/]] - What are the barriers to help-seeking for boys and what motivates them to seek help? - [[User:BradMcGrath|BradMcGrath]]
# [[/Hidden costs of reward/]] - What are the hidden costs of motivating by reward? - [[User:SLoCE|u3033296]]
# [[/Hijack hypothesis of drug addiction/]] - What is the hijack hypothesis, what is the evidence, and how does it help to understand drug addiction? - [[U3218292|U3218292]]
# [[/Honesty motivation/]] - What motivates honesty? - [[User:U3200859|U3200859]]
# [[/Humour, leadership, and work/]] - What role does humour play in effective leadership in the workplace? - [[User:U3210264|U3210264]] 
# [[/IKEA effect/]] - What is the IKEA effect and how can it be applied? - [[U3216963|U]]3216963
# [[/Intertemporal choice/]] - What are intertemporal choices and how can they be effectively negotiated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Kindness motivation/]] - What motivates kindness? - [[User:U3205429|U3205429]]
# [[/Motivational music and exercise/]] - How can music be used to help motivate exercise? - [[User:MyUserName|U3183466]]
# [[/Novelty-variety as a psychological need/]] - What is novelty-variety and what are its implications as a psychological need? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Nucleus accumbens and motivation/]] - What role does the nucleus accumbens play in motivation? - [[User:U3213250|U3213250]]
# [[/Perfectionism/]] - What motivates perfectionism? Is perfectionism good or bad? How can it be managed? - [[User:AEMOR|AEMOR]]
# [[/Physiological needs/]] - How do human's physiological needs affect motivation? - [[U3203655]]
# [[/Protection motivation theory and COVID-19/]] - How does PMT apply to managing COVID-19? - [[User:U3200956|U3200956]]
# [[/Relative deprivation and motivation/]] - What is the effect of relative deprivation on motivation? - [[User:U3191574 (PHP)|U3191574 (PHP)]]
# [[/Retrospective regret/]] - What is the motivational role of retrospective regret? - [[User:Will-U3214082|Will-U3214082]]
# [[/Revenge motivation/]] - What motivates revenge and how does it affect us? - [[User:U3216654|U3216654]]
# [[/Self-efficacy and academic achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in academic achievement? - [[User:U943292|U943292]]a
# [[/Self-efficacy and achievement/]] - What role does self-efficacy play in achievement outcomes? - [[User:U3216513mt|U3216513mt]]
# [[/Sexual harassment at work motivation/]] - What motivates sexual harassment at work and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3037979|U3037979]]
# [[/Signature strengths/]] - What are signature strengths and how can they be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Social cure/]] - What is the social cure and how can it be applied? - [[User:U3215976|U3215976]]
# [[/System justification theory/]] - What is SJT, how does it affect our lives, and what can be done about it? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Stretch goals/]] - What are stretch goals? Do they work? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Sublimation/]] - What is sublimation and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Survival needs and motivation/]] - What are survival needs and how do they influence motivation? - [[User:U3148161|U3148161]]
# [[/Task initiation/]] - What are the challenges with task initiation and how to get get started? - [[User:MyUserName|U3210006]]
# [[/Theoretical domains framework/]] - What is the TDF and how can be used to guide behaviour change? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Time and motivation/]] - What is the effect of time on motivation? - [[User:Lturner2311|Lturner2311]]
# [[/Time management/]] - How can one's time be managed effectively? - [[User:CNK.20|CNK.20]]
# [[/To-do lists/]] - Are to-do lists a good idea? What are their pros and cons? How can they be used effectively? - [[User:U3207458|U3207458]]
# [[/Uncertainty avoidance/]] - What is uncertainty avoidance, why does it occur, and what are its consequences? - [[User:Franklin Brightt|Franklin Brightt]]
# [[/Urgency bias and productivity/]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it? - U3055143
# [[/Vocational identity/]] - What is vocational identity and how does it develop? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Volunteer tourism motivation/]] - What motivates volunteer tourism? - [[User:U962051|U962051]]
# [[/Wanting and liking/]] - What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications? - [[U3201643]]
# [[/Work breaks, well-being, and productivity/]] - How do work breaks affect well-being and productivity? - [[User:MyUserName|U3215603]]
# [[/Work and flow/]] - What characteristics of work can produce flow and how can flow at work be fostered? - [[User:U3213441|U3213441]]

==Emotion==
# [[/Animal emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of animals? - [[U3216502]]
# [[/Attributions and emotion/]] - How do attributions affect emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Autonomous sensory meridian response and emotion/]] - What emotions are involved in ASMR experiences and why do they occur? - [[User:U3186959|U3186959]] 
# [[/Benzodiazepines and emotion/]] - What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion? - [[User:FulaAjeo22|FulaAjeo22]]
# [[/Bewilderment/]] - What is bewilderment and how can it be dealt with? - SunandaUC
# [[/Burnout/]] - What is burnout and how can be it be managed and prevented? - [[U3202788]]
# [[/Cognitive dissonance reduction/]] - What strategies do people use to reduce cognitive dissonance and how effective are they? - [[User:Tatjurate|Tatjurate]]
# [[/Colonisation and emotion in Australia/]] - What are the emotional responses to colonisation in Australia? - [[User:Micabaker1|Micabaker1]]
# [[/Compassion/]] - What is compassion, what are its pros and cons, and how can it be fostered? - u3203545 
# [[/Connection to country and well-being/]] - What is the relationship between connection to country and well-being? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Contempt/]] - What is contempt, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3219905]]
# [[/Core emotions/]] - What are the core emotions and what is their function?  U3203140
# [[/Creative arts and trauma/]] - How can creative arts help in dealing with trauma? - [[MyUserName|SashaBrooksby]]
# [[/Cultural influences on shame, guilt, and pride/]] - How does culture influence shame, guilt, and pride? - [[User:Tamika Afeaki|Tamika Afeaki]]
# [[/Default mode network and the self/]] - What is the relationship between the DMN and the self? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Difficult conversations and emotion/]] - What communication and emotional skills are needed to successfully negotiate difficult conversations? - [[User:u3158968|u3158968]]
# [[/Disappointment/]] - What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed? - [[User:U3216256|U3216256]]
# [[/DMT and spirituality/]] - How can DMT facilitate spiritual experiences? - [[DenniseSoleymani]]
# [[/Durability bias in affective forecasting/]] - What role does durability bias play in affective forecasting? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Ecological grief/]] - What is ecological grief and what can be done about it? - [[User:Brewerjr|Brewerjr]]
# [[/Ecopsychology and stress/]] - How can ecopsychology help to explain and deal with stress? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Embarrassment/]] - What is embarrassment, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - u3190353
# [[/Emotional intelligence training/]] - How can emotional intelligence be trained? - Eimilerous22
# [[/Emotion knowledge/]] - What is emotion knowledge and how can it be developed? - [[User:GabbieUC|GabbieUC]]
# [[/Emotion across the lifespan/]] - How does emotion develop across the lifespan? - u3230861
# [[/Endocannabinoid system and emotion/]] - What is the role of the endocannabinoid system in emotion? - [[User:RWilliams12|Rwilliams12]]
# [[/Environmental grief/]] - What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done? - [[User:Gabrielle Eagling|Gabrielle Eagling]]
# [[/Exercise and endocannabinoids/]] - What is the relationship between exercise and the endocannabinoid system? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Expressive suppression and emotion regulation/]] - What is the role of expressive suppression in emotion regulation? - [[U3131472]]
# [[/Fairness and emotion/]] - What is the relation between fairness and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fatigue and emotion/]] - What is the effect of fatigue on emotion and what can be done about it? - [[User:Lewis.Kusk|Lewis.Kusk]]
# [[/Fear/]] - What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Icantchooseone|Icantchooseone]]
# [[/Fear of working out/]] - What is FOWO and how can it be overcome? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Fundamental attribution error and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between the FAE and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gratitude and subjective wellbeing/]] - What is the relationship between gratitude and subjective wellbeing? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Gloatrage/]] - What is gloatrage, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Heart rate variability and emotion regulation/]] - What is the relationship between HRV and emotion regulation? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hedonic adaptation prevention model/]] - What is the HAP model and how can it be applied? - [[User:Lyndel Lemon|Lyndel Lemon]]
# [[/Humility/]] - What is humility, what causes it, and is it desirable? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Hypomania and emotion/]] - What are the emotional characteristics of hypomania? - [[User:Alec.cortez|Alec.cortez]]
# [[/Impact bias/]] - What is impact bias, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be avoided? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[Indigenous Australian emotionality]] - In what ways is emotionality experienced by Indigenous Australian people? - [[User:U3189442 - K.Ryan|U3189442 - K.Ryan]]
# [[/Indigenous Australian mindfulness/]] - How has Indigenous Australian culture traditionally conceived of, and practiced, mindfulness? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Inspiration/]] - What is inspiration, what causes it, what are its consequences, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:MyUserName|u3227354]]
# [[/Insular cortex and emotion/]] - What role does the insular cortex play in emotion? - [[User:U3190094|U3190094]]
# [[/Interoception and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between interoception and emotion? - u3203265
# [[/Kama muta/]] - What is kama muta, what are its effects, and how can it be fostered? - [[User:U3183521|U3183521]]
# [[/Linguistic relativism and emotion/]] - What is the role of linguistic relativism in emotion? - [[User:U3119310|U3119310]]
# [[/Menstrual cycle mood disorders/]] - What causes menstrual cycle mood disorders and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|U3217109]]
# [[/Mindfulness and creativity/]] - How can mindfulness enhance creativity? - [[CaityDcr1603]]
# [[/Mindful self-care/]] - What is mindful self-care, why does it matter, and how can it be developed? - [[User:clairelogan|clairelogan]]
# [[/Mixed emotions/]] - What are mixed emotions, what causes them, and how can they be managed? - [[User:MyUserName|u3210490]]
# [[/Mudita/]] - What is mudita and how can it be developed? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Natural disasters and emotion/]] - How do people respond emotionally to natural disasters and how can they be supported? -[[User:U3148366_Chris|U3148366_Chris]]
# [[/Nature therapy/]] - What is nature therapy and how can it be applied? - Ana028
# [[/Narcissism and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between narcissism and emotion? - [[User:A Super Villain|A Super Villain]]
# [[/Narrative therapy and emotion/]] - What is the role of emotion in narrative therapy? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Needle fear/]] - How does needle fear develop, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:U3166273|U3166273]]
# [[/Positivity ratio/]] - What is the positivity ratio and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion/]] - What is the effect of PTSD on emotion? - [[User:JorjaFive|JorjaFive]]
# [[/Psychological distress/]] - What is PD, what are the main types, and how can they be managed? - [[User:U3190773|U3190773]]
# [[/Psychological trauma/]] - What causes psychological trauma, what are the consequences, and how can people recover from psychological trauma? - [[User:U3210431|U3210431]]
# [[/Psilocybin assisted psychotherapy/]] - How can psilocybin be used to assist psychotherapy? - [[User:U3083720|U3083720]]
# [[/Rational compassion/]] - What is rational compassion and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Reflected glory/]] - What is reflected glory and what are its pros and cons? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Religiosity and coping/]] - What is the relationship between religiosity and coping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Resentment/]] - What is resentment, what causes it, and what are its consequences? - [[User:U3216389|U3216389]]
# [[/Risk-as-feelings/]] - What is the emotional experience of risk and how does it influence decision-making and behaviour? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Self-esteem and culture/]] - What are the cultural influences on self-esteem? - [[User:Jingru shao 0906|Jingru shao0906]]
# [[/Smiling and emotion/]] - What is the relationship between smiling and emotion? - U3200902 
# [[/Social media and suicide prevention/]] - How can social media be used to help prevent suicide? - [[JaimeTegan|JaimeTegan]]
# [[/Sorry business/]] - What is sorry business and what role does it play in Indigenous communities in Australia? - Isaacem13
# [[/Stress control mindset/]] - What is a SCM, why does it matter, and how can it be cultivated? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Suffering as emotion/]] - What is the emotional experience of suffering and how can people cope with suffering? - [[User:Brookewin|Brookewin]]
# [[/Telemental health/]] - What are the pros and cons of TMH and what are the key ingredients for effective TMH practices? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Topophilia/]] - What is topophilia, how does it develop, and what are the psychological impacts? - [[User:RSPMeredith|RSPMeredith]]
# [[/Triumph/]] - What is triumph, what causes it, and how can it be managed? - [[User:Bill.miosge|Bill.miosge]]
# [[/Unemployment and mental health/]]: What is the relationship between unemployment and mental health? - [[User:MyUserName|U3216958 - Tiarna.Wilson-Ginn]]
# [[/Viewing natural scenes and emotion/]] - What is the effect of viewing natural scenes on emotion and how can this be applied? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Wave metaphor for emotion/]] - In what respects is an ocean wave a helpful metaphor for understanding human emotions? - [[jamieepiper]]
# [[/Window of tolerance/]] - What is the window of tolerance and how this concept be used? - [[User:U3223109|U3223109]]
# [[/Workplace mental health training/]] - What is WMHT, what techniques are used, and what are the impacts? - [[ArtOfHappiness]]
# [[/Zoom fatigue/]] - What is Zoom fatigue, what causes it, what are its consequences, and what can be done about it? - [[User:u3211603|U3211603]]

==Motivation and emotion==
# [[/Financial investing, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in financial investing? - [[U3217287|U3217287]]
# [[/Hostage negotiation, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does motivation and emotion play in hostage negotiation? - [[User:U3213549|U3213549]]
# [[/Money priming, motivation, and emotion/]] - What is the effect of money priming on motivation and emotion? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Motivational dimensional model of affect/]] - What is the motivational dimensional model of affect and what are its implications? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Napping, motivation, and emotion/]] - What are the motivational and emotional effects of napping? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Overchoice, emotion, and motivation/]] - What are the emotional and motivational effects of overchoice? - [[User:MyUserName|MyUserName]]
# [[/Patience and impatience/]] - What are the psychological causes and consequences of patience and impatience? - [[User:u3100193|u3100193]]
# [[/Reward system, motivation, and emotion/]] - What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? - [[User:U3162201|U3162201]]

[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/2022]]</text>
      <sha1>cfeg8cl332r4qk2cpzpypu7141njqly</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Talk:Helping Give Away Psychological Science/996 Conference Rapid Grant</title>
    <ns>1</ns>
    <id>278241</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412884</id>
      <parentid>2408001</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:39:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Eyoungstrom</username>
        <id>1933979</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* High level objectives */ added link to sandbox</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3091" xml:space="preserve">=996  FDFxHGAPS Conferences and Grants=
The members are Natalie, Brei, and Hide

==''Mtg Notes 9.30.21 - FDF x HGAPS Conferences &amp; Grants''==
[https://docs.google.com/document/d/1UW2AuWfDann8i4U1Jzwugh6-sJmExqJwlD_t_wBwGBE/edit# Mingenda]

Eric Youngstrom - Ey
==Stuff we need to work faster in the future==
# Add project number-#996 [https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1yM6c0zrt1yHDe55OJZqYZzo-heaa_M93nWweFUsIjZk/edit?usp=sharing on project list]
# Add Drive Folder on @HGAPS.org
# add Shared drive account to Eric’s main searchable page

===TODO===
# add citations to Zotero objects
#[https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/1yM6c0zrt1yHDe55OJZqYZzo-heaa_M93nWweFUsIjZk/edit?usp=sharing MECCA Writing Tracking Link]
# 996 team to review APA BEA Award grant due 02/22

Grant team to: 
#Make a shared drive account (eric/Hannah Kim/Emma Chopin have the ability to do so)
#Create a page for the project and move conference and grant documents into it from the HGAPS page

==High level objectives==

===Objective 0:===

Make infrastructure for this group to work together and accomplish the following objectives (slack channel? Google Doc with notes, OKRs? Wikiversity page about the project?, etc. )
0.1 - Yes Slack channel #996?
	0.1.1 []messaged Emma to ask her to change the name
0.2- Yes, Google Drive: #996 https://drive.google.com/drive/u/1/folders/0AEjtrLGjEoH-Uk9PVA
0.3 -- (.8 target) develop OKRs on this page
0.4 --  

===Objective 1:===

Have a “model page” that includes all the examples of good content and great style 
# Space created (Model Page Folder added) felt more open-ended than one google doc
# organize space in silos of content, style, production, etc.

===Objective 2:===

Make FDF 2022 have all of its pages look like the model page ß Design the process now to implement in run-up

 
===Objective 3:===

Write grants (2K rapid, foundation) to extend this process to other meetings

 
===Objective 4:===

Write larger conference grant for HGAPS/FDF mashup (FDF plus Satellite) with high-quality videography, investment in training cadre

 
===Objective 5:===

Showcase “model page” to other teams to have them think about how to extend the model (add YouTube, Infographics, Tweets &amp; Insta, QR codes, etc.)

Start of Wikipedia articles about SCCAP past presidents, etc is [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:RBCanty/sandbox  here]
FDF Programs/ Website Link etc.
Website: [https://jccapfuturedirectionsforum.com]
OSF (2021 Posters): https://osf.io/frkpz/
Workshop Details will be published on 10/15/2021

[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 00:23, 3 October 2021 (UTC)

== Materials for Edit-a-thons ==

Here are some resources for the edit-a-thons, including a set of slides that Natale made and is sharing [https://docs.google.com/presentation/d/1ytQs-nP151UP4LYt3ziHJwrEMa3Yg50TedvlTGLopAg/edit?usp=sharing here]. 

[[User:Eyoungstrom|Eyoungstrom]] ([[User talk:Eyoungstrom|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Eyoungstrom|contribs]]) 13:49, 19 July 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>gjgssoh30gq18ry1orglceazr24d6ds</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>279844</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413255</id>
      <parentid>2349011</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:14:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8579" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]{{METP}}
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]] (Book chapter, 2021)</text>
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==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2021/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]] (Book chapter, 2021)
{{title|Approach motivation:&lt;br&gt;What is approach motivation and how does it lead to behaviour?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>qwxhmkhvorhushcgaxu8tn9vihortso</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
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    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Burnout</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <parentid>2411321</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:02:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Mikaela MG</username>
        <id>2947966</id>
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      <text bytes="8566" xml:space="preserve">{{METP}}
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Burnout ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2013/Burnout|Burnout]] (Book chapter, 2013)</text>
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    <title>Universal Language of Absolutes/Appendix</title>
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        <username>Hamish84</username>
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      <comment>/* Create your own semantic template. */ Adding a semantic template.</comment>
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      <text bytes="158133" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma)… If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/e. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


[[File:Togetherness - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-06 7666.JPG|center|thumb]]


This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
[[File:JUL Soul Iris.png|center|thumb]]
Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!
[[File:Wikimedia|thumb|center|]Arcimedes]

To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being, despite solipsistic theories to the contrary, does not exist in penetrating one other mind, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The notion of completion may be beyond what you call your ‘conscious grasp’, and therein I suspect lays the difficulty in recognition.

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.

Throw a ball from one side of the room to the other. The ‘whole’ or complete traverse of the ball is the instant it leaves your hand until it arrives at the other side of the room. You have already given credence to the concept of ‘mutual agreement’ as a reality. When there is a correct definition made in terms of ‘necessary factors’, then it has implicit within it the concepts of ‘completeness’ or ‘wholeness’ within the measure in which it is used.

Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.

“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, End, we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!!

These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.

Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form.

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relativism: ===
Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy!

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy!

The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy!

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy!

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy!

How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies?

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

(Archimedes bath image here please)

Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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      <comment>/* Create your own semantic template. */ Added Media</comment>
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      <text bytes="158265" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma)… If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/e. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


[[File:Togetherness - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-06 7666.JPG|center|thumb]]


This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
[[File:JUL Soul Iris.png|center|thumb]]
Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

[[File:Knowledge belongs to all of us. 2030 Wikimedia.jpg|center|thumb]]


That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

[[File:Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg|center|thumb]]


All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!
[[File:Wikimedia|thumb|center|]Arcimedes]

To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being, despite solipsistic theories to the contrary, does not exist in penetrating one other mind, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The notion of completion may be beyond what you call your ‘conscious grasp’, and therein I suspect lays the difficulty in recognition.

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.

Throw a ball from one side of the room to the other. The ‘whole’ or complete traverse of the ball is the instant it leaves your hand until it arrives at the other side of the room. You have already given credence to the concept of ‘mutual agreement’ as a reality. When there is a correct definition made in terms of ‘necessary factors’, then it has implicit within it the concepts of ‘completeness’ or ‘wholeness’ within the measure in which it is used.

Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.

“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, End, we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!!

These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.

Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form.

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relativism: ===
Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy!

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy!

The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy!

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy!

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy!

How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies?

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

(Archimedes bath image here please)

Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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      <text bytes="158563" xml:space="preserve">= &lt;ref&gt;'''William Shakespeare''' (bapt. 26 April 1564 – 23 April 1616&lt;/ref&gt;A message. =


What humanity needs is not any individual approach but a governance powerful body of excellence that has modern technology, knowledge, and freedom they can use to disseminate clear information. Clear information about a new language structure of absolutes beneficial to an International forum, and eventually to reach a Universal status.Its benefits reach toward conceptual language on a planet that speaks more than 7,000 languages.

No matter the language spoken the concepts of:

Air - Food - Water are recognised.

The overall development of conceptual language can only be beneficial and will be as appropriate to Absolutes definitions.

Reaching for the Stars might show us the way.

Universal Language of Absolutes. &quot;A very grand title but it took many years to explain its value&quot;


= Our history. =

Born in Scotland in 1927 left school at 14 years of age. Married at 21 years of age and we had two children. We emigrated to New Zealand in 1953 and lived there for approximately thirty years. During our stay there I did a Liberal Studies Course at Canterbury University Christchurch and graduated. We have since had ten books published through Google books on the subject matter at hand and my wife Jean Caldwell McMillan is the co-author to most of the work presented here. My wife Jean was an avid reader of many works on philosophy and psychology. She was influenced by the works of Erich Fromm. Jean died 9th of January 2011.

To refresh the original purpose of  our  earlier writings my wife and I  went on an odyssey  looking for any data, ancient or otherwise, on human consciousness, specifically related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Now at 95 years of age (well past my used by date) it may well be that I am a candidate with a focus on my own pending dementia. If so, then the theory and the method I now write about is holding it at bay. To address the health of my mind in this way could be the catalyst that retains its own functional activity.

The creation of a  semantic template is well documented below.

No semantic definition of absolutes or principles can be ill-defined.

They are always interconnected, interdependent and infinite.

Each configuration constructed by anyone has meaning particular to them, although its value is universal. That  is why it is never personal property!


[[File:JimNJean.png|center|thumb|228x228px|Jim and Jean]]


= The Beginning. =


&quot;The road's half traveled when you know the way&quot;


[[File:Tree lined path - geograph.org.uk - 2269906.jpg|center|thumb]]
Oxford dictionary definitions:

Principle: &quot;A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning&quot;.

Absolute: &quot; Complete - Entire - Perfect - Pure.

These particular dictionary given definitions offers us guidelines to ‘existing conditions’ necessary for complementary understanding, and experience.
We can only examine that which is real, basic evidence, that is fundamentally true, and we must ‘use’ it, to establish that which is reasonable.

The general consensus is that there are no Absolutes. The following material is set out to show the very reverse is true and that everything that is is Absolute.

Establish that there are no dichotomies that will leave the primary terms alone to create a semantic template.

There are no dichotomies. Mythical dichotomies distort Reality.

Everything is: The computer you use today has always existed, it is the arrangement of particles that have materialized it.

The subject matter &quot;Universal Language of Absolutes' is promoted to provide a new understanding of spoken language. This understanding was initially constructed by the cognitive experiences of both my wife and myself many years ago.

Just like the principle of a jigsaw puzzle, meaning lies significantly in the fact that all pieces of the puzzle are interdependent and interconnected. When completed they provide a picture of the whole.

We have endeavoured to produce a picture of the evolutionary process of language in human history because the evolution of language prefixes all modes of thought in human culture. The material directs the reader towards a new view that all that evolves is in a vertical direction, not the linear direction commonly understood.

Human consciousness is of itself the phenomenon of evolution and to recognize its existence is part of the process. Shakespeare expressed this succinctly through the voice of Juliet who proclaimed, “a rose by any other name- would smell as sweet.”

[[File:Comestible rose in the Laquenexy orchard garden, Moselle, France (01).jpg|thumb|center|237x237px]]

=== Conceptual language. ===
My wife and I recognized how profound the extension of this observation would mean conceptually. Of all the languages spoken on this planet, it would be fair to say that all of them would contain the properties of, air, food, and water conceptually, etc. This is a form of consciousness equality that is available to us all. It points to the reality of our constant relation to each other and our existence.

We can never exist in a world of individuality, but only in relation to the consciousness of one another. Consequently, that exceptional experience can only be shared superficially. We cannot ‘know’ any other life experiences other than our own introspection.

&lt;gallery&gt;
File:Einstein 1921 by F Schmutzer - restoration.jpg
&lt;/gallery&gt;&quot; ''Albert Einstein 1921. We experience our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.&quot;''

''Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future,p.99''

Einstein came very close. In reality, every human being has a backpack from the day they were conceived. In the backpack every experience in

their mother’s womb is experienced. At birth and throughout their lives, everything that happens to them in life is registered and creates their personality.

That life with all its experiences can never be known to anyone else, consequently, we can never “know” another person. It creates equality of consciousness that we must understand. We can know details about a person, but that is all. That life is sacrosanct. Who we are really goes beyond normal human experience and into the realm of the Absolute.


Werner Karl Heisenberg (physicist).

The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

As a young layman with no knowledge of Heisenberg but interested in principles it seemed to me that the Uncertainty Principle was just a contradiction in terms.

In later years I found that Heraclitus describes life as being in a state of flux a replica of the Uncertainty Principle which in fact can be defined as an absolute state.

Within the context of knowing who we are and the backpack we carry our life in, we can never know each individual life as that life experience is singularly their own and sacrosanct.

It now seems that the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle can fall into the category of being an Absolute.

Evolution proceeds in advance of our need to evolve. In our pure active state, we are.There is no static end (an abomination) - only beginning. As we cannot know what tomorrow will bring, living with expectations is rather futile. Nature has its own agenda.

 Zen Koan recorded 1228:

 'An instant realization sees endless time.

 Endless time is as one moment.

 When one comprehends the endless moment

 He, or she, realizes the person who is seeing it.'
We do not own Space.

We do not own Time

We do not own Energy

We do not own Matter                                                                                                  
[[File:Universum.jpg|center|thumb]]


&quot;What we call the beginning is often the end

And to make an end is to make a beginning.

The end is where we start from

We shall not cease from exploration

And the end of all our exploring

Will be to arrive where we started

And know the place for the first time&quot;

T.S Eliot

= Everything is in scale. =
The present moment is the point in which Eternity has placed us – we all live in that moment, and whether we like it or not, we exist in it, experience it, have knowledge of it, and we all share it, measure by measure.

There are no dichotomies. Illusion is a measure of Reality, as Stupidity is a measure of Intelligence

If one keeps measuring illusion it is an attempted downward spiral to nothingness.There is no opposite to Reality – that illusion is a measure of Reality.

There is no such thing as ‘nothing’ in the elemental construction of Homo sapiens. All the innate ‘something’s’ are the fundamentals of our being human and all our experiences.

The correct use, and understanding of who we are, is an extension therefrom.

Does it require any interpretation on anyones part to say ‘we are? Any attempted denial of that statement would be perverse use of the language, and delusional.

=== Try saying ‘we are not” ===
‘We are’ is the foundation of all affirmation, and within that spectrum, we can know, and be.

‘We are’ is self-evident Truth.

We can neither know, nor experience what isn’t. Eternity is the here and now, that is why it is possible to explain the experience of Eternity. Nothing is ever lost in Time. We are located  in a vast Universe.

‘twas a moment’s pause,-

All that took place within me came and went

As in a moment; yet with Time it dwells,

And grateful memory, as a thing divine.

Wordsworth Prelude, Book V111

We already know – the ''basic'' condition that must exist for us to re-cognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

Unless there was mutual identity we could not know anything. It is why we are urged to evacuate the Platonic cave. Sadly most prefer the shadows rather than confront who they are.

We already know – the basic condition that must exist for us to recognise.

It is at that moment of pure affirmation, when all that is, is manifest.

== Lost Shadows ==
[[File:People Shadow.JPG|left|thumb]]
The shadows move

Lost in confusion

Lost in despair

Imagination shrouds the real

Looking back

Looking forward

Is this the Centre?

James Brines.


= Basic Principles. =
We are all in the business of living and attempting to understand the principles involved in that human process up to the end of life. The implicit principles necessary for life eventually disappear and all measurable criteria pronounce a body to be devoid of life. Throughout historical agreement we know what that means, and we act accordingly on *common knowledge*. We know that dying is a necessary factor of life. It is a Natural law that if we live - we also die. Natural law is Universal, for us to *know* that a body lives; we also *know* that a body’s life will end. Albeit that reports tell us that today millions of people die of disease, starvation, wars, we of necessity accept that as the ongoing reality because again we are universally connected and know the results of such carnage. Because it is in our realm of common knowledge we have graveyards, crematoriums, undertakers, doctors who pronounce bodies to have died. We understand the consequences of leaving such bodies unburied, the diseases that would prevail. Again, please explore the definition of principle (Universal principle) and try to go to the limitations of the definition without using mythical dichotomies.


[[File:( A great picture of outer space ).jpg|center|thumb]]


Principle: A fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning.


All of these questions are based on singularity (the Cartesian dogma)… If Descartes had only introduced inclusion into his musings (they were taken as conservative singularity) he may have realized the difficulty of addressing thought as reality. He then may have quite easily concluded that universally - *We are!!*

That pronouncement is inclusive, and conclusive in every way, *we are - and we know!!*

Because my knowledge is not a private, personal piece of property concerning principles, but Universal (Archimedes et al), then that innate knowledge has completeness we can share. Whatever identical resonance we may be able to share (concerning completeness), that can only be accomplished by understanding the principles involved and their constant relationship to each of us. Clearly the plethora of present and past discoveries establishes the existence of that which is fundamentally true, and the foundation for law.

The principles are established, and always have been, we are in the business of making them transparent and complete.

However tenuous the link we are all connected through communication, the air we breathe, the ground we walk on, the universe we live in, the common principles we live by. We all must have sustenance to survive, or we will not live. (See above)

&lt;nowiki&gt;*&lt;/nowiki&gt;There is nothing else to experience.*

When we actively explore the reality of anything, all principles involved in that exploration are complementary, and honest, and we understand the wasteful divisive mythology that people attempt to attach to them.

We cannot */partially know/* the truth, it must be complete. Dichotomies attempt to deny the existence of truth, and are misleading.

How do we more reasonably completely know anything?

The complexity of language systems with contemporary usage requires new and creative structures to provide clear information. Internal and external reasoning capacities can only develop in concert with Man’s recognition of the principles that essentially form our lives. 

The inevitability of human consciousness rising beyond its historical beginnings posits a future outside our normal perceptions, and  a factual reality that points to the existence of new perceptions that are infinite.  

It is natural to know when we are no longer trapped in any mythical ideologies that gives credence to dichotomies that stifle the recognition of simple principles. 

There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.*

Ask yourself - ‘how do you know to ask any questions at all?’

There is no hidden dimension or mystical world. The only philosophical reality is ‘that which is’. To access that we need a new structure to explore ‘knowledge’, a new transformational language. Real knowledge is not amassed information, nor is it the establishment of dogmas, isms, or mythical belief systems.

Basic principles are the source and foundation of all /*knowledge*/e. Until that is recognized, extension from mythical sources only leads to a denial of one’s own senses. Trying to conceive of a contemporary world without principles is to posit a world without reason, or intelligence.

The principle of pure knowledge could be said to exist in another dimension given the present state of human understanding. To progress that mistaken belief there would be strong support in the need for a comparative reality.

Curiously it seems that philosophy (the seeking of knowledge) constantly discounts any knowledge that does not come within the sphere of established philosophy, and the comparative reality dictum. That consequence profoundly distils the purity of any experience and alienates the observer in their confrontation of that which is real. The measure of that ‘comparative reality’ knowledge bounded by dichotomies is so restrictive that it lies in a mythical dimension where denial of its very purpose is the order of the day. Evidently it will not allow doubt to undermine its own denials.

A basic principle of Nature is /*knowledge*/ and it constantly communicates innately in every living structure. How to grow, develop, and disseminate.

Knowledge is reciprocal truth that depends on our relationship and the recognition of principles operating. Knowledge (unlike information) is not stored in an individual box; it is ubiquitously manifest in everything we do. Knowledge is the experience of a positive reality, and its true construction is a dependable source of secure information (not to be misused). We daily have the opportunity of witnessing ‘knowledge’ in action as expressed by the ‘the principles of knowledge’, namely the principles themselves.

The questions lie in a continuing mythical belief in a mystical unknown (the Cartesian stance) which because of its non-existence can never be known. It is a belief that is detrimental (because it attempts to deny all existing factual knowledge) to dealing with Nature and Reality and the fundamental necessity of our relationship with them.

Making that relationship transparent is our basic obligation and the ongoing evolutionary activity.

Although there is an obvious avoidance to address the definition of principle itself, it is a factor that must be paid attention to, to realize that ‘common knowledge’ is the only reality that exists. Amazingly although there is avoidance of principles - truth - reason etc, there is acceptance of the Cartesian dogma,. Paradoxically this determined acceptance of Descartes supports the reality of innate knowledge existing (I think - therefore I am) which establishes for him innate knowledge; however mistaken he is concerning the interpretation of his experience.

= Leverage. =
Long before I read of Archimedes and his various principle discoveries I was using the principle of leverage in a variety of ways, prying lids off boxes, moving articles with a lever well beyond my physical strength to do so without said lever, and I knew how to do it. Transferring that knowledge to a student or apprentice is relatively easy because innately they also /*know*/ how to do it.

Every aspect of human industry uses the principle in a myriad of ways because it is our obligation to constantly progress the principle and confirm the constant utilization of knowledge. We wholeheartedly adopted Archimedes principles (et al) because we recognized their fundamental utility. It is preposterous to question the widespread /*factual knowledge*/ of all principles, more especially so when we cannot escape their ubiquitous daily existence in all our lives - Nature and Reality do not lie.

One may abstain from admitting their existence. To do so is simply attempting the impossible, and is devoid of all reason.

Real knowledge has been put into the realm of the mystical unknowable even to the point that knowledge practitioners go to the outer extremes and deny the gift of their natural senses. With their adherence to what they consider is knowledge they become captive automatons to any prescription for life that is expressed in that ’knowledge medium’, which then becomes the authority. When ’knowledge’ is addressed as having a collective source in Universal principles then we have the potential to experience its complete reality (microcosm - macrocosm) without any imaginary, or divisive comparative content. There is then a re-orientation process toward our true being and recognition of our own reality in relation to the natural processes we share. Real knowledge is elementary and Natural.

We know, because that which is knowable is constantly expressed by the principles involved. We all share those principles and can correctly infer the most simple and obvious truths. All social life functions by our adherence to the implicit laws operating within them. Seeking experimental contradiction to a fact of life offers us nothing but proof which is the establishing of ‘complete knowledge’ however ‘more reasonably’ one wishes to extend the exercise.

The construction of new philosophies must seek a mandate to fully explore the relationship between experience and innate knowledge as the foundation for pure knowledge to emerge. To repeat, knowledge or truth do not reside in any individual domain, nor are they the private possession of any human being.

We know, because ’knowledge’ is an innate natural possession that we constantly share - otherwise civilization could not exist.

== Knowledge: Evident facts about mutual standards that provide us with security. ==

We do not become human beings because we can ‘think’; we become more human because we learn to conform to the implicit principles in Nature and Reality. Denying them - denies our being.

It is natural to know. There was no cause for knowledge to be established - it has always existed.

Knowledge is an evolutionary process. Human beings developed from primitive innate instinctual knowledge to contemporary cultures. Some know more than others through experience, and make that knowledge transparent.

Insistence on how we can ’completely’ know is an ephemeral philosophical question that attempts to deny that we can have ’knowledge’ at all, as you understand it. Knowing that we ’know’ the inherent completeness of everything through the existence of principles, is the natural catalyst to make ’that which is’ transparent.

Heraclitus:

&quot;No man steps in the same river twice &quot;

He believed in the &quot;Unity of Opposites (Absolutes).

He cried for the needless unconsciousness of mankind..

“Exploration of a mythical dichotomy below for the purpose of establishing principles. Principles that are not a 'mind' construct, but the very essence of our being. Independence, is the curious and dangerous malady where humanity has lionized negative mythology in denial of its own reality.

The human fundamental reality has at its base the simple natural law that we are dependent beings. From conception, the human embryo is entirely dependent on the health and well-being of its mother to provide it adequate healthy sustenance to enable its entry into the world. That form of innate dependability the human species carries with it throughout its spectrum of life.

Every aspect of human activity is premised on the availability of air, food, and water without which the organism cannot survive (this would be an incontrovertible 'more reasonable' truism or an Absolute).

In a perverse way, that which is our natural state has become the target for what appears to be open defiance of the laws that govern our behavior.

When a basic premise is either used mistakenly, or deliberately, its consequences can be socially far reaching, for any deviation however far it is extended is a distortion of the truth, and a denial of who we are.

The erroneous conclusion through exercising responsibility that we can confer independence to our actions has gained a distorting and ubiquitous influence which paradoxically undermines the very responsibility practiced.

Within the context of being dependent we can correctly be responsible for our own actions but with the surety of knowledge that that responsibility is contingent on the measure of life giving forces available that we are dependent on.

The mythical dichotomy 'independence' connotes with the myth of separateness, division, alienation, and the force of these particular myths is expressed in wars, genocide, criminality. Alarmingly the mythological term has become a residual in our lexicon and is used more widely with acclaim than its true counterpart.

To uphold delusional 'independence' as a value to strive for erodes our human heritage by diverting useless energy toward a dubious goal, and consequences that leave us questioning our means of arrival. Sadly it is a loss of being with the paradoxical view that the energy expended will deliver up a personal reality.

The cult of independent individuality with its mythical ideology based on personal intimacy is now taken for granted, which then passes into the acceptance of the spurious dichotomy as a tangible reality. This in turn disposes the adherents to discredit the very essence of their being, and in the process dehumanizes many cultures. The presumption of independent individuality leading hopefully to a superior future is in fact counter-productive to the purpose, and leads eventually to corrupt power, and subsequently the invention of immoral policies that continue the negative spiral, which in the end has no ethical base to extend from.

The alienation from our substantial being creates inevitable tension anxiety, and the need to somehow relieve that anxiety with any artificial means available.

= Responsibility. =
Being responsible for any social activity would best be enacted with regard to the effect it will have (directly or indirectly) on the lives of those who are dependent on a beneficial outcome.

To recognize with some significance the basic structure of our being in turn significantly increases the measure of our understanding of human relationships.

Being dependent is not a mental construct choice - it is a state of being, and there can be no being-ness without at least one other being, there is then the possibility that the principle of true egalitarianism becomes the manifest reality. 

Being-ness can only be identified and expressed in relationship. 


[[File:Togetherness - Wiki Conference India - CGC - Mohali 2016-08-06 7666.JPG|center|thumb]]


This is why the cult of 'independence' is eventually so socially destructive, as it creates that alienation which attempts to deny each real human need, and leads to a depravation of honesty. Human relationships between children and adults where independence is the accepted norm is severely undermined when the educational process predominantly teaches an unnatural form of living (either intentionally or unintentionally). The educational process is then reduced to the adoption of a fiction, which in turn puts at risk any educational program.

The effect of interpreting mythical dichotomies as described here is symptomatically ascribed to the existence of all other principles that govern life.

The construction of any ethological debate should not be premised on comparative perspectives, based on human thought, but rather on the issues that we can recognize as being universally compatible, therein lies the common denominator point of extension. 

The focus of attention on comparative perspectives denies justice to 'what is'. To contemplate the 'right or wrong' of any circumstance is a deviation from the truth. The correctness of any debate (however minute the finding), is the justifiable extension, and the only true trajectory we are morally obliged to travel. Truth is not defined, nor experienced by comparison, but by 'what we are'. An orange is to an orange, what an orange is to an orange.

To define correctly there should be careful and disciplined action toward establishing 'true factors' that we constantly use to promote reasonable standards.

= Time. =

In that moment of time, we have the potential to merge on an equal basis with the reality that exists, and to know what true interaction is. That is the point of 'direct experience'. 

It is then that we know the truth about ourselves and the beauty of this Universe which also reveals to us the folly of our present conditioning. In that experience, it becomes very clear that all so called cerebral activity has nothing to do with reality. The fundamental repository of our knowledge and relationship with life is our 

being-ness, which is not located inside a mental box to be analyzed, accepted, or discarded at will, but the very privileged natural gift of being.

What some scholars deal with is the appearance of life prescribed by the illusion of comparative perspective which functions on the basis of dichotomous ideology. It is in effect a denial of our humanity to conclude that all things that exist [from our perspective] exist only in the mind, that is, they are purely notional.

It compounds the denial of 'what is', and an extraordinary refusal to observe transparent life. It should be noted that there is ample contemporary exposure to the Cartesian doctrine, and in this regard, I would refer you to the works of Professor Gilbert Ryle, notably his publication The Concept of Mind.&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|date=1977|title=Professor Gilbert Ryle|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|journal=Mind|volume=LXXXVI|issue=341|pages=1–s-1|doi=10.1093/mind/lxxxvi.341.1-s|issn=0026-4423}}&lt;/ref&gt;

The heuristic principle applies throughout when establishing our connectedness with reality. It is only through our contact with reality that we can discover, and equate with the mutual structure of the principles that govern all existence.

Have already noted that it is also a peculiar form of arrogance that presumes that life is only a notional existence beyond the boundaries of the 'mind in a box' assertion. It would be foolish of anyone to assert that ice cream has a cold smooth satisfying texture and taste on a warm summers day unless they had actually experienced it, preferably on more than one occasion. For anyone who has never enjoyed that experience, it would be foolish of them to discount the very numerous accounts of such an experience that is available just because they had not been party to that event.

From a logical point of view, given the avowed experiences of ice cream eaters, we could reasonably ascertain the validity of each experience by documenting their separate opinions. Each participant would have 'direct experience' in the consumption of ice cream, which at that point in time has the potential for that participant to experience the full measure of that factual reality. We have the natural capacity to experience coldness, smoothness, which equates with the reality that exists, and the potential for those realities to unify.

It is not a question of how to get outside of our minds (mind in a box position); we are constantly outside our so-called minds performing acts of transparency throughout our entire existence. The belief that our constant engagement with reality can never be based on a rational acceptance of 'what is', is at the least, very sad.

The Platonic Cave shadows are a metaphor for the (mind in a box) syndrome.

[[File:An Illustration of The Allegory of the Cave, from Plato’s Republic.jpg|center|thumb]]


The need to reach simple, and obvious conclusions and accept them for the reality they are provides the opportunity to engage the complete reality of the moment. It is indeed going too far beyond the reality of the moment searching for philosophical profoundness which does not exist, that fails to establish the constant principles that always operate. Pure principles are not amorphous shadowy ideals; they are represented in everything that exists. The only way we can equate our inner knowledge of reality is through direct experience of its truth.
[[File:JUL Soul Iris.png|center|thumb]]
Within that context then, life cannot take on a notional existence but is an existence that is very real, and that we continually share through our innate knowledge. That our so-called minds are defined by comparison - incompleteness - dualism would have extreme difficulty in pursuing the proposition that we are defined by our direct relationship with reality which is expressed in our innate ability to directly interact with 'what is'. The reality of interconnection, and interaction, are not idealistic concepts of a notional nature, but actual and consistent transparent realities. We do not live in a shadowy world that is hidden from our direct experience, but we are constantly engaged in the process of life, and we do not have the right, nor the choice, to deny it.

The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

== Create your own semantic template. ==
That will consist of an alphabetical list of Absolutes that are all interdependent and interconnected. Their unifying construction creates a ‘new’ consciousness meaning.

That ‘meaning’ is yours specifically.

The greatest knowledge you can ever have is your own!

[[File:Knowledge belongs to all of us. 2030 Wikimedia.jpg|center|thumb]]


That meaning also creates its own moral construction that cannot be misused . The semantic template is available to everyone, and its dissemination is our responsibility.

“Consider that the language structure, concepts, and definitions now in use no longer always deliver, accurate, reasonable, and responsible information. Indeed at times, they can be quite ambiguous.

The statement ‘mutual agreement’, and its physical manifestation in whatever form, is its own dialectic, and will carry within it all other principles necessary for the activity to proceed. Given the Socratic assertion that if something is true then it cannot lead to false consequences no matter how circular any argument may be.

Then extrapolating the statement into extended definitions must only lead to a better understanding of the inherent truths available. This can promote recognition of the underlying essence of all things, which can become more real than our conventional understanding of Reality.

There is a contemporary need to find new definitions, new paradigms to explore the concepts that govern our existence.


Examples of principles and how to define them without dichotomies, just add conjunctions to create any sentence.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts through  responsible co-operation and using constructive knowledge to develop your success.

There are no dichotomies!

Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


Where a circular argument is based on an untruth, then it cannot lead to a truth. The reverse of that is that when the truth is established, it cannot be denied.

Establishing ‘mutual agreement’ as a center from which we can reach out for extended knowledge in its ever-evolving radius, is not a limitation, or a stop, it is only a beginning!

When any concept is truly established the superficial exemplification ceases to dominate, and we can truly experience the apparent essence of ‘what is’.

Paradoxically to resource innate knowledge, we must recognize our profound ignorance of Nature, and Reality.

Completeness does not lie in individuality. This is an extreme form of monastic expectation. There can be no individuality (or completeness) unless there is at least one other individual. This is the true foundation of completeness.

Whenever we are privileged to experience that instantaneous essence of one other, then we know in that moment that we experience ourselves. It is complete complementation with the knowledge paradoxically that it is an endless process. There are many paradoxes we live within that strain our conventional views of what is ‘more reasonable’. Any true relationship experience is not based on a causality premise, but on an experience that is necessarily complementation.

Individuality in terms of completeness is a fundamental circular argument back to one, which in its form of denial excludes any form of reasonable argument to the contrary. It is a non sequitur, which denies the pressure of facts that are in abundance, despite the evidence of their reality.

To observe ‘mutual agreement’ is looking at things as they are.

True observation of ‘mutual agreement’ in action is observing essence transparency – it is knowing ‘who we are’. That form of recognition is essence duplication.

The proposition that we can observe the Truth may well be the highest attainment of Realities properties, for Truth is knowledge.

Consider the hypothesis of a human entity (an individual) being born in a black space with no other form of life in that environment.

How could there be Agreement?

How could there be Intelligence?

How could there be Understanding?

How could there be Recognition?

How could there be Love?

How could there be Law?

How could there be Reason?

[[File:Knowledge-Reid-Highsmith.jpeg|center|thumb]]


All of the above principles are the transparent manifestation of Nature and Realities properties that are constantly evolving. They are ethical imperatives, and we have developed the positive properties of language to establish them for our use.

We can only be defined through relationship principles for they offer us the best hope to recognize the factors that lead to complementation.

There is a fundamental need to grasp simple common-sense essentials.

The Here and Now is not a temporary transitional time phase that we move in and out of. It is a constant certainty that is essential to recognize, so that our focus of attention has a foundation.

Centrism can imply a fixation, which also implies vulnerability, which can be perfectly true if it does not lead to extension.

To understand who we are, it is essential that we recognize and become aware of the very principles that we operate from. They encapsulate all the measure of any human societies ethics, morals, and laws, which is a continuous evolutionary educational process within which the realization of its total essence is always available.

To use the doctrine that reason is a reliable tool to discover Truth – therefore ‘mutual agreement’ in the context ‘correct information’ translates to the Truth to reason!

Evolution is a constant dynamic process.

The human phenomena of ‘who we are’ is only understood in our union with each other, and ‘what is’. The paradox again is that there never is any separation. Separation is a mythical non-existent.

The principles that are our necessities have continuous expansion properties that as humans we are privileged to assist their propagation.

[[File:Making Scholarly Articles Findable- Towards Ensuring F of FAIR Data Principles, John Samuel, WikidatCon 2021.pdf|center|thumb]]
The human constellation in its evolutionary march must use these fundamental principles to ensure continuity.

To maintain coherence and consistency our source is centered in the principles and factors that we have interpreted from our association with Nature, and Reality.

Whatever we write that is of any consequence, or at any other time, is written with the hope that stronger interpreters than us overtake what we present.

To ‘see’ Reality as we have seen, and be intoxicated by it, as we have been, will ensure its progression.”

== Discovery ==
The consciousness whole is the sum of all its parts and experiences. As we are all on an evolutionary path, our life and knowledge hopefully develop in the right direction.

The exploration took us through a plethora of data and opinions about reality from authorities on science, religion, philosophy and metaphysics. Nowhere could we find a definitive conclusive argument, or agreement, that met our needs.

For us, the question came down to “Is there anything at all that provides some form of construction, and certainty?” Something that has its own inherent ethical standards.

The alternative proposition to that is a nihilistic “nothingness”. A pathological proposition that makes no sense.

Heraclitus’s “unity of opposites” seemed the most promising. Our understanding of that now made dichotomies a semantic illusion. If achieved in a mindful way it is the act of uniting them, providing a conscious correct experience of ‘what is’.

We live our lives with secondary knowledge that everything that is – is always interconnected and interdependent. Yet our illusory experience belies that form of knowledge.

It is here that we understood Heraclitus and his “unity of opposites”. Mentally uniting opposites replaces the existing illusion of their existence – there are no dichotomies!

[[File:Heraclitus, Johannes Moreelse.jpg|center|thumb]]
Once the illusion is gone a new solution manifests that is peculiar to the mindfulness operator, and belongs to a higher form of consciousness.

Heraclitus was known as “The Weeping Philosopher”.

He wept for the needless unconsciousness of mankind when the ‘unity of opposites” was always available.

He was also known as Heraclitus The Obscure.

A title we suspect that came about because the successful conclusion to uniting opposites and replacing the illusion, opened a door to a new dimension.

Semantic description at this time may not have been available.

This brings us to the ancient Yin and Yang symbol of the ‘unity of opposites’. As separate entities in Chinese philosophy, they are complementary, and in fusion they represent the whole. So as dichotomies they don’t exist.

[[File:Ying and Yang Street Art - panoramio.jpg|center|thumb]]


The whole is the elemental answer to any fusion of opposites, whatever that may be.

Symbolize a line as being infinite in the sense that any line can be categorised as being infinite. Apply an infinite number of points in any line. Intersect any line through any point by another line then we have a specific identifiable point at the intersection, which at that point in time has an infinite quality, yet constant and complete.

Any such point has Matter, Energy, Space, and Time, the epitome of the microcosm.

We may locate a Reality point that establishes the Truth. Conventional mechanical ‘thought processes’ deal with dichotomies that are based on a comparative perspective ideology, and consequently, skew any real experience of that which is real.

We must use correct ‘measuring sticks’ to secure proper standards, but from the point of view that there is a belief in dichotomies, it will always be a compelling argument that aspects of reality can be contradictory. The element of denial within human historical memory accumulates to establishing dichotomies as being real.

We are defined not by how ‘different’ we are, but by our commonality of existence. When we locate that Reality point we will then know that the definition in itself has a whole, and complete explanation of ‘reason” in all possible senses.

All the reality we can deal with is here, and now. There is no possibility that ‘infinite regress’ (an imagined reality) is any part of our immediate experience. Infinite regress through thought processes, deals with questionable imponderables. It is a descending spiral, which further removes one from reality, which only produces illusion, and correct meanings are always deferred. It is making a holy virtue out of complexity. The epitome of completeness is the active realization of the operational principle.

[[File:Brick house 09.jpg|center|thumb]]
Conclusion: A brick – a house. Each complete in themselves. A house is not composed of one single brick, but each brick in its composition is complete, and whole in itself in that it has matter, energy, space, and time. In that context, it is a microscopic whole which has implicit within it the macrocosmic whole, a house.

We cannot define that which isn’t. We constantly use negative dichotomous terms in language, which are in essence factually indefinable, and therefore non-existent, but they are used as though we can support a view as to their existence. At this time we constantly use mythical concepts as though they had real substance. That erroneous belief in turn diminishes that which is real and compounds the problem of recognition of Reality. The flat earth society no doubt had to be persuaded of the mythical nature of their beliefs. This dictates that we must research ‘that which is” to achieve an understanding that supports that reality.

Separation is the mythical measure we use in an attempt to justify the real identity of either ‘relationship’ or ‘completion’, but it has no substance in fact.That we are connected, that we are related, that we are communicating, that we agree that ‘mutual agreement’ exists, all of these factors fall into the category of ‘that which is. There is nothing that is real that is not immediately available to us, there is ‘mutual agreement’.

Attempting to view true relationships as having a necessary separation link, or dichotomy is a clear misunderstanding of the nature and completeness of all that we are related to.

== Connectedness. ==

A relationship is defined as we are by the measure of contact (especially homo sapiens) that is apparent. It would be true to say that I have a measure of relationship with everyone who reads this material. No matter how tenuous the link we have a measure of relationship with all life – we are related! Depending on the strength of that relationship defines ‘who we are’.

‘Who we are’ is not defined by any spurious separation from life, quite simply because we cannot be separated from it, we are engaged in it at every moment in time. Any attempt to establish ‘separation’ as a reality is an attempt to deny ‘who we are’, and another exercise in futility! Again artificial interioralisation of concepts or principles leads only to a denial of their external reality.

We are all connected by the very simple fact that we all exist on this planet. It is a very simple axiom that all life on this planet is supported by the conditional properties this planet provides. It is also a very simple, and more reasonable axiom to conclude that no matter how tenuous the link that all life in this regard has very concrete and definitive forms of relationship. We all must breathe, we all must eat, and we all must drink, and if you need any further certainty of ‘completion’ relationships, we certainly, all must die!
[[File:Wikimedia|thumb|center|]Arcimedes]

To set in qualifications from the premise that there is a ‘separate mind’ (a kind of Platonic cave) to get outside of. This premise precludes either in part or in whole the evidence and experience of Nature, and Reality, within which our beingness is located. It would all be beyond our grasp if indeed our conventional concepts of consciousness was adhered to, which in effect attempts to deny us that direct ‘relationship’ to ‘what is’, and the completeness of that experience.

Knowing or being, despite solipsistic theories to the contrary, does not exist in penetrating one other mind, but in the democratic recognition that we know and have our being in relationship, and the mutual, and natural convergence of everything there is. Homo sapiens (race, color, or creed aside) necessarily conduct themselves in ways that extend recognition, and understanding at every level, without the constant need of ‘completion’ recognition that is inherent in all our interrelated actions. The notion of completion may be beyond what you call your ‘conscious grasp’, and therein I suspect lays the difficulty in recognition.

The flat earth society eventually moved on to a realization that their visionary scope was shrunken, and severely limited. They were deprived of a planetary (never mind a universal) relationship that one can only imagine severely curtailed the very expansion of consciousness necessary for humanity to progress. We have evolved some little way because of our understanding of the natural relationship.

The centered in the mind condition - which connotes with the separation ideology - screams to be released from that mythology, and engage itself directly in real relationship with everything that is.

= Relationship. =


Separation is the mythical tool we attempt to use to maintain a false continuity of an imaginary individuality that does not exist.

The taking for granted conditional mythologies (the flat earth society) engage the victims in what can best be described as serious problems in recognizing the very limitations that restrict their development.

We must learn to view wholes, which equates with viewing ‘completeness’. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts, but the parts are not necessarily separate conceptual parts. We can ‘see’ the whole when we are able to identify the factors that constitute their existence as a complete reality.

That which is complete in Law = Agreements that produce secure and dependent outcomes.

We know in essence the concept of ‘completeness’, and we demonstrate the evidence in myriad ways. Each act is a microcosm of the whole – view from the other end of the telescope!

In the traffic analogy the driver, and all other drivers, conform to the law by driving off when the light turns green. There is an implicit agreement about the value of traffic laws, and traffic lights that control the flow of traffic. At that moment there is a complete relationship understanding of those values. The ‘complete’ or ‘wholesome’ activity of motorists waiting at traffic lights for the green signal to go, and they then move off, validates all the factors implicit within the properties of ‘mutual agreement’.

Throw a ball from one side of the room to the other. The ‘whole’ or complete traverse of the ball is the instant it leaves your hand until it arrives at the other side of the room. You have already given credence to the concept of ‘mutual agreement’ as a reality. When there is a correct definition made in terms of ‘necessary factors’, then it has implicit within it the concepts of ‘completeness’ or ‘wholeness’ within the measure in which it is used.

Whatever we communicate for the benefit of future generations should not be based on mythical assumptions, but should be based on necessary factors.
It is ordinary life that portrays all the dignity, honor, and the complementary wonder of the human species.

We are here – we are present – we are communicating.

We have an obligation (which we necessarily fulfill) to make transparent the basic principles that govern our existence.

That, which is factual, provides us with a correct motive for behavior, and we do a disservice to Reality when we attempt to deny it. We exist and live in a world where acts of ‘completeness’ expressed in one form as ‘mutual agreement’, are continually enacted.

It is the form of expression, and continuance of processes that we constantly use to arrive at reasonable solutions, and we employ factors that are necessary to provide us with a clear, and unambiguous understanding. They motivate reasonable behavior toward activity that we can accept as being a logical process.

== Natural Experience: ==
No form of life can exist in and of itself, it is brought into existence through a relationship with its own environment, or its species. The obvious egotistical monistic nature of oneness (if there was such an entity) could not leave any room for the realization of anything that might disturb its comfort zone. There is no real knowledge where any concentration is on the “I am” syndrome.

&quot;No man is an island, entire of itself;

Every man is a piece of the continent, a part of the main.&quot;

- John Donne, 'No Man Is An Island, Meditation XVII - Devotion Upon Emergent Occasion.

“We are’ is an inclusive affirmation that deals with “what is’. There is no constructive dialogue, no real understanding, without a relationship.

Based on personal experience, we are a distinct, and unique species born of Nature and Reality that has combined to provide us with the innate ability to recognize the very properties that created us, and utilize them through an evolutionary process toward ever-increasing transparency. That transparency can only become available through a matching process between innate knowledge, and the reality we share, a reality that is our heritage.

We like all other forms of life are the product of Nature, and subject to its laws, and principles. Necessity created a language that evaluated Reality, and provided us with guidelines to emulate its constant properties. The measure, and quality of knowledge is dependent on the realization of ‘what is’. The crux of correct knowledge is to know the base that we function from. The principles that are implicit within Nature, and Reality we have now translated through the evolved language systems with symbols and definitions that we now use to share the experience. When principles are fundamentally true and recognized for what they are, misguided belief systems will evaporate.

To ask what is the source of the principles we present is ipso facto to ask what is the source of Nature, and Reality, and we repeat, that is an exercise in futility, but that does not mean that we cannot recognize that which is natural to us, and express it, as best we can through language.

The experience of ‘who we are’ is the Ultimate transparency that transcends all doubt, or denial.

We can know with an understanding that is pure and indisputable, that is the motivational drive for evolutionary continuance.

To understand who we are we must address Nature, and Reality, and ask ‘what is’ Here, and Now, with an understanding of the dichotomies that exist in language.

The ‘Eureka’ moments, epiphanies, enlightenments, etc, are all evolutionary evidence of who we are, and when we can translate them into principles, and concepts, then the assertions of an Archimedes (and many others) are recognized, and properly used. Through Nature, and Reality we can establish what Truth is! Is it true to say that most people conform to the rules of the road? It would be more reasonable to assert that the answer is yes! Consequently, we can say that we have ‘Mutual agreement’, and ‘Co-operative Understanding’ as observable realities.

There is no conceptual source through Time, or history where there is an end. There is only ‘beginning’. Here and Now is always the ‘beginning’, and a more reasonable platform to explore than any exploration into the past concerning our true identity.

Contemporary terms like Absolute, Complete, End, we use to match our conditional understanding of ‘what is’. When we use contemporary conditional language to address concepts like Truth, Knowledge, Understanding, they are limited by the measure of our progression, but we use them all as stepping-stones. Language is a constantly evolving process.

When we agree that there is ‘some certainty’ and ‘limited knowledge’ you have agreed to the concepts of certainty and knowledge as factors that are part of our natural reality. All of us function within the framework of certainty, and knowledge, to some degree. Given that we agree to their existence, these are the factors that can lead us to the experience of ‘who we are’. They are a part of us that can lead us to recognition of ‘what is’, and make a transparent reality of the very things we do on a daily basis. We do not need absolute and certain knowledge to perform everyday tasks, but those performances are structured contemporarily because of our advanced understanding of the things we do, based on our own innate reality.

To honestly perceive the consistency of ‘what is’ (to be interdependent, and mutually connected) in interaction, can and does promote the visible reality of ‘who we are’. That visible evidence translates into the knowledge of our complete presence. We know with certainty that our beingness is of pure essence, and from that experience, we are obliged to formulate, as best we can, the structures that are responsible for making that transparent (witness the explosion of human progression, without the necessity in Time of experiencing fully ‘who we are’). To take a more reasonable stand please observe the multiplicity of human action where interdependence, and connection naturally proliferate. To realize that we are ‘interdependent, and mutually connected’ is the realization of a consistent fundamental truth – ‘what is’. Through identifying ‘what is’ as an internal reality we can make transparent the factors that are our natural construct. It is only through sharing this reality that we recognize it!!

These factors are not based on any ideology, belief systems, or opinions; they are composed of the Reality that is available to us all. We are unique in that we have the opportunity to be able to use their value in the manner that is implicit within their structure. That use is evidence of our understanding of Reality. What could have happened without the assertion that traffic lights are a safe way to control crossroads, or the assertion that the rules of the road are beneficial for our safety?

Any true experience, epiphany, enlightenment, etc, of ‘who we are’ provides fundamental, and indisputable knowledge of that Reality. Applying the recognized principles provided by Nature, and Reality consistently advances the evolutionary process, hence we have Science, Philosophy, Religion, Education, Art, and Law.

When there is a Pure Realization of who ‘we are’ through relationship recognition, it is unquestionably the recognition of the encapsulated, and innate principles we all share, and there is no place for the dissolving of another Real identity through that recognition. Indeed it is a privileged insight into the epitome of purity.

Nature and Reality can give us direction and guidance to our human existence, and we repeat, it is an exercise in futility to seek any cause to their beginnings.

We have proffered the concept of two as a basis from which human reality can be ‘experienced’. To recognize through, and equate with the true substance, and essence of one other is to automatically experience the totality of ‘who we are’ in full measure. This does not mean that the terms ‘totality’ and ‘full measure’ convey an ‘end’ to ‘what is’.

We have consistently offered recognizable facts (not assertions) that are part of our natural human activity, and give correct direction and meaning to our basic essence. We do function within the structure of ‘mutual agreement’, and we do communicate and ‘make known’ – basic obligations. These are evident simple examples of innate knowledge, and our understanding of ‘what is’ made transparent. To repeat we could not recognize anything without innate knowledge. All knowledge is a continual matching process 1 + 1 = 2. toward the realization of ‘who we are’ the development of language structures that correctly establish basic reality as it is, provides continuous knowledge that makes transparent the very nature of that reality.

It is vitally important to recognize that we have active communal agreements concerning the existence of basic principles and concepts that form the very foundation of our lives.

Constant change and movement in Space-Time - Energy - Matter are applicable absolutes to be recognised, which equates to evolution. There never will be a static property involved in the evolution advance. Evolution encompasses its own absolute properties to provide cognitive connection confirmation.

The evolution of conceptual language exists to provide natural equality and to promote cognition between language states. No matter the languages spoken the concepts of air - food- water is the same and can provide a gateway to explore the future dynamics of human relationships.
=== Knowing. ===
Knowing what all the truth is is not some miraculous state of perception. Nor is it a high academic achievement of amassed information. It is simply an objective common-sense view of ‘what is” and in reality what must be. It is what must be for life to function within the principles that exist that are its natural foundation.

We are always of necessity the living expression of a reality that must be experienced in the whole. Our recognition of the same principles operating universally is also our recognition of who we are. That proliferate ‘sameness’ is an evident easily recognizable identity.

When a child is afraid of an imaginary monster in the dark, we generally do not accuse them of being absurd, or that they are lying. Appeasement comes with an explanation of reality at that level which is truthful. An explanation, which the child can grow up with, and find comfort. It is simply introducing a child to a level of truth that is more real to them. In every instance, the only reality that ever exists is truth. However, distorted it may be expressed. One of the major distortions as the result of thought processes is to consider that we can manufacture something other than the reality that exists. The ‘fact’ that you recognize contradictory or absurd statements is that behind them there is a measure of truth. The habitual liar lives in a world in which he or she imagines that truth is something they can manufacture.

Where human ‘thought’ constructs its reality in terms of dichotomies it can never deal with the truth because it continually makes those comparative perception judgments. Those judgments are always in question because again they cannot deal with reality as it is.

No matter how absurd or contradictory any statement is, that is the measure of truth expressed. Ergo whatever it is that is expressed, or made manifest, is the truth to some degree. Ergo everything that is, is the truth. It is our responsibility to recognize it for what it is.

It may be appropriate to review previous observations on dichotomies and gradient scale. Consistently we have contended that there are no dichotomies, which then properly puts each principle into the category of an absolute. To identify ‘truth’ as an absolute in that category then everything that is must have a measure of truth. It is a very simple and sensible approach to establish ‘what is’. It is the means of identifying a reality that must have truth as a base – whatever it is, and however nonsensical it may appear. All principles have an elementary gradient scale that we must use to identify knowledge that is honest.

That gradation scale knows no dichotomies. Dichotomies are always the imaginary properties of pseudo subjective reasoning. Necessary factors establish that gradient scale where only objective realities exist to furnish a healthy subjective reason with truth, and so we learn to apply the conjunction to address reality for what it is. Truth comes in an abundant variety of ways in its commonality – and therein lays its overall ‘complete’ power, despite any denial to the contrary.

Embedded knowledge as we see it is neither experience nor knowledge without principle content. A person may be well educated in all aspects of the geography of a beautiful South Sea island, but have no practical experience at all of its beauty. Being clever about a subject does not necessarily equate to an understanding of the subject. Nor should it lend itself to posing as adjudicators on a proposition preset we imagine by the same adjudicators, or essentially the same school of embedded thought processes.

Long before human evolution, the principle of leverage has always existed in all Nature (as have all other principles, wherever there is space – time – energy – matter). Our adaptation to the existence of principles has added to the sum total of ‘knowledge’ as we know it, including the concept of knowledge itself. That form of ‘knowledge’, and our ‘knowing’ is natural and not any personal or esoteric acquisition. Just as a fish knows what its natural habitat is, or a bird to fly in the air, the human species uses all available principles it recognizes to add to its knowledge (already said).

Any valid theory of knowledge must have as its base constructive definitive principles to support it, and it is evident that our accumulated common knowledge equates to our common experience. No matter how erudite or convoluted any argument may be, if in the end it is reduced to inane observations that have no factual basis in principle, then it is time to abandon them. Do try to consider the sort of ‘mind’ processes that offers us up a world that knows nothing but separation.

How can we possibly evaluate what ‘wholesomeness’ really is?

How can we possibly evaluate ‘who we are’?

How can there be any theory of knowledge without addressing Nature or our innate and biological relationship with it?

Any attempt to debate ‘who we are’ and the completeness of that concept must have some sense of reality on the real meaning of ‘completeness’, and some understanding of the principles that are the nucleus of human society. To wrap any argument around a non-existent concept that can never be realized is apropos to attaching oneself to a system of belief in things that do not exist. One can make ponderous and convoluted statements about those beliefs but in reality, they are morally and ethically misguided.

The ability to correlate correct definitions to the reality of life offers up that direct link to the truths that are common to us all. It corrects the presumptive notion that there can be ‘different’ perspectives on the same reality. There can be ‘differences’ but there can not be ‘different’ measuring sticks for the same reality. No matter the multiplicity of perspectives, they can never alter the core principle of ‘what is’.

Historically evolutionary progress can best be measured by the adoption of recognized principles. Reality at whatever level we find it can only be understood by addressing ‘what is’. Nothing can be understood by attempting to relegate it to a non-entity through questionable theories of ‘knowledge’, which in essence negate the very content of knowledge itself. The perpetuation of any theory of knowledge, which cannot recognize the principles that are its foundation, can only be a shadow of its own reality. Construct the ‘necessary factors’ around the skeleton and a body will take form.

If any particular theory of knowledge cannot identify simple truths, how can we possibly question how anyone ‘knows’?

A dichotomy is the human attempt to deny the existence of a whole reality of a principle. We have the principle of leverage and its necessary gradient scale.

Mutual agreements of a consistent reality, at a communal level, are a passive form of the Eureka moment, which recognizes fundamental principles that relates to truth. In every social structure, there are varying degrees of recognition, which determine social use. The mosaics of differences, which make up the rich pattern of life, are a testament to human creativity.

Principles offer up a form of predictability in which our brain forms knowledge through the process of interaction. The experience accumulated through each moment, forms exponentially in use, or becomes transparent immediately in a Eureka moment, in which we know. Real knowledge is through the constant interaction with natural principles, much more than the transference of divided embedded information. The problem we face is that ‘knowing’ or ‘how we know” is never a personal possession.

Any theory of knowledge no matter how in that respect, is true interaction. Peeling a potato and ‘knowing’ it, is rewarding enough!

All principles are the repository of pure erudite knowledge. We recognize Universal principles in play at all times in Nature and its by-product – human societies. The correlation between determined interdependence to objective reality requires our intellect to ‘honestly observe ‘what is’, and assimilate that subjectively. Then the equality of the external and the internal becomes a reality and we ‘know’.

Knowledge is the process of natural action, reaction, and interaction. It is nonsensical to ask how do we ‘know’.Every moment in time is complete because it must contain all the principles that form its nucleus. It can only be like that to facilitate the immediate experience of Eternity, or the wholesomeness of any of its principles. On the gradient scale of experience, we all exist somewhere on that scale. It is called life.

=== Relativism: ===
Relativism can be consistent with interconnectedness and a gradient scale of knowledge.

What it cannot do is confuse the relationship that correct gradient scales of principles have in reality.

Hot and cold would be on a temperature scale – no dichotomy!

Leverage could only be measured by its own scale (say a child’s sea-saw to a high-rise industrial crane) – no dichotomy!

The human being is a human being whether it is a child or an adult – no dichotomy!

The domestic cat is the same animal species as a wild lion – no dichotomy!

The domestic dog is the same animal species as a wolf – no dichotomy!

How can we manage to classify these as dichotomies?

Gradient scales are the natural human mechanisms used to recognize constant principles. They ensure the human perspective is aligned correctly to identify ‘what is’. The distorted human perspective is the result of human thought processes unable to establish constants that must exist in each moment of time.

The problem with embedded information is that it becomes stultified and it can stifle healthy reaction. The injection of recognizable principles invigorates and brings new life that offers countless avenues for human energy to be released. More importantly, those energies are used to enhance the evolutionary process.

We are collectively gifted with the potential to elevate life itself. We can correctly use such information by transforming its content so that its inherent truth is made recognizable.

It would be impossible for life to function if it was composed of ‘different’ opposite realities.

All theories of knowledge are in essence interconnected and can only contain validity when the principles that are the coalescent mechanisms are recognized. The unification of the truth that must exist in any theory needs to be harvested and used to offer up a body of ‘knowledge’ that has commonality of meaning. The identification of principles, truth, knowledge, and their subsequent establishment can only be achieved through direct interaction with Nature and life.

Gifted with life we have an obligation to demonstrate its capacity to use every resource to sustain and nourish its own environment.

We all know through the constant natural process of action – re-action – interaction. Depending on the quality of that process, knowledge will take its appropriate place on the gradient scale. That we ‘know’ is natural. It is not some extraordinary esoteric attainment, posited by a body of theories that, by their very nature, look for difficulties where none exists.

Universal belief systems based on mythologies can have an entrenched view of good principles being established because of their beliefs. Indeed the perpetuation of the beliefs throughout history offers a dynamic that is counterproductive to the ‘realization’ of principles that are necessarily true. Principles used in this approximate way, paradoxically hold no real meaning, and in fact, impose unhealthy dysfunctionality.

When there is a critical change toward establishing correct principles, it is axiomatic that the diffusion of mythologies becomes an automatic process.

True interaction lies in the knowledge that correct action is its own reward

Any other interpretation is less than tangible.

The accuracy in interpreting basic principles, and the alternate knowledge implicit in the interpretation, will always establish the primary principle sought. Archimedes et al.

Truth can be found in the oddest places.

(Archimedes bath image here please)

Archimedes cognition on how to weigh metals in water through displacement.

=== Truth. ===
Language is the construct of human action and the word “truth” seems to hold pride of place by the power of its usage and the meanings it evokes. It is preferable if we could turn our attention to the unity of principles (including truth) that are the construct of every language we use. By uniting the principal terms we can elevate the meanings we desire. Reasonable constructs and the correct duality of established principles always lead toward meaning. It is the only form of meaning that leads to its own extension eg. how to weigh metals – how else could it be?
 All principles have reciprocal value one to the other. No foundation principle can stand alone. They can only exist in a union, one with the other, the source of reciprocity.
All absolutes are universal. There is no hierarchy beyond the meanings they evoke in their joint construction. The binary connotations, however, one may express them, provide a constant reality beyond conventional consciousness. That experience is the immediate reward through disciplined application of their use. That discipline takes the form in all human action (such as the bathing scene above) disposed toward the correct functionality of basic principles. The daily connections we make always include the distinct possibility of their recognition, when we make those connections in a mindful state. From any common sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’. That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right. When the realities of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

‘More reasonable’ seems to have the particular philosophical motivation, not toward simple, sensible, and reasonable evidence, but more likely toward that ‘immaterialism’ ideology, and continually seeking for an elusive protracted answer is hardly ‘more reasonable'. Since we are apparently confined to a human perspective, we must settle with the latter position: the apparent state of representation of the world. The de-materializing of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism. A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance, etc. However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.
=== Truth and Reason. ===
The reason could easily be defined, and validated, as the correct application of common sense. More expressions of common sense can only endorse the completeness of any concept. A true experience of reality does not require endless explanations as to its ‘wholeness’. It just is.

Truth is in reality a network of implicit principles in which it is the predominant energy in each of them. They are identifiable by their interdependent nature (see network below) not the least of which is common sense. Dictionary given definitions of ‘truth’ place it in a very common sense acceptable category. One of which is ‘accuracy of representation’. Note how the two definitions in this paragraph coalesce.

The human drive toward recognizing and understanding the place of principles (constants) correlates to the energy we expend on questioning ‘who we are&quot;. The constant principles of action, reaction, interaction, are the automated natural impulse toward ‘establishing’ a human reality, and human identity. The process of evolving within that process has an egalitarian dynamic that powers it. In essence, it is a natural gift that we must accept. Each life and its identity contains all its personal experiences which can never be known to anyone else. In a sense, we can never “know” another person. Their life is sacrosanct. We can know a lot about them, and there it ends.

Truth is at the top of the gradient scale that measures the veracity of all things that are complete and related and paradoxically all reality is the truth. It gets back squarely to ‘who we are” and where we exist on that scale. To view gradient scales as having no truth to their structures is denying truth itself.

For the entire interconnected, interdependent network of principles, each of them has a gradient scale whereby each measure expresses truth in its own manner. All forms of leverage, from the minuscule to the lever that will move the world, are in of themselves, true and exact at that point. It is the only way we can recognize their existence, and use that complete truth at that time, to move up the scale. Time is the relative measuring stick that determines the amount of knowledge we can absorb. Consider the advanced extensions to the Archimedes principle of leverage throughout time.

                                                   Network scale example.
                                                           Truth

                                              Knowledge             Common sense
                              Responsibility                                        Reason
                Understanding                                                             Intelligence
All interdependent, and interconnected with all other principles and absolutes.
 No ‘thought processes’ or ‘mind’ constructs can create reality.
All we can ever do to gain knowledge is ‘act’ react’ and ‘interact’ within the confines of our immediate reality. The quality of that action is determined by the nature of available information. When there is freedom from embedded thought processes, there is a natural human ability to relate to the existence of truth as it is expressed in reality, and our brain records it accordingly. Thus, the principles of civilized societies evolve. Where there are predominant belief systems, the implicit energy will naturally direct itself toward human standards that blend all ethics together. That implicit energy will find its true home in the principles it seeks. The connected strength of those principles offers sanctity of experience that demands no sacrifice.

Everything that is, must of necessity, have a true comparative value (not a distorted dichotomy value) for honest recognition to be realized. which is to ‘know’.
All things are relative but only within their own true scale. It is the process by which we can identify reality, as it is. Principles cannot operate on any scale practicing negative discrimination.

Thus a healthy individual can be at the top of the scale and someone with various health issues can be near the bottom of the scale. But that is how Healthy they are.

There can be no relativity when ‘mind’ or ‘thought processes’ believe in mythical dichotomies. When human perception is distorted by such beliefs, they create a false reality and deny access to the true state.

Where there is a network of connected basic standards that are universal, then it is possible to use them and be nourished accordingly. The scale of natural human progression provides recognizable evidence that we are constantly developing. Reality is the direct and conclusive evidence of possibilities realized. Therefore, the reality is always the source of all possibilities where truth exists. When the truth is used as the universal measure of ‘what is&quot; there can be no discord as to its accuracy. It can only measure the principles that are implicit in everything there is, its natural milieu! Truth can only deal with ‘something’, it cannot measure an imaginative negative counterpart. Truth is the constant implicit property in every universal scale of principles. Thus, reality becomes transparent.

Have writ large on the value of distorted comparative perception judgments.

The standard of correct knowledge always carries with it, its own appraisal.

Where principles are concerned there is an obvious scale of identification (e.g., leverage and the numerous references) that is all-inclusive and provides us with evidence of its existence. We could say with some truth, that the industrial crane has more leverage than a child’s see-saw, but we cannot deny the truth at the lower level or the reason applied. Where principles are concerned, truth is not a possibility, it is a constant reality (e.g., leverage).

When mythological dichotomies are recognized and established for what they are, the process of ‘ironing’ them out and experiencing their constant reality will translate into the reality, which they are, and used accordingly. To evoke that new sense of reality, the mechanisms of ‘selective immaterialism’ need to be dismantled. Where human experience is presented with something it does not understand and is unable to appreciate the principles involved, the reaction can invoke a sense of fear. That condition can be a primary breeding ground to establish a language of dichotomies and put a selective name to something it does not deserve.

The diffusion of a false singular dichotomy into the natural healthy state of the common good puts responsibility into its proper place. Within the process of diffusion, there is the natural and equal absorption of our true reality. The transition between separation and inclusion will be a seamless process because it is our natural state.

Objectivity and Commonsense:
Explore the plethora of principles - truths - constants that are the mark and phenomena of Homo sapiens.

We cannot have any doubt about our existence in this present reality.

The truth of reality is and can be experienced wholly and completely by anyone at any point in time. All human progress is the result of such experiences, manifest in principles throughout time and their subsequent ‘use’ evolves exponentially. The overwhelming evidence is our reality, now.

A simple analogy of objectivity and commonsense. Somewhere in our early development, someone put the ingredients of a loaf of bread together, somehow baked it, and hey presto, the first experience of a loaf of bread. It is now a form of sustenance, which feeds billions of people. We no longer need to experience that ‘truth’ that ‘knowledge’. It is unnecessary because it is subjective assimilation and the act of external and internal activity.

Because ‘our’ brain functions in a manner that can identify the natural elements it exists in –space, time, energy, matter, we learn to ‘know’ and recognize ‘completely’ a child’s see-saw. Knowing is a natural evolutionary function. The quality of ‘knowing’ has its own natural determinants which of necessity contain the measure of principles required for universal recognition. An Archimedes insight (or anyone else’s) could not become a universal reality unless those determinants were in play. I know the very same way we all know – by experience via action, reaction, and interaction. Truth persists and what Archimedes experienced was true and complete. Any experience of any truth, principle, or constant can be as ‘complete’ within a grain of sand, or knowledge of a pyramid.

All experience of that nature is an experience in ‘time’, and when it is the truth, we use it accordingly.

There is no mechanical translation, or opinion of ‘necessary factors’ as they are constant universals. That, which is ‘complete’, is transparent universal knowledge e.g., the principle of leverage.

The precision of terms must include ‘necessary factors’. Necessary factors translate into a common universal language so there is no loss of meaning.

All truth – principles-constants – absolutes, that stands the test of time we use accordingly. Thus, human societies evolve, and we evolve without the necessity of having to re-experience any of the principles we recognize and establish. That simply would not be a ‘natural’ commonsense proposition and an entire waste of unnecessary energy. The truth of any principle at any point in time, and at that point in time, can be experienced completely by anyone. Whatever it may be if the principle is established – from then on, it will evolve. There are some misguided notions that ‘truth’ ‘knowledge’ and ‘experience’ have some secret value that is unattainable by ordinary experience. It is a ‘natural’ evolutionary reality that what we ‘know’ becomes useful. We have a mutual responsibility to recognize, use and honor the principles, which are the common property we share.


= Human consciousness. =


[[File:Lane past Coombshead Farm - geograph.org.uk - 589598.jpg|center|thumb|369x369px|&quot;The roads half travelled when you know the way&quot;]]

[[File:Sombrero Galaxy in infrared light (Hubble Space Telescope and Spitzer Space Telescope).jpg|center|300x300px]]

=== The Universe ===

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Space&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Time&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Energy&lt;/big&gt;''

''&lt;big&gt;We do not own Matter&lt;/big&gt;''


The human capacity to understand the question of sovereignty or ownership of Space - Time - Energy - or Matter can only be accepted when any basis of dispute includes two dispositions - human and spiritual indigenous ties throughtout history.

With the evolutionary appearance of indigenous peoples throughout this planet, their way of life should make it paramount that their existence be recognised as a natural law that has providence!

Their culture and way of life has its own identity in which Space - Time - Energy - Matter is expressed as they experience it.

That proof also lies in the existence of caves thousands of years old, and the existence their art and culture.


So the constructs defined below are a new approach to understanding the concept of ‘knowledge’ and its proper place in an evolutionary expanding universe.

Knowledge acquisition requires appropriate recognition through action, reaction, interaction, in which proper perception and comsciousnessvalues are applied. That form of construction requires the dismantling of previously embedded information. This requires a new direction to formulate a sound basis from which to extend.

Construction of an analytical methodology to establish a form of ‘knowledge’ that is best suited to distinguish in a contemporary reality. A reality that adequately conforms to common notions of that which is true, and can only exist without any false relation to that which does not exist. All science needs the certainty that established absolutes provide.

A pragmatic construction of real knowledge would propose that all reality expresses a form of evidence or proof and that the observer and the observed contain innate properties necessary to establish a foundational agreement. That form of agreement would necessarily function on the basis that everything that is – is truth.

Any other interpretation would be a disconnect from reality, and the interdependent correspondence that must exist for true recognition of any absolute. Controversy will always emerge when the discourse on bifurcation and the introduction of non-existent dichotomies are used as arguments to be explored.

Pragmatism would say that the human species would need basic properties to formulate any form of reliable epistemological analysis to explain and simplify the reality that forms their existence. That reality could well be recognized initially as the absolutes of space-time - energy-matter, through innate perceptual data that corresponds to an outward structure that is constantly evolving.

That which is absolute is the determinative factor in establishing the existence of truth. When a chair, is a chair, is a chair, its recognition is established when we ‘commonly’ apply subjective and objective measures to that which is truly external to that which is truly internal. That which does exist becomes ‘common’ knowledge, and accepted as being true. Thus, the distinction between a priori knowledge and a posteriori knowledge no longer exists.

Where there is consensus, everything is.

The formulation of absolute criteria that offers ‘simplicity’ as a tool to measure all and everything, dispenses with the confusion of ‘difficulties’ historical philosophies engage in. It also offers an observable synthesis that clarifies the confusion.

Within the combined properties of those absolutes then everything potentially would be. Everything that is by that definition is original, ipso facto, everything that has no false relationship, and therefore true (no dichotomies).

Given contemporary human development, it would be ‘common’ pragmatism to accept the proposition that we exist within the absolutes of space-time – energy-matter. Within those absolutes and their innate properties, it would also be pragmatic to assert that ‘everything then is’ (whatever everything may be). Pragmatism would also dictate that ‘everything that is, is its own form of truth, and must contain available constructs of meaning. Therefore knowledge and understanding would be obtainable to that common experience, and at whatever level that experience is activated it is in interdependent unison with the source.

The continuing establishment of basic absolute principles (their generalities and their specifics) forms our reason. 1+1= 2 is a ‘simple’ but true universal constant generality. That form of generality is used because we recognize the specific principles of a balanced equation that adds up and makes sense. Simple generalities with their inclusive specifics form the foundation of human reason and its constant evolution. Simplicity is the bane of a ‘mind’ that must have difficulties.


= Availability. =
The unifying feature that makes ‘knowledge’ available to us all, are the innate universal principles in all things. Archimedes established the principle of leverage. To paraphrase - ‘give me a lever, and I will move the world’. Once the law is established it can then be put to good use.

The principle of leverage is manifest in countless ways, and put to good use! The principle of leverage is a constant available to us all, and always has been.

Through his application Archimedes conveyed his insight in practical terms, and made aware of the principle and the laws governing it. We now use those laws. We no longer need to philosophise on its existence as a truth. Similarly whenever 2+2 = 4.  Whatever we use to make the equation – apples, oranges, bricks, the mathematical equation is a constant, and the principle of correctness applies. Here 2+2 =4 is empirical proof that the principle of correctness and agreement exist.

Principle, or law: ‘a fundamental truth used as a basis of reasoning’.          

If it were otherwise we could not measure anything. That which appears abstract then, requires no implausible argument as to its non-existence.


Such is the nature of all universal principles, they exist whether the notion of a ‘mind’ can perceive their existence, or not. Because ‘thought’ does not create the reality of principles – universals- truth, it cannot from its mythical standpoint understand the simplicity of a Reality where ‘everything is’, nor the simple and factual conclusion – how could it be otherwise!

Where ‘everything is’ evidently encompasses the whole evolutionary dimension. It is not an ideological enclosed static that stultifies expansion of an unfolding Reality.

Any pure knowledge experience that ‘everything is’ ,(quite apart from the common-sense truth of the statement) is to experience the Absolute in any immediate part of anything that exists, which establishes its own truth forever.

To examine a road code of law with that knowledge, and view the actions of drivers at traffic lights, it is more than reasonable to conclude with some conviction that there is  to some degree, Agreement – Knowledge – Understanding, and Conformity to that code of law. It becomes a ‘more reasonable’ proposition within Reality to understand that that code of law is multiplied exponentially, and the principles practised,  wherever drivers, motorcars, and traffic lights exist.


It is the nature of the type of knowledge we are measuring that determines the measure of reason that can be applied to any given form of Reality. We can conclude that 2+2 = 4 is a reasonable mathematical calculation that contains the principles of Agreement – Understanding – Conformity. Given the accepted knowledge of these innate principles we can with more reason apply such a calculation Universally. Knowing is agreement with ‘what is’. Knowledge is not the attempted denial of any existing reality. That is a contradiction in terms.

Mechanistic observation is akin to viewing from the outside, a straw in a glass of water. The straw always looks bent, but when removed from the glass we realise it is straight.

To claim an experience of that which is Absolute, is not a claim of an experience from a higher domain, or an  isolated incident – it is common-place, numbered by just how many we are. Attempting to denigrate such experience is denying the everyday actions that contain the innate principles of a constant Reality. All life functions within the constraints of the laws that are the constructs of Nature and Reality. All life is an expression of the Absolute. It is when that expression is realised, not only in an instinctive sense, but in a real sense, that we penetrate reality beyond a comparative framework of mythology. To claim that you ‘know’ intrinsically what the principle of leverage is, or the principle behind the mathematical equation 2+2=4 is to claim experience of the Absolute.

The Absolute is not some abstract esoteric truth – it is that which is immediate. Whether in awareness or not, we constantly comply, to some degree, with the laws of a constant reality.

Therein lies the difficulty for a comparative framework mythology – the Absolute is everything!

= Basic Equation. =

However much the simplicity of the equation is, it contains the properties of correctness – balance – equality – mutual identity – meaning, which in its ‘simplicity’ presages all future mathematical equations. In that universal meaning, there is particular knowledge of consistent truth. That form of ‘simple’ consistency, creates its own natural equilibrium, and its ‘usefulness’ evolves exponentially up the reality scale. Here is where we need to give proper credence to ‘that which is’.

All generalities have profound and specific principles as their ‘common’ identity, which are absolute. Unless those components are recognized, both objectively and subjectively, they are reduced to a comparative value spectrum (using dichotomies) as a misguided ‘simplistic’ factor. Deductive reasoning is then deprived of all value, and leads to the inevitable spurious question ‘how do we know?

Given the above criteria to establish a correct basis for knowledge that is recognizable, and of a kind that can be used universally, ‘simplicity’ can be recognized as a tool that promotes its own established formula. That which we constantly use.

Everything is the truth with regard to the methodology. How that truth or generality is expressed denotes the measure of the principle that is at its core, and forms that measure of reasoning we enjoy. Fortunately, although the truth is an innate property, it is not a ‘personal’ property per se, nor is the ‘experience’ of its reality. Its natural evolution is progressive. In that progression we are in common, the beneficent recipients that ‘evidently’ conform to its constant existence.

Philosophical dissertations have become a monopolistic form of opinions that always seem to presume the ‘rightness’ of difficulties in establishing the source of our being, and are unable to put in ‘simple’ terms the question of ‘who we are’. There comes with that the denial of evidence that permeates human history, which establishes the principles of our ‘common’ reality. Those opinions carry with them a colossal library of questionable erudition that becomes embedded, using questionable values to support their argument.

The most distinguished opponent of such arguments (Ludwig Wittgenstein 1889-1951&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite book|url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1203018418|title=Tractatus logico-philosophicus|last=author.|first=Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 1889-1951,|isbn=978-1-78527-656-9|oclc=1203018418}}&lt;/ref&gt;) proposed that language logic was a necessary tool to dismantle the convoluted ‘mind’ propositions that have permeated the philosophical hierarchy. Those ‘mind’ propositions only served to construct meaningless concepts as to ‘who we are’. Although he gained prominence in philosophical circles, his work was directed more toward academia.

In his Tractatus Logico – Philosophies he quotes: “The limits of my language mean the limits of my world - What cannot be shown cannot be said”, and “There can be no representation of the logic of facts”.

Having a belief in mystical truths that were inexpressible, his statements above are indicative of the embedded language of dichotomies. His form of ‘knowledge’ ‘philosophy’ gave (without question) the concept of ‘mind’ credence to formulate its own logic to clarify its own form of reasoning.

Wittgenstein, by not recognizing within the language the distortion that dichotomies create, was unable to approach the evident constructs of true meaning that lie within the interdependent relationship of absolutes, and their constant existence. Evidential reality is all there ever is. The ‘meaning’ or ‘knowledge’ that becomes evident in reality is ‘commonly’ accepted and used accordingly.

To repeat, the evidential reality is all there ever is. In that regard, the exponential drive toward ‘difficulties’ amassed a historical discourse of misinformation, which is used to address the very ‘difficulties’ created by spurious value systems. In effect, dealing with ‘nothingness’.

We have managed to turn ‘truth’ into a problem, into a difficulty, when the truth is simplicity itself. An oxymoron of gargantuan proportions.

This contemporary malady solidifies a diversion that discounts the reality of continuous progression. Progression in which ‘common sense’ is a motivating principle that promotes human evolution. The consistency of specific principles allows us to achieve correspondence.

Real knowledge is not a fabrication of convoluted prescriptions. It is the ‘coalescence’ of ‘what is’ to internal reality. That established, evolutionary progress is assured, and reality factors are recognized for what they are.

True meaning can best be attained by the interaction and interdependence of natural principles and so recognized as such. That meaning which contains all the specific components of reality is experienced as ‘true knowledge’, measure by measure by anyone.

That form of ‘experience’ is not a ‘mind’ process, but a very natural state of realization consistent with our level of action, reaction, and interaction.

A correct and pragmatically form of knowledge-seeking foundational answers to perennial questions would seek a direct passage to our ‘commonality’, the beacon that offers guidance. Consider the quantity and quality of knowledge we all pursue that has meaning and usefulness.

To posit the notion that there are no dichotomies is a cataclysmic proposition that seems nonsensical to established embedded constructs of knowledge. Constructs of knowledge that offer only confusion, and continually pose impossible questions, whose absence would provide clarity.

That absence of confusion would dispel and dismantle a reality of ‘mind’, which functions on its own selection of problems.

To address reality as having only absolute constructs dispels the confusion of duality and its inability to ‘use’ relativism in its proper fashion.

All general absolutes contain specific principles representing facts; the essential properties that confirm reality. This reference directs the observer to observe, and go beyond the restrictions of a ‘mind’ governed by dualism, monism, or any other spurious form of philosophy that distorts the very reality it exists in.

Where there are no dichotomies, all we can deal with is ‘what is’, and the logic of ‘necessary factors’ thus destroying the possible inclusion of anything described as a “paradox”.

= Pure Experience. =
To design a chair our brain requires to exercise the qualities and properties necessary for its manifestation e.g., strength, balance , design, functionality etc, etc.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair, the product of innate knowledge.  

If we did address any tentative agreement that ‘I’  is a ‘fiction’, could not our ‘conscious experience’ of that ‘fiction’ be just as fictitious. It would follow that whatever perception of Reality we experience must also be fiction.

Our contention, as always, has been that ’I think - therefore I am’ by Descartes is the greater fiction for reasons already explained.

To consider to whatever degree that we can function on the basis of a fictional ’I’ precludes any attempt to honestly address ’who we are’.


Saying that ‘conscious perspectives’ are limited and inconsistent with apparent reality are quite correct. It then brings into question the validity of ‘conscious perspectives’ to guide us toward ‘what is’.

The entangled fictional relationship between ‘mind’ ‘I’ ‘thought’ ‘consciousness’ impose formidable barriers to that which is evident.


Base observations on the construct and interpretation of what ‘knowledge’ is.

Human experience is limited by its mechanical interpretation of Reality, especially ‘cogito ergo sum’.

If everything that is, is its own measure of Reality (the differences) then everything must be measured, at whatever level, as being that part of the whole with all principles intact, making that measure available to be experienced as the Absolute. With absolutes there is no antagonism.

We cannot exist or experience anything without a Universal complementary source of identification.

It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality.

Not experiencing Reality as it is, is equivalent to not experiencing ‘who we are’, and is indeed the only human source and validity of truth, although Descartes held the erroneous belief that such knowledge was independent of any experience. That belief we suspect was some form of impetus toward his ’cogito ergo sum’.                  

Knowledge and experience are co-existing ‘necessary factors’

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), therefore any ‘knowledge’ derived from experience will be incomplete.

Clearly it is the quality of ‘knowledge’ that one experiences (e.g., Archimedes) that leads to a common certainty of evidence realised through direct experience.

That quality of knowledge can be available when we observe directly the activity of drivers at traffic lights with the knowledge that it is a very common activity recognized internationally. In every case we can logically pronounce the premises to be true, therefore we have a conclusion that is also true - whether that conclusion is defined as Mutual Agreement, or Common Acceptance, it does not matter - they are mutual principles.

It is this form of logical knowledge of innate principles that is the precursor to knowledge of the Absolute logically defined within all reason for ‘what it is’ .

Where the basic premise is true that there is ‘Mutual Agreement’ between a multiplicity of drivers at traffic lights then we can with certainty conclude that the same principles exist Universally.

We can also draw concrete conclusions, and establish knowledge, that it is not ‘absolutely necessary’ to experience by observation the multiplicity of drivers conforming to their particular road code. We have already established that knowledge.

Knowledge and experience are not separate philosophical theories. One cannot be without the other..


Everyone has the potential to experience the Absolute paradoxically, in part or in whole.

Everything that is, must contain the properties of the Absolute, otherwise nothing could be.


To ask questions about human experience based solely and inevitably on our interpretation of ‘knowledge’, and co-existing with that, its particular meaning in human existence.

So long as we can only deal with our conscious interpretation as representing Reality then we derive functionally less meaning than we are entitled to.

When we see other humans consistently using levers to open crates then we can recognize a ‘social intelligence’ operating which equates to understanding that is not based on opinion, but is a clear expression of human activity that has correspondence.

All of the principles involved in that experience can coalesce to provide that form of Reality that requires no interpretation. It becomes recognizable knowledge. How we understand that knowledge is through the realisation and identification of the principles involved, which become immediately transparent.

The Absolute could be categorised as a knowledge experience that encompasses all and everything. Whatever is manifest is that measure (complete in itself) of the Whole with all its principles intact.


Where there are at least two actions that are identical we can reach a common-sense conclusion that a definitive principle is operating. When that corresponds with innate knowledge then we have the complete cycle.

The definition itself is language opening the door to an experience of Reality. No one can know in isolation. An imaginary ‘I’ restricts any experience of who “we are”,  and is not a necessary part of human experience.  

Explaining experience beyond imaginary thought processes requires a definitive language that deals with the principles of Reality itself.

Pure experience.

The world-wide disposition that has no grounding in Nature and Reality becomes captive to any mythical fear that  offers a target to give some form of direction or stability.

There is nothing more simple than to make Reality transparent - its evidence abounds. We can pronounce the principle properties that provide guidelines to its existence whereby the reality is made apparent.


= Expansion. =


To address concerns on ‘negativity’.

Negativity is in essence the inability to establish a measure of Reality.

Mechanistic processes of denial are the attempt to understand and make transparent that which is apparently unexplainable, and resolve a condition whose energy is driven toward finding that core of affirmation.

The evolutionary principle from all available evidence is that human beings as a species progress. This seems a paradoxical contradiction to the embedded proposition that we can never know the ‘truth’.

The consequence of such a traditional premise is that denial and negativity both hold paramount positions.

We are conditioned to accept the premise that there is in fact no premise that will enable us to go beyond presently accepted norms of experience.

We are conditioned to accept that the ‘truth’ is inexpressible.

The evolution of the human species is constantly subject to contemporary ingrained social habits, which give some kind of credence to that particular point of existence. Indirect conscious interpretation classifies itself as a solid perspective to govern and justify human activity, which in many historical ways has proved disastrous.                   

Our continued intention is to expose detrimental barriers to the realisation of ‘who we are’, and in that process establish a smoother, more realistic approach to ‘who we are’.

The Archimedes legacy.

When we establish knowledge of something that exists through a multiplicity of experience and evidence, then from every reasonable standard we can establish that it is true, ergo that which is true is Absolute.

The principle of leverage is well grounded in social intelligence, and our natural knowledge of that does not need erudite explanations of its presence, nor any ‘conscious interpretation’ to realise its existence, or its practice. Evolution eventually removes restrictive passages to direct experience, the very purpose of evolution.

The principle of leverage is not a matter of opinion, it is the realisation of actuality and our continued ‘more reasonable’ response each time the principle is applied.

Children learn to speak their language primarily through experience without any direct, or indirect conscious interpretation, and so, universally we ‘know’ the most powerful means to communicate. Were we to move 50 miles in any compass direction from the town we live in, there is a certain predictability that we will meet others who speak the same English language that we do. If in that experience we find that these premises we have drawn about our travels were true, then the conclusion we would come to in particular, is that when we communicate we make known what we know.

………………………………………………………….

                                        
'''Please note the date:'''

'''Oct 2005.'''

I am offering up this older material below to provide insight as to the progression of this work. There may well be some duplication to date. During this period my wife and I worked in collaboration to ensure an equality of experience.

= Stepping Stones 1. =
There is nothing other than what is – there is no hidden Reality that we need to seek, it embraces us at every turn.

The Archimedes experience is the pure experience of Ultimate Reality, which provides indisputable knowledge. Reality is the source of complete knowledge, it is the constant source that has provided us with all human development, from the writings of William Shakespeare, to the computer development of Bill Gates. What they have produced is now an evident part of our reality that we can engage in. We can experience ‘mutual agreement’ through epiphanies, insights, enlightenment , understanding, Eureka moments etc, they are all one and the same.

Implicit within the macrocosm is the microcosm – it cannot be otherwise. The more we conform within the microcosm the more we begin to appreciate that Reality contains everything, and that we can realise through experience its manifestation. Each Eureka moment is that personal point of experience that connects us with the Truth. The principle of leverage was always available, it took an Archimedes to explain it to us.

Each Eureka moment necessarily engages with the reality of complete knowledge, and utilises its share at that time. When we have complete knowledge of who we are in that personal moment, then we understand that these, egalitarian properties, are rightfully shared by everyone and that we have experienced that which is infinite. It does not mean that the process of evolution is over – it has only just begun. It does mean that we can no longer continue coasting through this existence in a near comatose state.

If there is a hypnotic fixation in holding the principles of Reality as being separate, and different, then the potential realisation of their immediate unity, and communion, becomes problematic. Knowledge, and experience are one and the same – they are not different!!

Experience = Immediate knowledge of basic reality that is factually correct, and that we can reasonably use.

Knowledge = Immediate experience of secure, and accurate information that is constantly stable, and sustains principles.

Reality = Complete Knowledge. As the microcosmic part of the total macrocosm we are immersed in reality. The real question should be, ‘how can one not know Reality, or ‘who we are’.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the bank, and deal with money transactions.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can go to the supermarket and exchange money for goods.

Mutual agreement is evident when we know we can send our children to school to enhance their education.

Evident proof is validation of what is – it is not a matter of anyone’s opinion, nor is it an assumption of ours.

Neither do we assume, or offer any opinion, on the Universal Reality that there is ‘mutual agreement’ that we need air, food, and water to sustain us.

Evident proof is also the basis for the mechanics toward realisation of ‘complete knowledge ‘ of who we are. Reality can be realised through concentration on its basic principles.

We use language to express our understanding of who we are.It is relatively easy, it is reasonable, and it is responsible.

We convey through language our measure of intelligence, and to the best of our ability conform to the basic rule of communication – ‘we make known’

Implicit within that exercise is ‘mutual agreement’. We may differ in some specifics, but we meet the basic obligation of communication – ‘we make known’, and always we progress to some degree.

Simultaneity is one of the constant principles that we all share and they come from Here, Now, the Present, where they have always been. Everything is. Our being is always engaged in the present, and we each have an obligation to understand our relationship to what is.

The present is the only point of contact we can ever have with Reality.

To some degree or another, each one of us is directly connected to Reality (we do not have any choice in the matter), and we can potentially evaluate ‘what is’ through the utilisation, and examination of factual reality.

We are the microcosmic part of that Universal Macrocosm, and because we already have that innate information it is a matching process when we have a Eureka moment, an epiphany, an understanding beyond question. Nothing enters our minds - we already know! Everyone has innate knowledge of the principle of leverage. It requires correct examination of ‘what is’ for realisation to occur. It is then a relief to have ‘mutual agreement’ on the things we would wish to make transparent to others.

To use a traffic analogy, it is evident that there is ‘en masse’ mutual agreement when we know to drive off when the traffic light turns green. Mutual agreement is translated into people obeying traffic rules (otherwise chaos).

Two cars, two drivers, sitting directly alongside each other at traffic lights, discuss their understanding of their Road Code in this particular position, and what they should do.

When the light turns green there are a myriad of principles that apply when they drive off simultaneously. They have both demonstrated their ‘complete knowledge’ of the significance of the green light from this perspective.

There is Mutual Agreement.

There is Predictable Conformity.

There is Common Ground.

Each one complements the other.

They are both right.

One more remove:

From an outsider’s point of view – they both know! The green light could be categorised as a Eureka moment, it sets in play all the above principles, whether the drivers are aware of it or not. From the perspective of two outside objective observers who know the traffic rules, if asked, did the two drivers at the lights obey the rules – the answer would be yes, there would be mutual agreement. They have complete knowledge of this particular circumstance concerning drivers, and green lights.

Could it be that certain schools of thought are curtailed by a questionable refusal to recognize what is, and have a preference for creating a difficulty where none exists! No one can examine what isn’t! There is no such thing as ‘nothing’. Something is – what is it?

A Scottish engineer functions on the same principles as an Italian Pope. Because Archimedes was prominent as a mathematician, his realisation of the principle of leverage, and his understanding of the difference in water displacement between silver and gold was widely reported. This does not mean that realisation of ‘what is’ is an exclusive experience. As said previously Archimedes did not realise something new – it has always existed, and all forms of life would have utilised the leverage principle to some degree or another (watch a bird build a nest). At that time there were probably many thousands of people who had some understanding of the principle, but Archimedes was the one who made statements about it.

As in any Eureka moment, we can experience infinity and who we are. It is mutual agreement (an understanding) between the part, and the whole. It is when the principles are in unison Eureka!

Reality is there to be examined, and experienced, it is not separate from us, nor should we try to make it so.

= Stepping stones 2. =
Knowledge is not conditional by the activities of what may be called ‘thought’ or ‘consciousness processes’. Real knowledge is that which is available to all, and to be shared by all. It cannot be contained by the ‘experiencer’ and then not ‘known’ by the accident of experience. It is the actual innate experience itself which conclusively establishes the truth. It can only deal in the truth which is its modus operandi of dissemination.
For me to say that ‘everything is’, is a statement of fact which cannot be denied, and an intellectual dishonesty to attempt to deny the evidence by philosophical machinations. Hostility toward the truth leads inevitably toward attempted negation - looking for nothingness!

‘Being here’ demands its own recognition - attempting to deny it is simply perverse. Knowledge is the realisation of ‘what is’..
Rene Descartes ‘I think - therefore I am ‘did no service to human evolution, or education. It established in Western societies especially, the culture of individualism, with the precursor that so-called ‘thought’ was the inward evidence for existence, and for the following unfortunate claim that we have a ‘mind’, or to use the euphemism, a soul!

Experience is true knowledge. When that experience marries up with its innate counterpart then recognition is realised (cognition). In simple terms, a light goes on in the brain.

There can be no real knowledge without truth. All thought qualifies experience and attempts to reduce truth to near nothingness which is a widespread conditional activity. We cannot manufacture knowledge, or the principles which are its properties. No matter the amount of correct information anyone can ingest, it does not become knowledge until there is tripartite coalescence between inherent knowledge - ingested correct information - and ‘what is’. Then we truly recognize that which is Absolute. Within Nature we have the distinct privilege of evolving in a Universe that can only recognize the attributes of social cohesion. Knowledge is not anyone’s personal possession. Whatever measure of experience we may have of it, it is only available as a Universal sharing experience to be beneficially used.

Human activity whereby we witness people using tools for leverage, or drivers at traffic lights obeying the rules of the road, are observable markers that contain the properties for understanding our own reality. Unless seen for what they are, they are only mechanical platitudes with an equally mechanical response. We could rightly claim that that at least is some response, but of no real value.

The natural process that operates when we see that which is innate, overrides any erudite explanation from an academic base however intellectual its original source. ‘Thinking’ for oneself cannot make judgments about a ‘natural’ experience.

When we see human duplicate functions in operation then we are in communion, and at another level we recognize who we are.

When we actively see the activities of the human brain in action we are not dealing with any internal ‘will - o’ - the wisp’ that no one can ever experience. We exercise that prerogative (human activity) at every moment in time, but quite apparently without that focus of attention that denotes realistic recognition.

To seek identity in sectarian, or secular belief systems to overcome the contemporary feeling of loss of identity leads to the acceptance of anything that offers some form of stability. That is then used to strengthen that which is euphemistically addressed as the ’self’. To retain that security the acceptance of information transmitted throughout generations, is absorbed into the culture, and defended to the death against those who would question that belief system.

The greatest knowledge we can ever have is our own and it has the potential to transcend all else and provide insight into infinity.

The most tragic human condition is the lack of experience of identity in a multiplicity of identities in which we all share. The real problem is not one of ‘identity’, but a lack of ’communion’.

Whether we like it or not, whether we are aware of it or not, the principle of ’communion’ must always exist to some degree for evolution to proceed.

It is within the experience of that principle that we understand the fallaciousness of that much heralded ‘self’ which draws down so much energy in an attempt to establish itself as a reality.

Within positive language structure possibilities (no dichotomies), there should be the disposition toward the realisation that our relationships to cognize into ‘communion’ must be addressed as specifically dependent. Social attempts to be ‘independent’ are the very remove from reality and signify reduction attempts toward nothingness.

Adherence to, and the cultivation of faith and belief systems give little elbow room for any factual occurrence to be anything other than a comparison to the myths that are held.

The cultural and educational socialisation of generations of children must carry with it, its historical belief systems that overwhelm the natural instincts.

Observe an animal out of its natural habitat and locked in a cage for its entire life.

It would be a salutary exercise if we could dispense with the term ‘mind’ from our vocabulary and magnify the use of the word brain to promote a realistic discussion on ‘who we are’.

My action of levering open a wooden crate and knowledge of it is one and the same. Our remarkable brain functions like that, the purpose of a brain, the natural repository of innate knowledge.

The assertion of principles is critical to avoid all activity being submerged by questioning their very existence, and being unable to see directly.

It would be a rarity today, if anyone using a lever to pry open a wooden crate would have the same enormity of experience that Archimedes had, nor the need to make pronouncements about it. It has all been done prior to our awareness of its value with the accompanying data attached. Our brain knows the value of a lever and activates our body accordingly when needed.

It could be categorised as evolutionary transmission.

The observance of someone prying open a crate with a lever, or drivers conforming to the road code at traffic lights, is a function of the brain in action, not a mythical entity in a singular locality that denies its own senses. When the brain is not burdened by distorted belief systems it then has the potential to experience ’that which is’, which is always constant.

When we understand the function of a lever, or the presence of traffic lights, then we can activate the principles involved because we already know how!

The negative impact in the use of dichotomies in language lies in their distraction from the truth, as our brain processes the words we use in relation to Reality. The tendency to attempt to separate inherent truths through the words we use disrupts that natural correspondence necessary for identification.

A chair, is a chair, is a chair.

= Stepping stones 3. =
Where principles are concerned the constituent linkages in language are identity markers to that which is real - reference points. Without dichotomies there is no separation, or ambiguity between what we experience, and ‘what is’.

Philosophy in its attempt to address something through denial is an elementary confusion. To say that that is a chair, and then attempt to deny it invoking philosophical theorems concerning the human ability to experience it, is a severe contradiction on the existence of the object , and the observer.

When this form of contradiction is then taken as a constant, it then precludes any common-sense and definitive answer to the existence of a chair.

'''For philosophers, George Orwell’s ’to see what is in front of one’s nose needs a constant struggle’ would be apt.'''

Real concepts cannot exist in any mythology, therefore all that we experience is inevitably the truth that is there to beproperly categorised for what it is. The proper use of language in this context will identify whatever it is to correspond with present reality. Misuse of language (dichotomies and mythologies) leads only to the acceptance of a fractured state where nothing is whole and represents confusion. The dissipation of the supposed problem is never realised.

Fiction has been elevated to the status of an accepted reality. Very early evolutionary physical dangers allowed the development of fictions that offered some form of imaginary protection beyond limited physical ability. That contemporary humanity endorses the mythology of ‘I’ is testament to the psychological fear that still exists and requires its proper recognition.

Emphasis must be placed in the relationship between language and reality for understanding to proceed. The persistence of dichotomies has their own persistent confusion which then promotes a false reality through misleading information.

Microcosm and macrocosm are one and the same in a Universe where ‘everything is’. Isolated viewpoints are exactly that, and are unable to view the expanse in which we are encompassed.

We must learn to view reality through both ends of the same telescope. When we understand the extensive scope of ‘truth’, then we know that its values and properties do not change - which relates to ‘completeness’. Philosophical, ideological, and intellectual endeavour , try to shape the structure of ‘what is’ based on pre-dispositional knowledge, which can only ask the same questions, and look for the same answers.

Not to experience that which is absolute or whole is the normal result of the confusion of language which has no correspondence to that which is real.

To discuss with a philosopher the possibility that ’mind’ per se does not exist, and to dissolve it as a concept would place them in a realistic position, would indeed be a difficult proposition. The strength of that difficulty lies in another imaginary concept, that that ‘mind’ represents ’I’, and it is anathema to that fiction to consider its own demise!

= Stepping stones 4. =
There are no dichotomies.

Everything is, and everything that is, is complete, everything is an Absolute complete Reality. You are experiencing your measure of that reality. It cannot be otherwise that you are experiencing that measure of completeness. When we come to terms with it we have the innate capacity to see the Absolute in a grain of sand. That is knowledge. Belief in dichotomies is the mythical barrier to that particular experience - which is only denial, supported by erudite protestations that human construct dichotomies exist.

At a mechanical level Intelligence and Stupidity appear to be separate identifiable conditions, and they appear to be antagonistic. Stupidity is in Reality a measure of the Intelligence which is always constant. If someone was in a state of mythical utter and complete stupidity we would not attempt any form of emancipation from that condition.

We know that that is misguided and proceed with techniques to advance intelligence.

Consider the proposition that there are no dichotomies, and within that possibility all questions become irrelevant. Presuming that there are no dichotomies allows the process of establishing ‘necessary factors’ to proceed, and allows each measure of wholesomeness to be realised.

Experience is the criteria for knowledge.

Some Reality experiences were simply transposed into particular belief systems and elevated into a pseudo spiritual dimension, or a philosophical conundrum.

Where there is a belief in a divisive fiction (dichotomies) there is automatic mechanistic restriction to that which is Real.

There is a capacity beyond ego and intellect which can commune with ‘what is’, and recognize its properties. Reality is constant.

Within the accepted comparative framework there is the view of principles as having different divisive categories e.g., as above, Intelligence and Stupidity, and classify them within ‘thought’ structure as dichotomies and give credence to them as being an antagonistic reality.

The consequence of that, is, that one is always a remove from recognizing the structural properties of immediate existence.

Any construct of knowledge necessary to evaluate ’what is’ will address the properties (principles) that are the constituent constant markers available in that which is the microcosm and the macrocosm. That identity (the Absolute) is found in any sphere of Reality.Everything is - and everything that is, must be experienced for what it is, and not for what anyone denies it to be.

There is no mythical human construction that can deny ’what is”.

Everything is - without dichotomies. To repeat, we do not have the ability to create ‘nothingness’ - ‘that which is’ has no imaginary comparative human construct. To attempt to deal with such constructs, and give credence to them is always the denial of ‘what is’, and adherence to ‘thought’ processes whose only purpose is to cement that activity. Indeed realising that the concepts of dichotomies are human mythical constructs, denying true perspective, is the beginning of insight.

The dissipation of such processes through addressing the principles of Reality allows us the potential to experience directly ‘what is’, in simple terms -the truth!

Intelligence is a ‘necessary factor’. Addressing stupidity is a denial of reality at whatever level we find it.

Intelligence and Stupidity are not antagonistic, they are one and the same principle with measurable degrees of existence. Only from a comparative framework standpoint is credence given to any mythical form.

The above observation is not negating the process, it is questioning the markers which evolve into imaginary separation (trapped in a comparative framework mythology). That particular process can and does create a false mythical reality that appears divisive. We cannot exist within a divisive reality! Reality must be complete for us to recognize its existence.

Where there are no dichotomies within the premise that ‘everything is’, there exists no antagonistic position. The distinction between human constructs of positive and negative are matters of mythical perspective wherein no experience of the Absolute is available. It is because the human ’mind’ per se places its own construction on its immediate experience, and must have its particular interpretation based on what it considers ’knowledge’. There is a difference between ’mechanical knowledge’, and ’pure knowledge’.

From the mechanical knowledge standpoint which can only deal ‘in indirect conscious interpretation’, it is quite correct to say that that form of knowledge is incomplete, and it always will be.

Pure knowledge experienced via our brain knows no separation, nor antagonism, and is responsible for our ability to recognize the actions of others who may pry open wooden crates with a lever, or drive off uniformly at traffic lights. Within that cohesive activity it precludes ’a matter of opinion’ and by themselves can become subjects of a pure knowledge experience. To repeat, it is a form of ’communion’ with ’what is’, and available to all.

Where drivers at traffic lights universally conform to their particular road code, and where universally there is a language which identifies their activity as Mutual Agreement, or any other logical definition, we can concur with the common-sense conclusion that we have universally established that within language and common activity, there is indeed a truth formed.

The coalescence between universal language and universal activity are the logical constructs that create civilizations. There is a vast social network of common activity that solidifies the logic into an honest and persuasive conclusion that confirms innate common principles –knowledge.

= Stepping stones 5. =


The Art of making sense of everything.


How to understand principles.

# Principle. A fundamental truth or proposition that serves as the foundation for a system of belief or behaviour or for a chain of reasoning.
# All principles are interdependent, interconnected, and infinite.
# Each one is dependent on the other two.

Examples of a principles template and how to define them without dichotomies.


Communication. Truth. Standard. Proof. Express. Contribute. Mutual. Direction. Advance. Comfort. Organize. Certain. Immediate. Interest. 

Improve. Present. Constructive. Gain. Trust. Progress. Source. Knowledge.

Basic. Original Reality. Awareness.Freedom. Purpose. Connect. Understand.

Support. Peace. Cause. Unity. Ability. Rights. Honest. Discover. Positive. Energy. Balance. Good. Courage. Willing.  Control. Use. Association.  Observe.

Reason. Easy. Wealth. Simple. Law. Increase. Order. Flow.Co-operation. Exact.

Quality. Accuracy. Strength. Responsible. Operating. Creative. Measure. Recognition. Accept. Constant. Obligation. Include. Dependence. Relationship. Value. Success. Principle. Equality. Stable. Share. Love. 

Sustenance. Action. Identity. Intelligence. Education. Secure. Facts. Agreement. Information. For. Rules.Clear. Yield.


Example:


Success = Securing facts 

               = Responsible co-operation

              = Constructive knowledge  

So success by definition is : Securing facts through constructive knowledge and cooperating  responsibly.

All definitions of success from your template are infinite. You will find your own suitable definition.            

==== There are no dichotomies! ====


Any principle is correctly defined by any two other principles. You create a new language of Absolutes. Using conjunctions you can write your own book.


The man whose book is filled with quotations has been said to creep along the shore of authors as if he were afraid to trust himself to the free compass of reasoning. I would rather defend such authors by a different allusion and ask whether honey is the worse for being gathered from many flowers. Anonymous, quoted in Tryon Edwards (1853) The World’s Laconics: Or, The Best Thoughts of the Best Authors. p. 232

Amen to that!


“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman”

Simone de Beauvoir.

“Time does not change us. It just unfolds us”

Max Frisch.

We experience ourselves our thoughts and feelings as something separate from the rest. A kind of optical delusion of consciousness. This delusion is a kind of prison for us, restricting us to our personal desires and to affection for a few persons nearest to us.

Albert Einstein, in One Home, One Family, One Future.


= Who we are. =
  It is notable that within the structure of Cartesian dualism, Descartes' personal address to innate knowledge he attributed to ‘thought’ which he identified as being distinct from his body. How different Western philosophy may have been if his attribution had been toward his brain and the existence and evidence of other physical entities that functioned every bit as efficiently as he did. The premise that Descartes operated from ‘never to accept anything as true’, was simply a wrong ended approach which brought him into conflict with his passing acceptance of innate knowledge, that the idea of God was innate to his being. To view the proposition that ‘everything is true’ allows reason to seek and identify that measure of truth. No quest can be productively based on cynicism or denial, nor adherence to belief systems that separate experience, knowledge, and Reality. We have the obligation to question whatever reality has placed before us , but if we constantly deny its existence and attempt to ‘disappear’ it from our experience, then we are in danger of never experiencing that reality for what it is..

  For anyone to say that ‘everything is’ is a simple linguistic absolute that no amount of ‘more reasonable’ requests (above) can deny. Those requests only appear to be governed by the difficulties of ‘mental complexities’, and embedded ideologies. To accept that ‘everything is’ as an absolute, is a realistic basis to establish any reality, and comprises the basis for reason to be activated. If there is ‘nothing’, nothing can be achieved. Within that which is Absolute there are no dichotomies. Therefore there are no antagonistic positions available. Everything that is, is a measure of the Absolute.  We are always in the present, everyone and everything. Instant elementary ‘knowledge’ which we all share, and must admit to. In being alive, we do not have the ability to not be here, and we do not have the ability to not know!

To have a problem in addressing what Truth and Knowledge are, to the point of denying their existence, then that problem exists well below the scale of Reality. To repeat knowledge is not the proprietary right of any individual, it is enshrined in the principle of agreement that we mutually exercise to establish its own reality.

The reality of experience is not, nor ever will be, a personal possession that we can have and hold. Its reality becomes more alive when we see the same activity being practised by others. Then we know we are sharing that reality, and that experience. We  cannot &quot;have&quot; the principles that exist, but when we undrestand them then we are obliged to use them with integrity. That form of integrity in any language, is an added foundation stone to any belief system

Mechanistic ‘I’ has no concept or understanding of ‘pure knowledge’. Only when we break free of the myth that some clarity becomes apparent, and we have the opportunity to engage with what is real.


Philosophy it appears to me is constrained by individual ‘thought’ processes, which (without experience) cannot escape from that individuality. Those ‘thought’ processes conjure up a human history of inflexible, and impossible propositions which only serve to protect that individuality.

Descartes ‘cogito ergo sum’ has compounded the difficulties by strengthening the incorrect premise of a false individuality.

‘I’ is a phantom consciousness much like a phantom pain experienced after a limb is amputated. The brain registers the pain signifying that something should be there. Likewise our brain has that same relationship with Nature and Reality. It is analogous to our brain dealing with a ‘phantom reality’ knowing that something is missing but is continuing to evolve to establish the whole. There exists a ‘phantom chasm’ between our brain and Reality and an understanding of its properties. We are robbed of real meaning.

Evidence, recognition, and the truth are the principles it uses to reform.

Within their structure is the meaning of reforms.

Nature does not impose any morality on us, the principles implied in morality are there for us to understand and use. Our brain has the capacity, once reality is correctly examined, to recognize ‘that which is’.

Once realised it becomes embedded.

That ‘phantom consciousness’ is an experience removed from its proper environment. It takes its proper place when we experience reality for ‘what it is’, which provides the totality of meaning.

True experience allows us entry to the quality of knowledge that is a continuous reality.

So long as anyone believes that human experience is based solely on indirect conscious interpretation (mechanical disposition), any ‘knowledge’ derived from that experience will be incomplete.


That form of philosophical negative conclusion can come down to not believing that Reality exists (a chair is not a chair, is not a chair etc,), or that our experience of ourselves and others is real, and discount any other form of knowledge that threatens that belief.

There is an intellectual dishonesty in denying the existence of principles.

Hostility towards the truth leads inevitably to negativity. Being here demands, not denial, but the right to be recognized.


We are the recipients of a ubiquitous communication system – making known. We can only understand that which we know. We make known all the time.

Knowledge of Reality – Truth – the Absolute is a collective inclusive experience of the principles we share, and never the property of any individual. To ‘know’ ‘who we are’ is an inclusive experience of the principles involved. Never ‘cogito ergo sum’.  

Philosophers in investigating the nature of knowledge and the Universe, firmly established for themselves that the source of reason and logic was located in a mythical concept ‘the mind’. From the wrong basis evolved elaborate and metaphysical constructions which removed the investigations further, and further, from the truth.

To comprehend the material world, and give it credibility, the recognition of implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct a language that provides that form of recognition.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects is misguided by the injection of a mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

That erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound Reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion, is compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every human view available.

We cannot manufacture knowledge that leads to a mechanistic understanding of ‘what is’ , nor the principles which are its properties – however much dogma is practised. We can only aspire to relate to ‘necessary factors’ that are the implicit fundamentals of existence.

For me to use a lever to open a crate is a form of communion with Archimedes through the principle he enunciated. It is now not ‘necessary’ for me to go through the same experience as Archimedes to establish that ‘necessary factor’ or ‘principle’. It is now common-place, and common-sense to utilise the principle.

The extract below provides some explanation of the brain processes in action Universally, and coincides with any reasoning on the observance of the leverage principle, and the actions of motorists conforming to the Road Code wherever traffic lights exist.


''The right-to-left shift of mental control looked increasingly like a universal phenomenon, capturing the essence of every learning process on every time scale, from hours to years. An individual faced with a truly novel situation or problem tackles it mostly with the right hemisphere. But once the situation becomes familiar and is mastered, the dominant role of the left hemisphere becomes evident. It looked like the empowering patterns capturing the essence of the situations (or rather the whole class of similar situations) were, once formed, stored in the left hemisphere. (The Wisdom Paradox. Professor Elkhonon Goldberg. P202)&lt;ref&gt;{{Cite journal|last=Vandermeulen|first=Jo|date=2008-08|title=Verstand komt met de jaren|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf03077135|journal=Neuropraxis|volume=12|issue=4|pages=137–139|doi=10.1007/bf03077135|issn=1387-5817}}&lt;/ref&gt;''


= Limitations. =


However limited our view of connectedness is, or however tenuous the reality our experience is, ‘everything is’, and everything is connected. Innate knowledge and the fundamental nature of Man is the prior source of knowledge that seeks and identifies that connectedness.

Attempting to address what we don’t know is that mythical infinite regress toward that parallel mythical ‘nothingness’.

To always address what we know establishes Reality. To establish knowledge of principles, start from ‘we are here’. The natural principles within the diversity of human culture and activity when recognized as mutual ‘necessary factors’ will have the effect of enhancing and directing vital energy toward the very process of  the communion we seek, and the gradual penetration of a reality that always exists.

Knowledge of Reality is not ‘different’ in other locales. The fundamental principles are the same.

Addressing ‘what is’ instead of denying ‘what is’ is the basic construction of real knowledge. 

Within the structure of the Absolute we are all the same with a magnificent differential in our expression of the principles of necessity. That expression is our ongoing effort toward its own experience which gives it life and meaning.

That experience in turn exposes us to an immediate Reality that is in communion with the fundamental structure of our being.

All that we can contribute toward that is 50%, the other half is in our momentary relationship with Reality – then we know! That form of knowledge is always available through that form of experience, and it always comes in the form of confirmation which reforms.

Until that experience our prior condition appears mechanistic, without direction, or understanding.

Reality, life, is not mechanistic. We are the recipients of innate principles with the constant potential to experience those principles in action (Archimedes et al).

Dogmas, ideologies, are the restrictive practices used to blur the recognition of principles operating to a level that understanding of that common and constant activity is virtually denied. Our natural capital (principles) is degraded to the point that their factual evidence is reduced even to the point that they are categorised as a ‘perceptual illusion”.

We can trust facts 2+2=4. Simplicity has its own majesty.

Anything circumscribed by reason requires control of our emotions.

To comprehend the material world, bring it alive, and give it credibility, the recognition of its implicit principles is paramount. We need to construct the language that provides evidence of that Reality.

Any philosophical theory of ‘mind’ that will deny the evident structure of solid objects, is misinformed by the injection of that mythical entity (mind) that determines that seeing solid objects is a ‘perceptual illusion’. That form of determination is singularly narcissistic, empowered by the self-induced threat that venturing into a ‘materialistic’ world is a loss of that illusory self, and all the belief systems it has constructed to protect it.

The erroneous established view that not addressing ‘materialism’ as a profound reality, and as only a ‘perceptual illusion’, is paradoxically compounded by the belief that that form of illusion is implicit in every other human view available, thus it then makes its own sense, form and justification to the illusion! The evident question we must ask, ‘how does a ‘mind’ conclude that ‘immaterialism’ exists universally? Surely it is a simple but massive contradiction in terms. If there is nothing there but ‘perceptual illusion’, how can you attribute it to other ‘minds’.

The oxymoronic effect of narcissism is that it is the very denial of ‘who we are’. Man is not composed of an overwhelming self-love. That mythical embedded belief cannot consider the possibility of underlying principles that are the real life force of Man in his relationship with Reality.

The truth of that, is that humankind (in spite of itself), evolves towards its own Reality.

The only human values that exist, lie in Man’s recognition of the principles involved that provide human direction.

Our ‘material brain’ is a product of Nature's evolutionary process, and has innate within it the same principles that exist in all matter.

That ‘which is’, is the truth, and our brain evolves to process that at every level, and we constantly manifest that in every action we take – whether we like it or not.

The fundamental similarities between human beings is that we are not only evidently human, but that we also function and construct societies that we recognize as beneficial to our immediate well-being. All social function is determined by our brain capacity and its ability to postulate the relationship it has with Universal principles.


= Illusion. =


Considering that we can contradict things is an illusion. We can never contradict the truth.

We do not have the ability to create proprietary constructs of reality. That ‘which is’, can only make its basic properties transparent to us through direct experience. Imaginary concepts must in the end conform to a measurable construct that we can identify.

Within the structure of any philosophical theory of ‘knowledge’ it must contain the basic elements of truth at all times, or there is nothing!!

To say that ‘everything is’ is motivated by pure reason experience as an objective, and subjective reality and as an axiomatic grammatical premise that no amount of mental acrobatics can deny. We can only deal with ‘something’, whatever it may be. There is no metaphysical construct that can provide evidence that ‘nothing’ exists, outside a mythical mind.

Explaining experience beyond ‘thought’ processes requires a definitive language that deals with the reality itself.

We all Know. It is innate. The ‘difference’ between us is only the measure of the knowledge that is made manifest, and that knowledge continually proliferates.

The ‘individual perspective’, and the illusory ‘I’ which dominates, is the barrier to any relation to ‘what is’, and the malady of never experiencing the truth directly!   

Truth, knowledge, agreement are the abundant and embedded Absolutes that form the structure of human evolution. That we constantly utilise and improve on their use is evidence of their reality, and the material transparency within every social structure. The survival and proliferation of such realities should be the evidence to establish that ‘that which is’ is Absolute. 

When we focus our ‘perspective’, opinion, or a hypothetical consideration of a space, time, or identity to question a Universally accepted fact, it is hardly a categorical argument to dismiss that which is true as nonsensical. Any denial that 2+2=4 is a fundamental truth hardly takes into account that the reality of such basics are vital to the success of higher mathematics.

Unless the basics are continually correct, and evidently so, then no correct solutions could evolve. We know that within any basic structural ‘use’ that the calculation is correct. We commonly accept its correctness as an embedded reality. 

All forms of lower or higher mathematics would have the axiomatic principle of ‘correctness’ as their basis to extend from. Also, they would have as an axiom that the reverse is true. The 2+2=4 is, in its reality, the epitome of balance and construction. The 2+2 reality forms its correct conclusion when the principles of mathematics are propounded and they conform to transparent truth and arrive at 4. Only when it ‘adds up’, does it become a truth that we all recognize. Our greatest ignorance is taking for granted the proliferation of such truths through an ideological blinkered perspective. Because truth takes a commonplace form it is no less fundamental. Unless there is correct knowledge as to the existence of fundamental truth, that ‘which is’, goes unrecognised. That form of truth must be applicable to all. Truth exists in everything – it is an evidential reality. Searching for an esoteric truth is chasing shadows. Every truth is a ‘necessary factor’, and fundamental to our existence.

Because of the imposed limited perspectives (via education, ideology, beliefs) that which is evidently true, and transparent, is delegated to a position of simple practicality with conditions placed on it which further deletes its substance, and we have the awful predilection of conforming to the attempted destruction of that which is true. Do we have a problem with seeing something, which is correct, as also being true?

All truths are fundamental. They are not subject to attempted denial because of any diminished realisation at any point in time. Where there is reasonable evidence of balance, equity, and agreement we can conclude that a truth exists. Once innate information of that truth becomes transparent, it becomes an embedded useful human utility that must have some measure of fundamental truth as their starting point.

From any common-sense, or ‘more reasonable’ position, it would be more productive to view reality as possessing at every level the same innate values or principles consistent with our ability to measure, or recognize them. To view reality as having ‘different’, or antagonistic properties, is simply a misguided view of ‘what is’.  That form of perspective is counter productive when it attempts to establish mythical dichotomies as realities in their own right.

When the reality of principles are made transparent, we can then ‘more reasonably’ make use of them to further their basic existence. Here we use reason to exemplify their necessary function, and once established it becomes (if necessary), ‘more reasonable’ to locate them in all things.

The dematerialization of any object through the practice of ‘perceptual illusion’ is an attempt to deny the reality that exists. Where perceptual illusions are concerned, innate direct communion with that which is, suspends the effect of such illusions. All the properties in a chair are recognized as the reality that exists. That is materialism.

A chair does have the principles of form, design, structure, colour, substance etc.  However it is analysed – it is a quantifiable reality.  


= Human representation.
When we understand the validity and existence of principles in all things, it is easy to understand that ideological dogmas are never the foundation for real knowledge, or that direct experience of ‘what is’. Our real perspective is not some individualistic experience that confines us, it is that expanse in which we exist that offers us the view of that expanse. Everyone has the potential to go beyond their ‘apparent’ human perspective limitations. Shifting our sense of perception toward that which is basic, paradoxically extends the experience of that which is true.

Let general knowledge be directed toward the performance that identifies the measure of principles that are enacted. Therein lies the production of knowledge that offers a sustainable growth of that vital universal aspect of knowledge, where, reason and truth, can prevail. Any correct definition is language itself, opening the door to that reality experience which is critical.

Only when we know and experience that the same reality (with all its principles intact) exists for all of us can we then recognize the mythical distinctions that are taken as being real.

The majestic experience of that reality goes well beyond historical beliefs.

Exploring simple ‘necessities’ is not based on any sacred text, but the privilege of recognizing a sensible evolutionary path through life. Whatever may be in the future, is implicit in the material world now, and it has always been so.</text>
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Hi there! 

&lt;strong&gt;If you reached this page after clicking the join button, you can head back to the [[Eventmath/Participants|Participants page]] to see the result.&lt;/strong&gt; If you just happened across this page and are looking to browse the list of participants, you'll want to head over to the Participants page as well. The current page only exists for technical reasons.

==How to edit an entry==
To edit your entry in the participants list, just edit it directly on this page, by clicking the ''Edit source'' tab near the top of the page. The entry on the Participants page will be updated automatically.

==How to add an entry==
Use the Join button on the Participants page.

==What's the purpose of this page?==
The current page exists only for technical reasons...

Still reading? Okay, here's the technical stuff if you care to know. Entries to the participants list get added to the current page via the Join button of the Participants page, and then the current page is [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Transclusion transcluded] into the Participants page in the appropriate place. Why? Otherwise, the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:InputBox InputBox extension] that's used to implement the Join button will simply place each entry at the very bottom of the wikitext on the Participants page. When that happens, the entries are placed outside of the main container of the page, so that they appear outside of the Eventmath content.

==The list==

[[Category:Eventmath project pages]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;
===Greg Stanton (he/him) ===
* ''Twitter:'' [https://twitter.com/HigherMathNotes @HigherMathNotes]
* ''User:'' [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]]
* ''Bio:'' Hi there! I'm a professional tutor of high-school through graduate-level math. I was inspired by a [https://twitter.com/professorbrenda/status/1334257531271712768 conversation on Twitter] to propose Eventmath and am [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath#Grantees_and_project_leads one of two Wikimedia grantees] working to get this project off the ground. I’m excited to see what we can make together!

===Brendan W. Sullivan (he/him)===
* ''Twitter:'' [https://twitter.com/professorbrenda @professorbrenda] (no final N!)
* ''User:'' [[User:Professorbrendan|Professorbrendan]]
* ''Bio:'' I am also [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath#Grantees_and_project_leads one of two Wikimedia grantees] working on this project. I've been teaching undergraduate mathematics for 7+ years (12+ including graduate school) and have experience using current events articles in the classroom to teach quantitative reasoning and problem-solving skills. I hope this project will make it easier for teachers and students to explore how mathematical thinking is useful in our modern world.

===Hannah Kang===
* ''User:'' [[User:Wikiversity-Yeonjik|Wikiversity-Yeonjik]]
* ''Bio:'' I am a high school math teacher in NYC!</text>
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Hi there! 

&lt;strong&gt;If you reached this page after clicking the join button, you can head back to the [[Eventmath/Participants|Participants page]] to see the result.&lt;/strong&gt; If you just happened across this page and are looking to browse the list of participants, you'll want to head over to the Participants page as well. The current page only exists for technical reasons.

==How to edit an entry==
To edit your entry in the participants list, just edit it directly on this page, by clicking the ''Edit source'' tab near the top of the page. The entry on the Participants page will be updated automatically.

==How to add an entry==
Use the Join button on the Participants page.

==What's the purpose of this page?==
The current page exists only for technical reasons...

Still reading? Okay, here's the technical stuff if you care to know. Entries to the participants list get added to the current page via the Join button of the Participants page, and then the current page is [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Transclusion transcluded] into the Participants page in the appropriate place. Why? Otherwise, the [https://www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:InputBox InputBox extension] that's used to implement the Join button will simply place each entry at the very bottom of the wikitext on the Participants page. When that happens, the entries are placed outside of the main container of the page, so that they appear outside of the Eventmath content.

==The list==

[[Category:Eventmath project pages]]
&lt;/noinclude&gt;

===Greg Stanton (he/him) ===
* ''Twitter:'' [https://twitter.com/HigherMathNotes @HigherMathNotes]
* ''User:'' [[User:Greg at Higher Math Help|Greg at Higher Math Help]]
* ''Bio:'' Hi there! I'm a professional tutor of high-school through graduate-level math. I was inspired by a [https://twitter.com/professorbrenda/status/1334257531271712768 conversation on Twitter] to propose Eventmath and am [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath#Grantees_and_project_leads one of two Wikimedia grantees] working to get this project off the ground. I’m excited to see what we can make together!

===Brendan W. Sullivan (he/him)===
* ''Twitter:'' [https://twitter.com/professorbrenda @professorbrenda] (no final N!)
* ''User:'' [[User:Professorbrendan|Professorbrendan]]
* ''Bio:'' I am also [https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Grants:Project/Eventmath#Grantees_and_project_leads one of two Wikimedia grantees] working on this project. I've been teaching undergraduate mathematics for 7+ years (12+ including graduate school) and have experience using current events articles in the classroom to teach quantitative reasoning and problem-solving skills. I hope this project will make it easier for teachers and students to explore how mathematical thinking is useful in our modern world.</text>
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      <text bytes="8651" xml:space="preserve"> {{title|Conspiracy theory motivation:&lt;br&gt;What motivates people to believe in conspiracy theories?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Conspiracy theory motivation|Conspiracy theory motivation]] (Book chapter, 2020)


Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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= &lt;big&gt;'''International T2D and HTN Research Group'''&lt;/big&gt; =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 11:00 Nuuk, Greenland, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''
= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminars =
The objective of this and the coming seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book. The recommendations are based on our actual knowledge supplied with the ongoing T2D and HTN Research and Education plan 2022-2030. We expect the guidelines to be revised according to the new learnings from the studies over the years. 

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====
'''Directors of the meeting:'''

= '''Program - draft''' =
xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


title=xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Clinics}}
# Spanish logistic  Luisa Canals 
# Danish logistics  Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Educations needs for medical doctors and seafarers
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter LC
# presenter OJ
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter</text>
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= &lt;big&gt;'''International T2D and HTN Research Group'''&lt;/big&gt; =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 11:00 Nuuk, Greenland, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''
= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminars =
The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

The recommendations are based on our actual knowledge supplied with the ongoing T2D and HTN Research and Education plan 2022-2030. We expect the guidelines to be revised according to the new learnings from the studies over the years. 

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====
'''Directors of the meeting:'''

= '''Program - draft''' =
xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


&lt;nowiki&gt;xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Clinics}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
# Spanish logistic in the maritime medical clinics:  Luisa Canals
# Danish logistics  Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Educations needs for medical doctors and seafarers
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter LC
# presenter OJ
# presenter Alf Magne

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter</text>
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminars =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

= '''Program - draft''' =

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: proposals presenter: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminars =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: proposals presenter: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
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# presenter
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminar =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: proposals presenter: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter</text>
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        <id>1417466</id>
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminar =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter</text>
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminar =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glucometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

==References==</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412878</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-09T22:49:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saltrabook</username>
        <id>1417466</id>
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      <comment>/* International T2D and HTN Research Group */</comment>
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
'''8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila'''

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminar =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Continued use of urine stix why?

# Erik Haarløv 
# Luisa Canals

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glycometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

==References==</text>
      <sha1>sxgz0lprh0pzou06ahqamo4t5ayh3tz</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412879</id>
      <parentid>2412878</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T22:50:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Saltrabook</username>
        <id>1417466</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022 */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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='''International T2D and HTN Research Group''' =
== '''Zoom Seminar - day?, Nov , 2022''' ==
8:00 in Panama, 14:00 in Spain, France and Denmark, 16:00 in Russia, and 21:00 in Manila

= Revision of the ILO guidelines for medical examinations for seafarers - seminar =

The objective of the seminars is to discuss and write out the content of the new international guidelines for the medical examinations of seafarers, including the needed revisions for the ships medical chest requirements and the medical book.  

[[File:Blausen 0301 Diabetes GlucoseMonitoring.png|250px|right|Blausen_0301_Diabetes_GlucoseMonitoring]]
====[[/Abstracts of the presentations/]] -&gt;open ====
====[[/Draft of the ILO revision of guidelines for medical examinations/]] -&gt;open ====

'''Directors of the meeting:'''

==Program - draft==

xx:xx - xx:xx: Revision of the International ILO Guide medical examinations for seafarers}}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Pilot study of screening for T2D and HTN at the medical examinations }}
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter


xx:xx - xx:xx: Continued use of urine stix why?

# Erik Haarløv 
# Luisa Canals

xx:xx - xx:xx: Accurate T2D Measurement methods
# A1c lab
# FG lab
# Glycometer Erik Haarløv
# DIABRISK

Which test for T2DM diagnostics can we recommend for the fit-for-duty examinations in the ILO Guidelines? ADA recommend either A1C, fasting blood glucose, or glucose load for T2DM diagnosis&lt;ref&gt;https://www.diabetes.org/diabetes/a1c/diagnosis&lt;/ref&gt; However, there are significant price differences and the maritime clinics may be unable to pay and access to clinical laboratories is also needed. 
For discussion: we recommend the use of a Glucometer (&lt; 1 usd/test) &lt;ref&gt;https://www.verywellhealth.com/best-glucometers-4686590&lt;/ref&gt;and the DIABSCORE &lt;ref&gt;Rodríguez-Pérez, María Cristo, Domingo Orozco-Beltrán, Vicente Gil-Guillén, Santiago Domínguez-Coello, Delia Almeida-González, Buenaventura Brito-Díaz, Itahisa Marcelino-Rodríguez, et al. “Clinical Applicability and Cost-Effectiveness of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes in Primary Care.” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 130 (August 2017): 15–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2017.05.009&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Gannar, Fadoua, María Del Cristo Rodriguez-Pérez, Santiago Domínguez Coello, Khedija Haouet, Buenaventura Brito Díaz, and Antonio Cabrera de León. “Validation of DIABSCORE in Screening for Type 2 Diabetes and Prediabetes in Tunisian Population.” PloS One 13, no. 8 (2018): e0200718. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0200718&lt;/ref&gt;in the fit-for-duty studies where HbA1c is not possible or not wanted? . 


xx:xx - xx:xx: Logistic in the Maritime Medical Clinics

# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Luisa Canals
# Logistic in the Spanish maritime medical clinics: Erik Haarløv


x:xx - xx:xx: Education needs for the seafarers
# Experiences from the Spanish system: Luisa Canals
# Experiences from the Danish system: Erik Haarløv 
# Expert group: Alf Magne Horneland

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of medical doctors proposals for content
Maritime medical doctors a brush up of basic epidemiology, use of protocol for collaboration among other subjects

# presenter Luisa Canals
# presenter Olaf Jensen
# presenter Alf Magne Horneland 

xx:xx - xx:xx: Education of seafarers proposals for content
# presenter
# presenter
# presenter

==References==</text>
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    <title>User:U3189370</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:59:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2944392</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="320" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Psychology undergrad and counselling major at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="337" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[w:Psychology|Psychology]] undergrad and counselling major at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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    <revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3189370</username>
        <id>2944392</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="338" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[w:Psychology|Psychology]] undergrad and counselling major at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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    <title>User:U3216256</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
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      <comment>/* The book chapter I am working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="1689" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello everyone, 

My name is Ebony and I am a second year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the ''University of Canberra''. I am excited to contribute to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] Book. As a first-generation University student, I am passionate about education and bringing awareness to issues that first-generation students face. 

== Hobbies ==
University related:

* [https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/CLSS CLSS Treasurer]
* UCPS President (2021)

Other hobbies:

* Knitting/Crocheting
* Baking 
* Reading - Mostly fiction, such as novels by Terry Pratchett, Neil Gaiman, and A. A. Milne ([https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1333202.The_Red_House_Mystery The Red House Mystery]).

== The book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment: What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;diff=2411657&amp;oldid=2411646 13:29, 4 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Work and Flow chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation+and+emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTime+Management&amp;date-range-to=&amp;tagfilter=&amp;action=history 13:39, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time Management chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Time_and_motivation&amp;action=history 13:44, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time and Motivation chapter]</text>
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      <comment>/* Social contributions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2161" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello everyone, 

My name is Ebony and I am a second year Bachelor of Science in Psychology student at the ''University of Canberra''. I am excited to contribute to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] Book. As a first-generation University student, I am passionate about education and bringing awareness to issues that first-generation students face. 

== Hobbies ==
University related:

* [https://clubs.canberra.edu.au/Clubs/CLSS CLSS Treasurer]
* UCPS President (2021)

Other hobbies:

* Knitting/Crocheting
* Baking 
* Reading - Mostly fiction, such as novels by Terry Pratchett, Neil Gaiman, and A. A. Milne ([https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/1333202.The_Red_House_Mystery The Red House Mystery]).

== The book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Disappointment|Disappointment: What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?]]

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Work_and_flow&amp;diff=2411657&amp;oldid=2411646 13:29, 4 August 2022: Suggested multiple resources that could be used for the Work and Flow chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation+and+emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FTime+Management&amp;date-range-to=&amp;tagfilter=&amp;action=history 13:39, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time Management chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Time_and_motivation&amp;action=history 13:44, 4 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Time and Motivation chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Wave_metaphor_for_emotion&amp;oldid=2412979 13:58, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Wave metaphor for emotion chapter]
# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Suffering_as_emotion&amp;oldid=2412994 14:02, 10 August 2022: Added the Motivation and Emotion quick start template to the Suffering as emotion chapter]
#</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="266" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Psychology undergrad.

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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        <id>2946502</id>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="326" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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        <id>2946502</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="459" xml:space="preserve">== Useful links / things to know whilst I'm creating my book chapter ==
Get images via https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Main_Page

== About me ==
Psychology undergrad at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Self-efficacy and achievement|Self-efficacy and Academic Achievement]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==

#</text>
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  <page>
    <title>C language in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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      <comment>/* Handling Series of Data */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9802" xml:space="preserve">=== Introduction ===
* Overview ([[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.B.20170901.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro1.Overview.1.C.20170904.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Number System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.A.20171023.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro2.Number.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Memory System ([[Media:C01.Intro2.Memory.1.A.20170907.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.B.20170909.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C01.Intro3.Memory.1.C.20170914.pdf |C.pdf]])

=== Handling Repetition ===
* Control ([[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat1.Control.1.C.20170926.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Loop ([[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.A.20170925.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C02.Repeat2.Loop.1.B.20170918.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling a Big Work ===
* Function Overview ([[Media:C03.Func1.Overview.1.A.20171030.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func1.Oerview.1.B.20161022.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Variables ([[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.A.20161222.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func2.Variable.1.B.20161222.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Pointers ([[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.A.20161122.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func3.Pointer.1.B.20161122.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Functions &amp; Recursions ([[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C03.Func4.Recursion.1.B.20161214.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Series of Data ===

==== Background ==== 
* Background ([[Media:C04.Series0.Background.1.A.20180727.pdf |A.pdf]])
 
==== Basics ====
* Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.A.20220809.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series1.Array.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.A.20180726.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Pointer.1.B.20161115.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.A.20220809.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.A.20220418.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series4.MultiDim.1.B.11.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series4.ArrayAccess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series3.ArrayPointer.1.B.20181203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Structures ([[Media:C04.Series3.Structure.1.A.20171204.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series2.Structure.1.B.20161130.pdf |B.pdf]])

==== Applications ==== 
* Applications of Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series1App.Array.1.A.20220809.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series7.AppPoint.1.A.20200424.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Pointers ([[Media:C04.Series3App.ArrayPointer.1.A.2022024.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Multi-dimensional Arrays ([[Media:C04.Series4App.MultiDim.1.A.20210719.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Array Access Methods ([[Media:C04.Series9.AppArrAcess.1.A.20190511.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Applications of Structures ([[Media:C04.Series6.AppStruct.1.A.20190423.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Examples ==== 
* Spreadsheet Example Programs
:: Example 1 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.1.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 2 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.2.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Example 3 ([[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.A.20171213.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C04.Series7.Example.3.C.20171213.pdf |C.pdf]])
:: Bubble Sort ([[Media:C04.Series7.BubbleSort.1.A.20171211.pdf |A.pdf]])

=== Handling Various Kinds of Data ===
* Types ([[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data1.Type.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Typecasts ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20180217.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.B.20161216.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Operators ([[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.A.20161219.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data3.Operators.1.B.20161216.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Files ([[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.A.20161124.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:C05.Data4.File.1.B.20161212.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Handling Low Level Operations ===
* Bitwise Operations ([[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitOp.1.B.20161203.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Bit Field ([[Media:BitField.1.A.20161214.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:BitField.1.B.20161202.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Union ([[Media:Union.1.A.20161221.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Union.1.B.20161111.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Accessing IO Registers ([[Media:IO.1.A.20141215.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:IO.1.B.20161217.pdf |B.pdf]])

=== Declarations ===
* Type Specifiers and Qualifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec1.Type.1.A.20171004.pdf |pdf]])
* Storage Class Specifiers ([[Media:C07.Spec2.Storage.1.A.20171009.pdf |pdf]])
* Scope 


=== Class Notes ===

* TOC ([[Media:TOC.20171007.pdf |TOC.pdf]])
* Day01 ([[Media:Day01.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day01.C.20171211.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (1) Standard Library
* Day02 ([[Media:Day02.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.B.20171209.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day02.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (2) Basic Elements
* Day03 ([[Media:Day03.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.B.20170908.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day03.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Introduction (3) Numbers
* Day04 ([[Media:Day04.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day04.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (1) Flowcharts
* Day05 ([[Media:Day05.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.B.20170915.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day05.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structured Programming (2) Conditions and Loops
* Day06 ([[Media:Day06.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.B.20170923.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day06.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Program Control
* Day07 ([[Media:Day07.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.B.20170926.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day07.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (1) Definitions
* Day08 ([[Media:Day08.A.20171028.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.B.20171016.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day08.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (2) Storage Class and Scope
* Day09 ([[Media:Day09.A.20171007.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day09.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Function (3) Recursion
* Day10 ([[Media:Day10.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day10.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (1) Definitions
* Day11 ([[Media:Day11.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.B.20171017.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day11.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Arrays (2) Applications
* Day12 ([[Media:Day12.A.20171024.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.B.20171020.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day12.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (1) Definitions
* Day13 ([[Media:Day13.A.20171025.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.B.20171024.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day13.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Pointers (2) Applications
* Day14 ([[Media:Day14.A.20171226.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.B.20171101.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day14.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (1) 
* Day15 ([[Media:Day15.A.20171209.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.B.20171124.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day15.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C String (2)
* Day16 ([[Media:Day16.A.20171208.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.B.20171114.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day16.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... C Formatted IO
* Day17 ([[Media:Day17.A.20171031.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.B.20171111.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day17.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (1) Definitions
* Day18 ([[Media:Day18.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.B.20171128.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day18.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Structure (2) Applications
* Day19 ([[Media:Day19.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.B.20171121.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day19.C.20171209.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Union, Bitwise Operators, Enum
* Day20 ([[Media:Day20.A.20171205.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.B.20171201.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day20.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Linked List 
* Day21 ([[Media:Day21.A.20171206.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.B.20171208.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day21.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... File Processing
* Day22 ([[Media:Day22.A.20171212.pdf |A.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.B.20171213.pdf |B.pdf]], [[Media:Day22.C.20171212.pdf |C.pdf]]) ...... Preprocessing


&lt;!----------------------------------------------------------------------&gt;
&lt;/br&gt;
See also https://cprogramex.wordpress.com/

== '''Old Materials '''==

until 201201
* Intro.Overview.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Overview.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Memory.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Memory.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Intro.Number.1.A ([[Media:C.Intro.Number.1.A.20120107.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Control.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Control.1.A.20120109.pdf |pdf]])
* Repeat.Loop.1.A ([[Media:C.Repeat.Loop.1.A.20120113.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Function.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Function.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Work.Scope.1.A ([[Media:C.Work.Scope.1.A.20120117.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Array.1.A ([[Media:Series.Array.1.A.20110718.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Series.Pointer.1.A.20110719.pdf |pdf]])
* Series.Structure.1.A ([[Media:Series.Structure.1.A.20110805.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Type.1.A ([[Media:C05.Data2.TypeCast.1.A.20130813.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.TypeCast.1.A ([[Media:Data.TypeCast.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Data.Operators.1.A ([[Media:Data.Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
 
&lt;br&gt;

until 201107
* Intro.1.A ([[Media:Intro.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Control.1.A ([[Media:Control.1.A.20110706.pdf |pdf]])
* Iteration.1.A ([[Media:Iteration.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Function.1.A ([[Media:Function.1.A.20110705.pdf |pdf]])
* Variable.1.A ([[Media:Variable.1.A.20110708.pdf |pdf]])
* Operators.1.A ([[Media:Operators.1.A.20110712.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.1.A ([[Media:Pointer.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Pointer.2.A ([[Media:Pointer.2.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Array.1.A ([[Media:Array.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Type.1.A ([[Media:Type.1.A.pdf |pdf]])
* Structure.1.A ([[Media:Structure.1.A.pdf |pdf]])


go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]

&lt;/br&gt;</text>
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    <title>Workings of ELF files in plain view</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285385</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413314</id>
      <parentid>2412422</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Object Files */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2152" xml:space="preserve">=== Executable and Linkable Format ===

==== Object Files ====
* Introduction
* ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]])
* Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]])
* String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]])
* Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220808.pdf |pdf]])
* Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]])
* Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ====
* Introduction 
* Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
* Program Loading
* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]])

==== C Library ====
* C Library

=== ELF Study === 

==== ELF Relocations ====
* Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]])

* PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]])
* Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]])

==== Relocation Examples ==== 
* Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]])
* Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]])
* Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]])
* Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]])
* Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]])
* Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]])
* Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]])
* Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]</text>
      <sha1>1c34or0tsft63trcrvjj6gip1olll9r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413317</id>
      <parentid>2413314</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T09:49:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Object Files */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2152" xml:space="preserve">=== Executable and Linkable Format ===

==== Object Files ====
* Introduction
* ELF Header ([[Media:ELF1.1B.Header.20220211.pdf |pdf]])
* Group section ([[Media:ELF1.1C.Group.20220426.pdf |pdf]])
* String table section ([[Media:ELF1.1D.StringTbl.20220427.pdf |pdf]])
* Weak and common symbols ([[Media:ELF1.1E.WeakComm.20220809.pdf |pdf]])
* Symbol table section ([[Media:ELF1.1F.SymbolTbl.20220722.pdf |pdf]])
* Special Sections ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Section.20200511.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Relocation ([[Media:ELF1.6A.Relocation.20190413.pdf |A.pdf]])

==== Program Loading and Dynamic Linking ====
* Introduction 
* Program Header ([[Media:ELF1.2B.ProgHeader.20220110.pdf |pdf]])
* Program Loading
* Dynamic Linking ([[Media:ELF2.4A.DynLinking.20191028.pdf |pdf]])

==== C Library ====
* C Library

=== ELF Study === 

==== ELF Relocations ====
* Linking ([[Media:ELF1.7A.Linking.20200731.pdf |A.pdf]])
* Loading ([[Media:ELF1.7B.Loading.20201103.pdf |B.pdf]])
* Executing ([[Media:ELF1.7C.Executing.20201221.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Virtual Memory ([[Media:ELF2.1D.VMemory.20211227.pdf |D.pdf]])

* PIC Method ([[Media:ELF1.7B.PICMethod.20200417.pdf |C.pdf]])
* Design Cycles ([[Media:ELF1.7C.DesignCycle.20200317.pdf |D.pdf]])
* Relocs in i386 ([[Media:ELF1.7D.Reloc386.20200413.pdf |E.pdf]])

==== Relocation Examples ==== 
* Relocs example introduction ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.1Intro.20200109.pdf |E1.pdf]])
* Relocs in an object for a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.2ObjectRel.20200319.pdf |E2.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in an object for an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.3ObjectMain.20200118.pdf |E3.pdf]]) 
* Relocs in a library ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.4Library.20200320.pdf |E4.pdf]])
* Relocs in an executable ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.5Executable.20200228.pdf |E5.pdf]])
* Result Summary ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.6Result.20200121.pdf |E6.pdf]])
* Symbol Table Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.7Symbol.20200120.pdf |E7.pdf]])
* Relocs Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.8Relocs.20200121.pdf |E8.pdf]])
* Assembly Listing ([[Media:ELF1.7Ex.9Assembly.20200128.pdf |E9.pdf]])
* Reloc Experiments ([[Media:ELF1.7F.Experiments.20191206.pdf |F.pdf]])

&lt;/br&gt;
go to [ [[C programming in plain view]] ]

[[Category:C programming]]</text>
      <sha1>81c8km8783hmljtngulrrdhzqn0w18y</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:JorjaFive</title>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:43:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JorjaFive</username>
        <id>2946613</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="734" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a Psychology student (undergrad) at University of Canberra.&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)

== '''New Edits''' ==
This is a new bit in  a new paragraph</text>
      <sha1>8lkw9wfidfxjjqyonxx17ujk9oqg659</sha1>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:00:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2946613</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>link to UC</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="763" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a Psychology student (undergrad) at [http://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)

== '''New Edits''' ==
This is a new bit in  a new paragraph</text>
      <sha1>tecuc2lh34mh1k4ph3qpr3v8qugns7d</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2412990</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:01:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2946613</id>
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      <comment>wikiversity page link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="780" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] student (undergrad) at [http://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;

=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)

== '''New Edits''' ==
This is a new bit in  a new paragraph</text>
      <sha1>6qdzux5zg87hka20stbhn9dfqakfoi8</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413046</id>
      <parentid>2412990</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:23:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JorjaFive</username>
        <id>2946613</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About Me */ image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="852" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] student (undergrad) at [http://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
[[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|When I understand things, then I am happy]]

=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)

== '''New Edits''' ==
This is a new bit in  a new paragraph</text>
      <sha1>ilzielduzzqtfgnhtgjn6fgkcthgdt7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413051</id>
      <parentid>2413046</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:24:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JorjaFive</username>
        <id>2946613</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About Me */ image size</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="860" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] student (undergrad) at [http://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].[[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|When I understand things, then I am happy|165x165px]]&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)

== '''New Edits''' ==
This is a new bit in  a new paragraph</text>
      <sha1>9g94g6kx75ln6hav0ekqjj0zxc63rde</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413067</id>
      <parentid>2413051</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:43:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>JorjaFive</username>
        <id>2946613</id>
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      <comment>/* New Edits */ removed Tute practice</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="799" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is Jorja. I am a [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] student (undergrad) at [http://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].[[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|When I understand things, then I am happy|165x165px]]&lt;blockquote&gt;I love understanding how things work.&lt;/blockquote&gt;
=== Interests ===

* Residential Building and Construction (Class 1a and Class 10a structures)
* Cosmetic and Structural Renovations
* Healthy Lifestyle Choices
* Systems - what works, what doesn't, and how to improve them

== '''Book Chapter''' I am working on ==
''[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion|Post-traumatic stress disorder and emotion]]'' for the unit [[Motivation and emotion|'''Motivation and Emotion''']]

== Social Contributions ==
Watch this space :)</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Alexis Jazz</username>
        <id>791434</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Updating gadget usage statistics from [[Special:GadgetUsage]] ([[phab:T121049]])</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1406" xml:space="preserve">{{#ifexist:Project:GUS2Wiki/top|{{/top}}|This page provides a historical record of [[Special:GadgetUsage]] through its page history. To get the data in CSV format, see wikitext. To customize this message or add categories, create [[/top]].}}
The following data is cached, and was last updated 2022-08-07T22:50:37Z. A maximum of {{PLURAL:5000|one result is|5000 results are}} available in the cache.
{| class=&quot;sortable wikitable&quot;
! Gadget !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Number of users !! data-sort-type=&quot;number&quot; | Active users
|-
|CleanDeletions || 75 || 2
|-
|EnhancedTalk || 1304 || 3
|-
|HideFundraisingNotice || 749 || 7
|-
|HotCat || 815 || 11
|-
|LintHint || 70 || 1
|-
|ReferenceTooltips || data-sort-value=&quot;Infinity&quot; | Default || data-sort-value=&quot;Infinity&quot; | Default
|-
|Round Corners || 1108 || 5
|-
|contribsrange || 346 || 3
|-
|dark-mode || 15 || 0
|-
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|-
|edittop || 456 || 6
|-
|popups || 789 || 4
|-
|purge || 663 || 9
|-
|sidebartranslate || 497 || 1
|-
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* [[Special:GadgetUsage]]
* [[m:Meta:GUS2Wiki/Script|GUS2Wiki]]
&lt;!-- data in CSV format:
CleanDeletions,75,2
EnhancedTalk,1304,3
HideFundraisingNotice,749,7
HotCat,815,11
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ReferenceTooltips,default,default
Round Corners,1108,5
contribsrange,346,3
dark-mode,15,0
dark-mode-toggle,29,2
edittop,456,6
popups,789,4
purge,663,9
sidebartranslate,497,1
usurper-count,74,2
--&gt;</text>
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  <page>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2947112</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="543" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time Psychology Student at the University of Canberra, majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.  

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413189</id>
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        <id>2947112</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="573" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time Psychology Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.  

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
      <sha1>fphqfjw1bobld0cfvgx8caytj74trl6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413200</id>
      <parentid>2413189</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:00:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="598" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.  

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
      <sha1>ci8kg97olzv0y9czrnjd8x0rrtr4b2b</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413211</id>
      <parentid>2413200</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:04:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="671" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies. I am currently using this for my studies in [[motivation and emotion]].   

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
      <sha1>jjb5gbsmu9nhdh03pqt2ug0jdu1eoxl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413213</id>
      <parentid>2413211</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:04:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="631" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.    

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions!
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]] for [[motivation and emotion]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
      <sha1>m7qrhqzpoo0nq7komhf5n804lgvch57</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413263</id>
      <parentid>2413213</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:17:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="684" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.    

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions! 
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]] for [[motivation and emotion]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...

[[File:Open books stacked.jpg|Open_books_stacked]]</text>
      <sha1>cn48s4ffaxfs7yjqzn67fg7ha3bb8ba</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413265</id>
      <parentid>2413263</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:19:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3086459</username>
        <id>2947112</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="632" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.    

== Hobbies ==
* Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions! 
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]] for [[motivation and emotion]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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      <text bytes="669" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.    

== Hobbies ==
* [[File:Open books stacked.jpg|thumb]]Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions! 
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]] for [[motivation and emotion]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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      <id>2413277</id>
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      <text bytes="699" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hello! My name is Cassie, I currently work full time in IT and am a part-time [[wikipedia:Psychology|Psychology]] Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra], majoring in Forensic and Legal studies.    

== Hobbies ==
* [[File:Open books stacked.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. stack of open books]]Reading! 120 books and counting so far in 2022 - I love suggestions! 
* Video games. 
* My pets. (cat, bearded dragon, scorpions &amp; tarantula)
* Binge watching YouTube. 

== Book Chapter == 
I am currently working on my book chapter on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Death drive|Death Drive]] for [[motivation and emotion]]

== Social Contributions ==
To be continued...</text>
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I'm a supervillain that is currently studying psychology.</text>
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      <id>2412949</id>
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I'm a supervillain that is currently studying psychology so I can be a better villain.</text>
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      <text bytes="179" xml:space="preserve">About me:

I'm a supervillain that is currently studying psychology so I can be a better villain.

== Hobbies ==

* Swindling art
* Cackling evilly
* Plotting to conquer the world</text>
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About me:

I'm a supervillain that is currently studying psychology so I can be a better villain.

== Hobbies ==

* Swindling art
* Cackling evilly
* Plotting to conquer the world
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <comment>Undo revision 2412973 by [[Special:Contributions/A Super Villain|A Super Villain]] ([[User talk:A Super Villain|talk]])</comment>
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      <text bytes="179" xml:space="preserve">About me:

I'm a supervillain that is currently studying psychology so I can be a better villain.

== Hobbies ==

* Swindling art
* Cackling evilly
* Plotting to conquer the world</text>
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      <text bytes="791" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello! My name is Hana, I am in the third year of my Bachelor of Science (Psychology) degree, majoring in Counselling Studies at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I am currently creating a book chapter about courage motivation. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Hanging out with friends  
* Music

== Book chapter ==
I am currently working on a book chapter for my unit Motivation and Emotion. My chapter focuses on courage, and how it can be motivated and encouraged. Social contributions are more than welcome, my chapter can be found here soon
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Courage motivation, motivation, and emotion|Courage motivation, motivation, and emotion]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="807" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hello! My name is Hana, I am in the third year of my Bachelor of Science (Psychology) degree, majoring in Counselling Studies at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].  

I am currently creating a book chapter about courage motivation. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Hanging out with friends  
* Music
* Travelling

== Book chapter ==
I am currently working on a book chapter for my unit Motivation and Emotion. My chapter focuses on courage, and how it can be motivated and encouraged. Social contributions are more than welcome, my chapter can be found here soon
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Courage motivation, motivation, and emotion|Courage motivation, motivation, and emotion]] for ''[[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]''

== Social contributions ==</text>
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  <page>
    <title>User:U3162201</title>
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      <id>2413183</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="1778" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi there! I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/blocks.php?id=307122 Blake Macdonald], a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. In the final semester of my undergraduate degree I am contributing the the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] book. I have aspirations to work as a clinical psychologist. There are many areas of psychology that I find intellectually stimulating and I look forward to exploring these interests further by continuing my studies beyond the undergraduate degree. I am concurrently pursuing a career as a professional cricketer, playing for the [https://www.cricketact.com.au/teams/comets ACT/NSW Country Comets] in the National Second XI competition and St George District Cricket Club in the [http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/ NSW Premier Cricket] Competition among other teams. I worked for over five years in the ACT Public School system as a learning support assistant before using my skills to transition to a role as Senior Administrator for [https://wattleblue.com/ Wattle Blue Disability Services]. 

== Interests ==

* Canberra Raiders supporter
* [https://radfordcollegians.com.au/giving-back-black-macdonald-class-of-2015/ Running] , gym and an active lifestyle
* Golf
* Playing the guitar very poorly and out of earshot
* Reading non-fiction - [https://www.amazon.com/Inner-Game-Tennis-Classic-Performance/dp/0679778314 click to see what I'm reading]

== The book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward system, motivation and emotion]]: What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? 

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>80r6jlm3fqcrapd80ezc94wzvx2kmse</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2413183</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:00:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2947533</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="1932" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi there! I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/blocks.php?id=307122 Blake Macdonald], a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. In the final semester of my undergraduate degree I am contributing to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] book. There are many areas of psychology that I find intellectually stimulating and I look forward to exploring these interests further by continuing my studies beyond the undergraduate degree. I hope further study will lead me towards my aspiration to work as a clinical psychologist. I am concurrently pursuing a career as a professional cricketer, playing for the [https://www.cricketact.com.au/teams/comets ACT/NSW Country Comets] in the National Second XI competition and St George District Cricket Club in the [http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/ NSW Premier Cricket] Competition among other teams. My professional life started in 2016 after completing year 12 at [https://www.radford.act.edu.au/ Radford College]. I worked for over five years in the ACT Public School system as a learning support assistant before using my skills to transition to the role of Senior Administrator for [https://wattleblue.com/ Wattle Blue Disability Services]. 

== Interests ==

* Canberra Raiders supporter
* [https://radfordcollegians.com.au/giving-back-black-macdonald-class-of-2015/ Running] , gym and an active lifestyle
* Golf
* Playing the guitar very poorly and out of earshot
* Reading non-fiction - [https://www.amazon.com/Inner-Game-Tennis-Classic-Performance/dp/0679778314 click to see what I'm reading]

== The book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward system, motivation and emotion]]: What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? 

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>ljn8wjlayup6ysvvua5b7dcvo3l9f99</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="1990" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi there! I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/blocks.php?id=307122 Blake Macdonald], a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. In the final semester of my undergraduate degree I am studying the unit ''Motivation and Emotion'' and will be contributing to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] book. There are many areas of psychology that I find intellectually stimulating and I look forward to exploring these interests further by continuing my studies beyond the undergraduate degree. I hope further study will lead me towards my aspiration to work as a clinical psychologist. I am concurrently pursuing a career as a professional cricketer, playing for the [https://www.cricketact.com.au/teams/comets ACT/NSW Country Comets] in the National Second XI competition and St George District Cricket Club in the [http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/ NSW Premier Cricket] Competition among other teams. My professional life started in 2016 after completing year 12 at [https://www.radford.act.edu.au/ Radford College]. I worked for over five years in the ACT Public School system as a learning support assistant before using my skills to transition to the role of Senior Administrator for [https://wattleblue.com/ Wattle Blue Disability Services].  

== Interests ==

* Canberra Raiders supporter
* [https://radfordcollegians.com.au/giving-back-black-macdonald-class-of-2015/ Running] , gym and an active lifestyle
* Golf
* Playing the guitar very poorly and out of earshot
* Reading non-fiction - [https://www.amazon.com/Inner-Game-Tennis-Classic-Performance/dp/0679778314 click to see what I'm reading]

== The book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward system, motivation and emotion]]: What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? 

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>qbffel6knnjjcwphkh6b61w8tob4aia</sha1>
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    <revision>
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        <id>2947533</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="2104" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi there! I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/blocks.php?id=307122 Blake Macdonald], a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. In the final semester of my undergraduate degree I am studying the unit ''Motivation and Emotion'' and will be contributing to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] book. There are many areas of psychology that I find intellectually stimulating and I look forward to exploring these interests further by continuing my studies beyond the undergraduate degree. I hope further study will lead me towards my aspiration to work as a clinical psychologist. I am concurrently pursuing a career as a professional cricketer, playing for the [https://www.cricketact.com.au/teams/comets ACT/NSW Country Comets] in the National Second XI competition and St George District Cricket Club in the [http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/ NSW Premier Cricket] Competition among other teams. My professional life started in 2016 after completing year 12 at [https://www.radford.act.edu.au/ Radford College]. I worked for over five years in the ACT Public School system as a learning support assistant before using my skills to transition to the role of Senior Administrator for [https://wattleblue.com/ Wattle Blue Disability Services].  

== Interests ==
[[File:Attractive man lifting dumbbell weight for exercise in fitness gym.jpg|thumb|181x181px|I enjoy exercising]]
* Canberra Raiders supporter
* [https://radfordcollegians.com.au/giving-back-black-macdonald-class-of-2015/ Running] , gym and an active lifestyle
* Golf
* Playing the guitar very poorly and out of earshot
* Reading non-fiction - [https://www.amazon.com/Inner-Game-Tennis-Classic-Performance/dp/0679778314 click to see what I'm reading]

== The book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward system, motivation and emotion]]: What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? 

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>dfa1a92s4wept1xz0ncoko2i1rjwnxu</sha1>
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      <text bytes="2104" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi there! I am [https://portfolio.canberra.edu.au/view/blocks.php?id=307122 Blake Macdonald], a third year student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology. In the final semester of my undergraduate degree I am studying the unit ''Motivation and Emotion'' and will be contributing to the 2022 [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] book. There are many areas of psychology that I find intellectually stimulating and I look forward to exploring these interests further by continuing my studies beyond the undergraduate degree. I hope further study will lead me towards my aspiration to work as a clinical psychologist. I am concurrently pursuing a career as a professional cricketer, playing for the [https://www.cricketact.com.au/teams/comets ACT/NSW Country Comets] in the National Second XI competition and St George District Cricket Club in the [http://www.premier.nsw.cricket.com.au/ NSW Premier Cricket] Competition among other teams. My professional life started in 2016 after completing year 12 at [https://www.radford.act.edu.au/ Radford College]. I worked for over five years in the ACT Public School system as a learning support assistant before using my skills to transition to the role of Senior Administrator for [https://wattleblue.com/ Wattle Blue Disability Services].  

== Interests ==
[[File:Attractive man lifting dumbbell weight for exercise in fitness gym.jpg|thumb|172x172px|I enjoy exercising]]
* Canberra Raiders supporter
* [https://radfordcollegians.com.au/giving-back-black-macdonald-class-of-2015/ Running] , gym and an active lifestyle
* Golf
* Playing the guitar very poorly and out of earshot
* Reading non-fiction - [https://www.amazon.com/Inner-Game-Tennis-Classic-Performance/dp/0679778314 click to see what I'm reading]

== The book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Reward system, motivation, and emotion|Reward system, motivation and emotion]]: What role does the reward system play in motivation and emotion? 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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Hi, I am Anjali Singh.

I am an undergraduate psychology student studying at the University of Canberra.</text>
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Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I am an undergraduate psychology student studying at the University of Canberra.</text>
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Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I am an undergraduate psychology student studying at the University of Canberra.</text>
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      <text bytes="232" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I am a 3rd year psychology student studying at the University of Canberra. 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

I have enrolled in the unit motivation and emotion.</text>
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Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I am a 3rd year psychology student studying at the University of Canberra. 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and enrolled in the unit motivation and emotion.</text>
      <sha1>69d41so33icjmgf4vqi5bghezt1qhg5</sha1>
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      <text bytes="294" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year psychology student studying at the University of Canberra. 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit motivation and emotion.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="349" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year psychology student studying at the University of Canberra. 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit motivation and emotion.

=== Hobbies ===

* Shopping
* Going on long walks
* Listening to music

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="380" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year psychology student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit motivation and emotion.

=== Hobbies ===

* Shopping
* Going on long walks
* Listening to music

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>on8k7oqft6pwd96bgdanr9shwrz3z0u</sha1>
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      <text bytes="397" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit motivation and emotion.

=== Hobbies ===

* Shopping
* Going on long walks
* Listening to music

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="521" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Shopping
* Going on long walks
* Listening to music

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="704" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:-Munnar -Kerala -Hillstation -Nature -Greenery -Leaves -Idukki.jpg|alt=Coloured photograph of a field of greenery|thumb|415x415px|Figure 1. An example of green prescription ]]
Hi, I'm Anjali Singh.

I'm a 3rd year [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra.] 

I'm currently undertaking the Bachelor of Science in Psychology and the unit [[Motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion.]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Shopping
* Going on long walks
* Listening to music

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Green prescription motivation|Green prescription motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>edpq20xsq5fjizm9omsemr8m6dyuhzy</sha1>
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      <text bytes="11514" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah.....  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

Small paragraph(ish) on:
 - What is disappointment?
 - Why is disappointment important?
 - what emotion theories/research is there?
 - example/case study/etc. of how to manage disappointment (same scenario throughout)


{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
*
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Disappointment is similar to regret, however, regret occurs because 
* Key content: disappointment is different from regret and anger ... (reference)
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. Emotion Review, 2(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 34(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 16(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 12(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>e1u6uripx5ex2ijzphn8dqomh2b02fw</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:50:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="11338" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Disappointment&lt;br&gt;What is disappointment, what causes disappointment, and how can disappointment be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
*
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Disappointment is similar to regret, however, regret occurs because 
* Key content: disappointment is different from regret and anger ... (reference)
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. Emotion Review, 2(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 34(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 16(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 12(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>b1l2sb3kllr55w3teays0f8m7eytjlr</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412965</id>
      <parentid>2412955</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:53:59Z</timestamp>
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        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is disappointment? */</comment>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. Emotion Review, 2(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. Cognition and Emotion, 34(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 16(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. Cognition and Emotion, 12(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. Journal of Economic Psychology, 24(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:05:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
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      <comment>/* References */</comment>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;
}}

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Can have more content

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Spotlight/ Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person displaying facial characteristics of disappointment]]

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content:  

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content:

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;
}}

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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    <revision>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you ever gotten a lower grade than you expected? Have you ever been let down my someone?  If so, you may have experienced disappointment. Disappointment is one of the most common and frequently experienced negative emotions (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002).  

[[wikipedia:Emotion|Emotions]] are complex, coordinated, multidimensional responses that help us in our everyday lives (Textbook reference, 2018). Emotions help us to cope, communicate, and adapt to the world around us (Izard, 2010; textbook, 2018). While there is no official definition of the word 'emotion', it is agreed that emotions involve feelings, bodily arousal, purpose, and expression; and are a part of what motivates us (Textbook, 2018).   

This chapter explores disappointment, ..........................., demonstrates ..............., blah..... disappointment research is in its infancy….  


... more on chapter and overview


You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.{{RoundBoxTop|theme=13}}
'''Key questions:'''
* What is disappointment?
* What causes disappointment? 
* How can disappointment be managed?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

==What is disappointment?==

* Disappointment occurs when the outcome that has occurred is not as good as the outcome that could have occurred, or when your expectations are not met (Zeelenberg et al., 1998).
* disappointment is ... (reference) - discuss what emotions are and the difference between simple and complex emotions/positive v negative emotions
* Disappointment can be categorised as outcome-related or person-related; where outcome-related disappointment (ORD) refers to ..., and person-related disappointment (PRD) refers to ... (Van Dijk &amp; Zeelenberg, 2002). 
* Can have more content
* reference figure - e.g., common facial features are a downturned mouth and ‘sad’ eyes (see figure 1)…

  {{Robelbox|theme={{{theme|2}}}|title=Emotions similar to disappointment}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Regret'''
: Regret is...
: Regret is similar to disappointment because ...
: (Zeelenberg et al., 1998)

'''Anger'''
: Anger is...
: Anger is similar to regret because...
: (Reference)

'''Disillusionment'''
: Disillusionment is ...
: Disappointment is a key feature of disillusionment ...
: (Maher et al., 2020)
  &lt;/div&gt;
  {{Robelbox/close}}
[[File:Wayuu woman with sad face in the market buying.jpg|alt=Older woman with a disappointed look on her face in a busy market place.|thumb|''Figure 1.'' Person displaying facial characteristics of disappointment]]

==What causes disappointment?==

* Key content: why people experience disappointment (reference)
* Key content: what causes disappointment - go into physiology/chemistry/etc. (reference)
* key content: contexts? eg. disappointment in self vs in external thing??? (reference)
* can have more content

==How can disappointment be managed?==

* key content: disappointment can be managed by lowering expectations (van Dijk et al., 2003)
* key content: mistaken expectations lower overall [[wikipedia:Well-being|wellbeing]] (de Meza &amp; Dawson, 2021) ... ^ therefore having lower expectations can improve wellbeing
* key content: how to mitigate/reduce disappointment (reference)
* key content: something else (reference)
* can have more content

=== The benefits of disappointment ===
Key content: negotiation   

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content

=== The downsides to disappointment ===

Key content: the general feeling + how its about expectations 

Key content:

Key content:

can have more key content
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
This chapter examines...

Blah on disappointment

What the reader can do with the new information


The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==

* [[wikipedia:Disappointment|Disappointment]] (Wikipedia)

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Regret|Regret]] (Book chapter, 2016)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
{{Hanging indent|1=
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:

de Meza, D., &amp; Dawson, C. (2021). Neither an Optimist Nor a Pessimist Be: Mistaken Expectations Lower Well-Being. ''Personality &amp; Social Psychology Bulletin'', ''47''(4), 540–550. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167220934577&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Izard, C. E. (2010). The Many Meanings/Aspects of Emotion: Definitions, Functions, Activation, and Regulation. ''Emotion Review, 2''(4), 363–370. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073910374661&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Maher, P. J., Igou, E. R., &amp; van Tilburg, W. A. P. (2020). Disillusionment: a prototype analysis. ''Cognition and Emotion, 34''(5), 947–959. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2019.1705764&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., &amp; Zeelenberg, M. (2002). What do we talk about when we talk about disappointment? Distinguishing outcome-related disappointment from person-related disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 16''(6), 787–807. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/02699930143000563&lt;/nowiki&gt;

Zeelenberg, M., van Dijk, W. W., S.R.Manstead, A., &amp; der Pligt, J. (1998). The Experience of Regret and Disappointment. ''Cognition and Emotion, 12''(2), 221–230. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1080/026999398379727&lt;/nowiki&gt;

van Dijk, W. W., Zeelenberg, M., &amp; van der Pligt, J. (2003). Blessed are those who expect nothing: Lowering expectations as a way of avoiding disappointment. ''Journal of Economic Psychology, 24''(4), 505–516. &lt;nowiki&gt;https://doi.org/10.1016/S0167-4870(02)00211-8&lt;/nowiki&gt;
}}

{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8KgUFMN7aJQ The value of disappointment] (TEDxPCC) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <text bytes="483" xml:space="preserve">Hi, I'm Will, a student at the University of Canberra studying the Bachelor's of Science in Psychology and majoring in counselling.

My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role retrospective regret plays in motivation. As a counselling student, retrospective regret is interesting to me because it can be a common theme with clients in therapy settings.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.</text>
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      <text bytes="1026" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in Psychology with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==

* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role retrospective regret plays in motivation. 

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1138" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==

* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role retrospective regret plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1248" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==

* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role retrospective regret plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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      <text bytes="1306" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==

* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Retrospective regret|retrospective regret]] plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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      <text bytes="1424" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==
[[File:Regret cropped.jpg|alt=Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|thumb|Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.]]
* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Retrospective regret|retrospective regret]] plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 


== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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      <text bytes="1425" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==
[[File:Regret cropped.jpg|alt=Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|thumb|Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.]]
* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Retrospective regret|retrospective regret]] plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 


== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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      <text bytes="1435" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==
[[File:Regret cropped.jpg|alt=Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|thumb|Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|200x200px]]
* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Retrospective regret|retrospective regret]] plays in motivation. 
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 


== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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      <text bytes="1450" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Will, an undergraduate student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] studying the Bachelor's of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with the Breadth Major in Counselling.

I apsire to one day work with regional Australians to provide counselling and clincial psychology services free of charge.

== Why I Study Psychology ==

* I am fascinated by the human experience of consciousness and the investigation of the neurological and cognitive processes that our construction of conscious is founded upon.
* I want to help educate the general public on the psychological processes that influence our lives and give my participants effective psychological tools to have a greater sense of agency over their emotions and cognitions.
* I believe emotional intelligence is an important skill to develop to effectively maintain wellbeing.

== The Book Chapter I am Working on ==
[[File:Regret cropped.jpg|alt=Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|thumb|Figure 1. Regret is a negative emotion.|200x200px]]
* My works on wikimedia will be concerning the role [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Retrospective regret|retrospective regret]] (see Figure 1.) plays in motivation.
* My work will contribute to the 2022 book [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 


== Social Contributions ==

* I am yet make social contributions as all motivation and emotion chapters are currently in pre-production.</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>giqtpau4k86qw5qbeijxfgp6tdwvbna</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412903</id>
      <parentid>2412901</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>jd6nvzwikpredketi2s7tkkr2dfib66</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412905</id>
      <parentid>2412903</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:45:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>fv18gumw773jyfjtj0n1q92tdekgvlk</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412906</id>
      <parentid>2412905</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:47:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="7233" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>75yntuyl92byvt2gq373n3pznco5aqt</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412907</id>
      <parentid>2412906</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:47:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* See also */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6876" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2am12udeb3oagpw3od4yxjdq7db1c9s</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412908</id>
      <parentid>2412907</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:51:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interventions that Target Environmental Grief */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6975" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is Environmental Grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].

=== Emerging Theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the Human Brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case Studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The Causes of Environmental Grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The Consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is Environmental Grief Generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that Target Environmental Grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

- What are the major interventions surrounding Environmental Grief 

- Use links, Figures etc. 

- Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>cd4fgpq6uv5xyjo8u11l5njsd17dd6v</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412911</id>
      <parentid>2412908</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T01:56:22Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What is Environmental Grief? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6872" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview ==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What is environmental grief? ==
- Definition and description 

- A brief history (When did it prevalent and why, what is being done)?   

=== Emerging theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

== Grief and the human brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

=== Case studies ===
Case study of grief and how the human brain reacts and adapts

==The causes of environmental grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is environmental grief generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that target environmental grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

- What are the major interventions surrounding Environmental Grief 

- Use links, Figures etc. 

- Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>6mztkk4gfake4nxojnrt9e3gaw16gsp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412912</id>
      <parentid>2412911</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T02:05:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Overview */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6248" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Environmental grief ==
- Definition of environmental grief  

- concise illustration of the problem - what is the problem, why is it important 

- A brief history of the term

- outline how psychological science can help 

- conclude with examining the three focus questions that will guide the chapter 

=== Case study ===
- case study of environmental grief and how it has affected the individual in their day to day emotional state {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emerging theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

- How can specific emotion theories and research help?   

== Grief and the human brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

==The causes of environmental grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is environmental grief generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that target environmental grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

- What are the major interventions surrounding Environmental Grief 

- Use links, Figures etc. 

- Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>g02l8padq6s2dk0wyby6zkt5be916rv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412915</id>
      <parentid>2412912</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T02:15:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Gabrielle Eagling</username>
        <id>2947522</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Interventions that target environmental grief */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="6249" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Environmental Grief:&lt;br&gt;What is eco-grief, its causes and consequences, and what can be done}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Environmental grief ==
- Definition of environmental grief  

- concise illustration of the problem - what is the problem, why is it important 

- A brief history of the term

- outline how psychological science can help 

- conclude with examining the three focus questions that will guide the chapter 

=== Case study ===
- case study of environmental grief and how it has affected the individual in their day to day emotional state {{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
=== Emerging theories ===
- Main theories surrounding Environmental grief  

- How can specific emotion theories and research help?   

== Grief and the human brain ==
- How does grief shape, change and rewire the human brain?

==The causes of environmental grief ==
- What do grief and distress look at, how are they similar and how are they different? 

- How do they relate to the Environment? 

== The consequences ==
- What are the consequences of environmental grief? 

== Is environmental grief generational? ==
- Look at if Environmental grief is only emerging in the younger generations, or is it something that has always been around and is now only just being recognised? 

== Interventions that target environmental grief ==
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

- What are the major interventions surrounding Environmental Grief 

- Use links, Figures etc. 

- Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1). 

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== Conclusion ==
Based on psychological theory and research, what is the answer to the question? 
- What are the answers to the focus questions? 

- What are the practical, take home messages? 
==See also==
* [[wikipedia:Ecological_grief#:~:text=Ecological%20grief%20(or%20eco%2Dgrief,environmental%20destruction%20or%20climate%20change.|Ecological Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Ecological grief|Eco-grief]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
* [[wikipedia:Grief|Grief]] (Wikipedia) 
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Viewing natural scenes and emotion|Viewing Natural Scenes and Emotion]] (Book Chapter, 2022) 
==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>g9vkria8i61n91murc5um60j7ypsbsx</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U3190773</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285925</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413123</id>
      <parentid>2411336</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:42:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added some fun stuff about myself</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8147" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Psychological Distress
}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

Psych undergrad, 23 from Syd.

I'm working on psychological distress for motivation and emotion</text>
      <sha1>q2ci6ufkpri4cmi6yzkki9dhpe5t5dd</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413127</id>
      <parentid>2413123</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:43:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8143" xml:space="preserve">{{title|About user U3190773}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

Psych undergrad, 23 from Syd.

I'm working on psychological distress for motivation and emotion</text>
      <sha1>qfuyykogvtyulh2mzkcl2n2ia06a355</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413133</id>
      <parentid>2413127</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:44:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>messing around with the page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="311" xml:space="preserve">{{title|About user U3190773}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!</text>
      <sha1>8gvi9pvxhf7297lo02iwqngs2xudq6p</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413135</id>
      <parentid>2413133</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:45:23Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="301" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==About me!==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!</text>
      <sha1>5u95x7g7kfg15qrh965ek5mje564yd0</sha1>
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        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="253" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


==About me!==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!</text>
      <sha1>q94a7ywlawkwvako37snhhy56mbrl1b</sha1>
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== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!</text>
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== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like video games, pub trivia nights and finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!</text>
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== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!</text>
      <sha1>6n0o22z3e84ftzjnccm4cgps3lrayvw</sha1>
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        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added section</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="398" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the University of Canberra and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!

== My attempt to add links to this page ==</text>
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    </revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:58:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <comment>added link to UC</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="429" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!

== My attempt to add links to this page ==</text>
      <sha1>6te8u71rkm46k3gha551wrr32zwq941</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2947576</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>changed link name tehe</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="405" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!

== Redacted lol ==</text>
      <sha1>qb78oufiubzvbv91ylx67tny1dvjwi8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413195</id>
      <parentid>2413190</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:59:52Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>more playing around</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="429" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] and creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!

== Redacted lol ==
Ayy don't worry bout it</text>
      <sha1>cjd87g5l3mdbgkgnhv1mq13je6ixtoh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413209</id>
      <parentid>2413195</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:03:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>new link tehe</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="493" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] &amp; I study a bachelor of science in [[w:Psychology|psychology]]! I'm creating a book chapter on ''psychological distress!''

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress!

== Redacted lol ==
Ayy don't worry bout it</text>
      <sha1>214w608qnq07wlq3o6ar58bl99eh113</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413221</id>
      <parentid>2413209</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:06:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added a link to my psychological distress page (to be created!)</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="556" xml:space="preserve">{{title|U3190773}}


== About me! ==

=== my credentials ===
Hi my name is Lewis, I'm enrolled at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] &amp; I study a bachelor of science in [[w:Psychology|psychology]]! 

=== hobbies ===
In my spare time I like:

* video games 
* pub trivia nights 
* finding excuses to escape Canberra!

== My book chapter ==
I'll be creating a chapter on psychological distress! find it here: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological distress|Psychological Distress]]

== Redacted lol ==
Ayy don't worry bout it</text>
      <sha1>c97zux7e1r20z8fddflqekgufq0m84q</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T10:37:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added the title and subtitle.</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8550" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Academic self-regulation&lt;br&gt;What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>bwxmtk9xc30b2yls8rjfneiskwyvy90</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285927</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412917</id>
      <parentid>2411740</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T02:30:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8551" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Fear&lt;br&gt;What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
      <sha1>cb794rm34i7plizmrqf8lgafur6geft</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413327</id>
      <parentid>2412917</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T10:50:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>topic development</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8868" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Fear&lt;br&gt;What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== What is fear? ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== The difference between fear and anxiety ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== What causes fear? ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

=== Psychological perspective ===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Biological perspective ===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Social perspective===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

== When does fear become a phobia? ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can fear be managed? ==
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

=== Within everyday life ===

==== Mindfulness ====

==== Self-control instruction ====

=== Within clinical settings ===

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====

==== Exposure therapy ====
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413328</id>
      <parentid>2413327</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T11:01:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>quiz on topic development</comment>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== What is fear? ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== The difference between fear and anxiety ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== What causes fear? ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

=== Psychological perspective ===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Biological perspective ===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Social perspective===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

== When does fear become a phobia? ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can fear be managed? ==
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

=== Within everyday life ===

==== Mindfulness ====

==== Self-control instruction ====

=== Within clinical settings ===

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====

==== Exposure therapy ====

== Recap quizzes ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Fear induce risk taking behaviour
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
      <sha1>l97phimqjms73v3shv0w93vn3jo7t0r</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413329</id>
      <parentid>2413328</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T11:02:32Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8881" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Fear&lt;br&gt;What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== What is fear? ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== The difference between fear and anxiety ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== What causes fear? ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

=== Psychological perspective ===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Biological perspective ===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Social perspective===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

== When does fear become a phobia? ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can fear be managed? ==
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

=== Within everyday life ===

==== Mindfulness ====

==== Self-control instruction ====

=== Within clinical settings ===

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====

==== Exposure therapy ====

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

=== Recap quizzes ===
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Fear induce risk taking behaviour
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
      <sha1>216tup3kbhkjdvy2lyjxql5vljg2ntf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413330</id>
      <parentid>2413329</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T11:02:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8879" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Fear&lt;br&gt;What is fear, what causes it, and how can it be managed?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

== What is fear? ==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== The difference between fear and anxiety ==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

== What causes fear? ==
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

=== Psychological perspective ===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

=== Biological perspective ===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Social perspective===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

== When does fear become a phobia? ==
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

== How can fear be managed? ==
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:

=== Within everyday life ===

==== Mindfulness ====

==== Self-control instruction ====

=== Within clinical settings ===

==== Cognitive behavioural therapy ====

==== Exposure therapy ====

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==

== Recap quizzes ==
&lt;quiz display=&quot;simple&quot;&gt;
{Fear induce risk taking behaviour
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[Category:Motivation and emotion/Book/Fear]]</text>
      <sha1>gokjfgrtv9xh68in7u7m9k2fdnzf679</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mindful self-care</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>285929</id>
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      <parentid>2411344</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>title added</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8472" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Mindful Self-Care:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>gpjepveo5450wzq6rq6vcv6538xnbds</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:U3216563</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
    <id>285932</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412937</id>
      <parentid>2411593</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:43:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216563</username>
        <id>2947577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>About me description</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8563" xml:space="preserve">About me: 1-2 sentences 

- where i am 

- who i am 

- what i am doing 

- where i want to be {{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>mlwr64d95lur23xh045z4g6cn5aa2r4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412964</id>
      <parentid>2412937</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:53:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216563</username>
        <id>2947577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>expanded the page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8646" xml:space="preserve">== About Me: 1-2 sentences ==
- where i am 

- who i am 

- what i am doing 

- where i want to be 

== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter I Am Working On ==

== Social Contribution ==
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>9n95pt1qhy4b466joss6boy87bd7yzy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412969</id>
      <parentid>2412964</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:54:53Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216563</username>
        <id>2947577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book Chapter I Am Working On */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8630" xml:space="preserve">== About Me: 1-2 sentences ==
- where i am 

- who i am 

- what i am doing 

- where i want to be 

== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contribution ==
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>m1gee8qups3yladp75zcielnhu53qw4</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413251</id>
      <parentid>2412969</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:14:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216563</username>
        <id>2947577</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About Me: 1-2 sentences */ fillig in the subsections</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9227" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
I am Kristina and I am in my third year of my Bachelors Degree at the University of Canberra, where I study Pscyhology with a Breadth Major in Counselling. I strive to become a Clinical Psychologist at the end of my study jounrey where I will be trained in the ability to assess and diagnose mental illnesses/psychological problems and essentially provide advice in clinical and compensation areas. 

== Hobbies ==

* Sports in particular Rugby League 
* I play the Piano and Sing 
* Baking 
* Gyming 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation|Academic self-regulation]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?

== Social Contribution ==
to be added to... 


{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>ainbg5b63fbo3gmlpp4rmyxyuomkjvz</sha1>
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      <text bytes="8478" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
__TOC__


About me:

I have no idea what I am doing yay :)

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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About me:

I have no idea what I am doing yay :)
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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About me:

I study psychology esketit
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About me:

I study psychology esketit

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="347" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
__TOC__


About me:

I study psychology esketit. Furthermore, I am working on a book chapter with this on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fatigue and emotion|fatigue and emotion]].

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>35qz75zuq1od5pajjtmig8m5e2ftzpx</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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__TOC__


About me:

I study psychology esketit. Furthermore, I am working on a book chapter with this on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fatigue and emotion|fatigue and emotion]].

Tip for self, to link to a wikipedia page, search w:(name of webpage)

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>07hi6635fppqwrw0lx5zktqz795xpgi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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        <id>2947573</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="441" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
__TOC__


About me:

I study psychology esketit. Furthermore, I am working on a book chapter with this on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fatigue and emotion|fatigue and emotion]].

Tip for self, to link to a wikipedia page, search w:(name of webpage)

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology

== Interesting ==
oh 
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>l2lqbyy4r6xn2donjagqq26db57ve5b</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:16:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Lewis.Kusk</username>
        <id>2947573</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="515" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
__TOC__


About me:

I study psychology esketit. Furthermore, I am working on a book chapter with this on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fatigue and emotion|fatigue and emotion]].

Tip for self, to link to a wikipedia page, search w:(name of webpage)

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology

== Interesting ==
oh 

== image practice ==
[[File:Best Nature Picture of the day.jpg|thumb]]


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>i44tkrcl45q648yuvzkvlvmkmexiyai</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="562" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
__TOC__


About me:

I study psychology esketit. Furthermore, I am working on a book chapter with this on [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fatigue and emotion|fatigue and emotion]].

Tip for self, to link to a wikipedia page, search w:(name of webpage). Also [[c:Special:UploadWizard|upload wizard]]

== Hobbies ==
Afl

Soccer

Basketball

sometimes gardening

sometimes psychology

== Interesting ==
oh 

== image practice ==
[[File:Best Nature Picture of the day.jpg|thumb]]


[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>4gptk6fymeaaf3i0vvor7egzlg5mpws</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
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        <id>2947179</id>
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      <comment>/* what are benzodiazepines? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9473" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek behavioral therapy.       

Many people experience anxiety in different ways and different triggers responses vary from person to person. [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] or other wise known as as (benzo) are group of medications that is commonly prescribed to people experiencing emotional disorders such as anxiety disorder, or panic attack. This book chapter will discuss how benzodiazepines effect emotions, activation in the brain region and different type types of benzo that are commonly prescribed by physicians. Although many people believe benzodiazepines can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients and that is because benzodiazepines have variety duration of actions, rates of onset and half-life.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Draft (Ideas for chapter) ==
1) How Benzo effects people differently (positive and Negative)

2) Activation in brain region for the drug

3) different types of benzodiazepines 


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>fi8fq7v1xferrxh86podxv3khit170l</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412801</id>
      <parentid>2412799</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:18:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What are benzodiazepines? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9723" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  benzodiazepines on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of benzo that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians       

Many people experience anxiety in different ways and different triggers responses vary from person to person. [[wikipedia:Benzodiazepine|Benzodiazepines]] or other wise known as as (benzo) are group of medications that is commonly prescribed to people experiencing emotional disorders such as anxiety disorder, or panic attack. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  benzodiazepines on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of benzo that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians. Although many people believe benzodiazepines can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients and that is because benzodiazepines have variety duration of actions, rates of onset and half-life.   

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Draft (Ideas for chapter) ==
1) How Benzo effects people differently (positive and Negative)

2) Activation in brain region for the drug

3) different types of benzodiazepines 


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>6hoq1tuc71xtu44vrl92y15uznjt00y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412812</id>
      <parentid>2412801</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:35:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What are benzodiazepines? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8963" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== Draft (Ideas for chapter) ==
1) How Benzo effects people differently (positive and Negative)

2) Activation in brain region for the drug

3) different types of benzodiazepines 


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>j8nnmiebiflms7nyb2gl509wd1nkix2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412918</id>
      <parentid>2412812</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T02:53:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.62.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Draft (Ideas for chapter) */ editing</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9003" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Theories ==

== Available interventions ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>mdjlgf2v3idy2irr79pykqscu9rixow</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412919</id>
      <parentid>2412918</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T02:55:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.62.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theories */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9045" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Theories ==

== Available interventions ==

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>cdr85snmi09ajhk457twr7fye6ng7od</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412925</id>
      <parentid>2412919</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:39:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.62.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological aspects of BNZ */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9228" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 


== Available interventions ==

* cognitive therapy
* behavioral therapy
* psychological therapy 
* life styles 

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>dp1wtaigyh5quolw3obucirfjxdedxg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412929</id>
      <parentid>2412925</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:42:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.62.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Biological aspects of BNZ */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9300" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 


== Available interventions ==

* cognitive therapy
* behavioral therapy
* psychological therapy 
* life styles 

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>4lxd8659p2q3aqhxi8i6xb8pyt9c543</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412930</id>
      <parentid>2412929</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:42:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <ip>137.92.62.94</ip>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Available interventions */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9298" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam. 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 


== Available interventions ==

* Cognitive therapy
* Behavioral therapy
* Psychological therapy
* Life styles

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>l92fy9l49vo87p0gv6liyyouz4q0f83</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413042</id>
      <parentid>2412930</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:22:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What are benzodiazepines? */ image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9379" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
[[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines ]]
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam.  

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 


== Available interventions ==

* Cognitive therapy
* Behavioral therapy
* Psychological therapy
* Life styles

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>nbusx5ilhmtjpvcwsbhrj0wquajtulx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413064</id>
      <parentid>2413042</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:35:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What are benzodiazepines? */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9389" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misused and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients instead of encouraging them how to manage their emotions or seek cognitive behavioral therapy. This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, activation in the brain region and different type types of BNZ that are commonly prescribed to patients by physicians          

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam.  

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
[[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |203x203px]]
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 


== Available interventions ==

* Cognitive therapy
* Behavioral therapy
* Psychological therapy
* Life styles

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==


==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>evzdeq249v5p34lh8zt34tk3xgtefqy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413069</id>
      <parentid>2413064</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:48:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Theories */ expanding text</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9359" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BNZ. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions.           

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam.  

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
[[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |203x203px]]
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 
== Available interventions ==

* Cognitive therapy
* Behavioral therapy
* Psychological therapy
* Life styles

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
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        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* What are benzodiazepines? */ reduce image size</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="9359" xml:space="preserve">{{title| Benzodiazepines and emotion:&lt;br&gt;
What are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
Have you used something you believed at the time have no harm and later realised it has more risk (harm) than good? Well although many people believe benzodiazepines (BNZ) can do no harms, physician have serious concern about misuse and abuse of these drugs by patients. Many doctors and psychiatrics are still wondering by benzodiazepines are still prescribe for patients despite all risk associate the drugs . This book chapter will discuss the effects of  BNZ on emotion, biological, cognitive, psychological aspects of BNZ. Additional, book chapter will touch on pathophysiology of anxiety, theories, and interventions.           

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What are benzodiazepines use for?
* What roles does benzodiazepines play on emotions? 
* Can people management their emotions without benzodiazepines?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==What are benzodiazepines?==
Benzodiazepines (BNZ) also known as blues or benzos are sedative drugs commonly used for treating anxiety and insomnia and these are groups of anxiolytics and hypnotics, such as  diazepam, temazepam, and oxazepam.  

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
[[File:Benzodiazepine.svg|thumb|''Figure 1''. Description of benzodiazepines |169x169px]]
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

== What is emotion ==

== Region in the brain affected by benzos ==

== Physiological aspects of BNZ ==

== Cognitive aspects of BNZ ==

== Biological aspects of BNZ ==

== Pathophysiology of anxiety and other emotional related disorders ==

== Theories ==

* Darwin biological  and genetic theory on emotion
* Every species are innate experience emotions 
== Available interventions ==

* Cognitive therapy
* Behavioral therapy
* Psychological therapy
* Life styles

==== Take home message ====

== conclusion ==
==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]&quot;</text>
      <sha1>hr3745ssnvdaf1hmfmp3qmt41dgcg6b</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User:Ajeofula22</title>
    <ns>2</ns>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="837" xml:space="preserve">
== About me ==
Hi, I am Grace. Currently studying psychology at ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''

Facts about me:

* I started my course in Queensland at Griffith university in gold coast before moving here in 2019

* I first wanted to be a nurse and have diploma in nursing. I decided to study psychology because during my final placement I learned that I can not stand looking at the blood for long.
* I have worked in aged care, disability, hospitality and currently working in Canberra hospital.

==== Book Chapter I'm working on ====
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Benzodiazepines and emotion|Benzodiazepines and emotion]] -  what are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions?

==== Hobbies ====

* Evening walk

* Catching up with friends

* [[wikipedia:Cooking|Cooking]] 
== social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>b9h7hafkxyf4r742t4g0iedhy4zvxx1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2412950</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:49:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book Chapter I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="827" xml:space="preserve">
== About me ==
Hi, I am Grace. Currently studying psychology at ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''

Facts about me:

* I started my course in Queensland at Griffith university in gold coast before moving here in 2019

* I first wanted to be a nurse and have diploma in nursing. I decided to study psychology because during my final placement I learned that I can not stand looking at the blood for long.
* I have worked in aged care, disability, hospitality and currently working in Canberra hospital.

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Benzodiazepines and emotion|Benzodiazepines and emotion]] -  what are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions?

== Hobbies ==

# Evening walk
# Catching up with friends
# [[wikipedia:Cooking|Cooking]] 
== social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>8am52bgvnzycemw2ahzxu5l3fvg0p51</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412992</id>
      <parentid>2412953</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:02:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hobbies */ link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="858" xml:space="preserve">
== About me ==
Hi, I am Grace. Currently studying '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]''' at ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''

Facts about me:

* I started my course in Queensland at Griffith university in gold coast before moving here in 2019

* I first wanted to be a nurse and have diploma in nursing. I decided to study psychology because during my final placement I learned that I can not stand looking at the blood for long.
* I have worked in aged care, disability, hospitality and currently working in Canberra hospital.

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Benzodiazepines and emotion|Benzodiazepines and emotion]] -  what are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions?

== Hobbies ==

# Evening walk
# Catching up with friends
# [[wikipedia:Cooking|Cooking]] 
== social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>1ov5uhv7rokrmzbp3re5n7ao6a6uedi</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413013</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
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      <comment>/* Book Chapter I'm working on */ expanding chapter development</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="898" xml:space="preserve">
== About me ==
Hi, I am Grace. Currently studying '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]''' at ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''

=== Facts about me: ===
* I started my course in Queensland at Griffith university in gold coast before moving here in 2019

* I first wanted to be a nurse and have diploma in nursing. I decided to study psychology because during my final placement I learned that I can not stand looking at the blood for long.
* I have worked in aged care, disability, hospitality and currently working in Canberra hospital.

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
Studying Motivation and emotion

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Benzodiazepines and emotion|Benzodiazepines and emotion]] -  what are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions?

== Hobbies ==

# Evening walk
# Catching up with friends
# [[wikipedia:Cooking|Cooking]] 
== social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>05824a2abragm7ya57tkh5g3kir7le8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413027</id>
      <parentid>2413013</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:11:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Ajeofula22</username>
        <id>2947179</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book Chapter I'm working on */ added link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="902" xml:space="preserve">
== About me ==
Hi, I am Grace. Currently studying '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]]''' at ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]''

=== Facts about me: ===
* I started my course in Queensland at Griffith university in gold coast before moving here in 2019

* I first wanted to be a nurse and have diploma in nursing. I decided to study psychology because during my final placement I learned that I can not stand looking at the blood for long.
* I have worked in aged care, disability, hospitality and currently working in Canberra hospital.

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
Studying [[Motivation and emotion]]

[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Benzodiazepines and emotion|Benzodiazepines and emotion]] -  what are the effects of benzodiazepines on emotions?

== Hobbies ==

# Evening walk
# Catching up with friends
# [[wikipedia:Cooking|Cooking]] 
== social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>mcm8afb2ss3qgb7970fqdz65ec5thqf</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Draft:Sing free/Beat (acoustics)</title>
    <ns>118</ns>
    <id>286028</id>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2412743</parentid>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3652" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;\tau_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q &lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>tno6jt8x83bir2968gzehdtyiprbsm0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412804</id>
      <parentid>2412803</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:23:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3707" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;\tau_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T&lt;/math&gt; denotes period.

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>5j60fhmgyzry55ylke23drcrrp454x5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412805</id>
      <parentid>2412804</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:24:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3711" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;\tau_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period.

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>tvswkxysvk4qkps3udutbkeeh2mgvhn</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412806</id>
      <parentid>2412805</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:26:09Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3774" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;\tau_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 
Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\delta f}{f}=-\frac{\delta T}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>szs7lbhghm4k1s5bqzbmbmg4yw7xokl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412807</id>
      <parentid>2412806</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:26:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3774" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;\tau_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / \tau_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 
Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>4t1j2xzuhnd57803ugp6b0iehw3rhgs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412808</id>
      <parentid>2412807</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:27:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3765" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 
Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>76283jrqgav9z0xb1dhzluyzgfwokfy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412809</id>
      <parentid>2412808</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:31:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3807" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>11tjkxesdvb88mtnrcv5um1rxxipsr1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412810</id>
      <parentid>2412809</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:33:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3854" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| xx  \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>bo0xqh47kwlck4yk4dd646rpjpdwtvs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412811</id>
      <parentid>2412810</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:34:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3858" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| xx - xx \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>gj5i95qj2rd0q7akpqu9iirjziq8co8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412813</id>
      <parentid>2412811</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:36:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3898" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{p\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} - p\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>np9dtlzbl784j352xxtl0hef622szp8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412814</id>
      <parentid>2412813</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:37:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3904" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{p\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>lu7m6764u0wwp66ouswtn4p26ic969h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412815</id>
      <parentid>2412814</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:37:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3904" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_x}{T_x^2} \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>ruxl5tqw18c1msluppt5drtd5rtzgwp</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412821</id>
      <parentid>2412815</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:47:35Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3904" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>0nzjphn1pwez6h6e59zptbc2i2sf6o8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412823</id>
      <parentid>2412821</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T13:10:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3958" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>3tmzbscsf6mkcmgnhhm0giywzgiruks</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412826</id>
      <parentid>2412823</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T13:12:11Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="3962" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>2cduzfuv4l1ern124ecqyl6qlnpmekv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412850</id>
      <parentid>2412826</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:06:02Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* beats-angular frequency: Algebra */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4003" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

===Making one beat: N a large number===

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>aqmw7k2kp51pb0z5yeswoqtdc6sztuf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412851</id>
      <parentid>2412850</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:07:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4005" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>rknp1ifnz6ry034tqzq7e9okec9gu1h</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412852</id>
      <parentid>2412851</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:10:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4131" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\tilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; t

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>rnuv8b31j14v4wprvg35k96sm7fv45w</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412853</id>
      <parentid>2412852</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:11:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4132" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\tilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; t

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>jekq8jg30h9pv43tnna7u7juaqqjm3y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412855</id>
      <parentid>2412853</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T19:11:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4136" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; t

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>4on2atuo3wyhzzg4gp2e5p4niewhzn9</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412859</id>
      <parentid>2412855</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:17:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4182" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N+1)p\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>i16k5biudngb31hg9hk1mv10yr6y8ys</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412860</id>
      <parentid>2412859</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:20:39Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4347" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N+1)p\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly decreased the period of the p wave in order to add one more wave. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences.

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>e3o5c9ac8q87qb4x491890il0f9sx7g</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412861</id>
      <parentid>2412860</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:22:36Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4414" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N+1)p\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly decreased the period of the p wave in order to add one more wave. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>r9iragyk7s56ho3kyqis5vggot3bbot</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412862</id>
      <parentid>2412861</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:23:14Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4425" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N+1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly decreased the period of the p wave in order to add one more wave. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>caars069yeo8y27ujmzmgzrkthf9zn2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412863</id>
      <parentid>2412862</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:24:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4474" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N+1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = &lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly decreased the period of the p wave in order to add one more wave. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>rp4emp8bo6xqf0bk0xnw2z4871orex7</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412864</id>
      <parentid>2412863</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:28:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4473" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = &lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>4lsbjd5czjpdztc4hsftr2tsrjj1d4j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412865</id>
      <parentid>2412864</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T20:29:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4486" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>t3834h0aowpxtf8a1t90t59zw5bwmvs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412888</id>
      <parentid>2412865</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:58:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4517" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q= T_c&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>ewkg0if4fz5vdhvkeigzxp542477pt6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412889</id>
      <parentid>2412888</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T23:58:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4517" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q= T_B&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>s4k44zi9u7br9a3aabbykq0l110guqs</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412890</id>
      <parentid>2412889</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:01:01Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4517" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q= T_c&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>ewkg0if4fz5vdhvkeigzxp542477pt6</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412891</id>
      <parentid>2412890</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:01:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4511" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>cttc4er907drferm1pqm3obzya47wqg</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412892</id>
      <parentid>2412891</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:04:54Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4557" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>6aku8m90o8hgu92ivb5vplvqg0ue8yo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412893</id>
      <parentid>2412892</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:06:06Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4586" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c = \frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}pT_p&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>ofi3lfat3rr6hzn00woyb00dr7ut32f</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412894</id>
      <parentid>2412893</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:08:51Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4621" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c = \frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}pT_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;\frac 1 T_c =&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>1qkigcqpbdjnp6hawc2uza7jsvmvbvv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412895</id>
      <parentid>2412894</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:09:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4646" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c = \frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}pT_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;\frac 1 T_c =\frac{\Delta T_p}{T_p^2}p&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>nxmj9qxmyt8fdc2u6u1dtodjrb9iofx</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412899</id>
      <parentid>2412895</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:51:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4680" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c = \frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}pT_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;\frac 1 T_c =\frac{\Delta T_p}{T_p^2}p&lt;/math&gt;

Graph: &lt;math&gt;T_p=2, T_q=3&lt;/math&gt;

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>ld9kxd4oi9hb6xd93suewoefeoyst2j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412900</id>
      <parentid>2412899</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T00:54:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Guy vandegrift</username>
        <id>813252</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Making one beat: N a large number */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="4746" xml:space="preserve">[[Image:Beating Frequency.svg|thumb|300px|Diagram of beat frequency]]
A '''beat''' is an [[w:Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] pattern between two [[w:sound|sounds]] of slightly different [[w:frequency|frequencies]], ''perceived'' as a periodic variation in [[w:amplitude (music)|volume]] whose rate is the [[w:Difference (mathematics)|difference]] of the two frequencies.

The fundamentals of this topic are taught at some level in virtually every introductory high school or college course.  [[w:Beat (acoustics)|Wikipedia]] features the figure shown and equations like,

:&lt;math&gt; f_\text{beat} = f_2 - f_1 = \frac{1}{\tau_b} = \frac{\left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|}{2\pi}&lt;/math&gt;

But topics beyond these fundamentals are rarely pursued, and for good reason. Much about how humans perceive beats in musical intervals is poorly understood.  This Wikiversity resource is not so much aimed at answering difficult questions, but to offer students the the opportunity to [https://www.pinterest.com/pin/164662930098107644/ &quot;mess around&quot;] in a way that enhances one's understanding of mathematics and computer programming.

===beats-angular frequency: Algebra===
Simple case (unison):&lt;math&gt;T_\text{simple}^{-1}=(2\pi)^{-1}(\omega_2-\omega_1) \implies&lt;/math&gt; &lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left|\omega_2-\omega_1\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Define interval ratio, &lt;math&gt;1&lt;p/q&lt;2&lt;/math&gt;, where: &lt;math&gt;\omega_p=p\omega_0&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q=q\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;
The the lowest common harmonic of &lt;math&gt;\omega_p&lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;\omega_q&lt;/math&gt; is &lt;math&gt;\omega_h=pq\omega_0&lt;/math&gt;

Replace &lt;math&gt;p\to p+\Delta p &lt;/math&gt; and &lt;math&gt;q\to q+\Delta q &lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;2\pi / T_b = \left| (p+\Delta p)q\omega_0 - p(q+\Delta q)\omega_0 \right|
= \left|p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;f_b=\left|\frac{p\Delta\omega_q - q\Delta\omega_p}{2\pi}\right|= \left| p\Delta f_q - q\Delta  f_p\right|&lt;/math&gt;

Use &lt;math&gt;q\omega_p=p\omega_q \equiv qf_p=pf_q \equiv pT_p = qT_q&lt;/math&gt; where &lt;math&gt;T=1/f&lt;/math&gt; denotes period. 

Note that &lt;math&gt;\frac{\Delta f}{f}=-\frac{\Delta T}{T}\implies \Delta f = -\frac{\Delta T}{T^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{T_b}=\left| \frac{q\Delta T_p}{T_p^2} - \frac{p\Delta T_q}{T_q^2} \right|= \left| \frac{p\Delta T_p-q\Delta T_q}{T_pT_q}\right|&lt;/math&gt;

====Making one beat: N a large number====
Recalling that &lt;math&gt;p&gt;q&lt;/math&gt;, we now select a large number &lt;math&gt;N&lt;/math&gt; and define a new period &lt;math&gt;\widetilde T_p&lt;/math&gt; 

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p=NqT_q=(N-1)p\widetilde T_p \equiv T_c&lt;/math&gt;.  We will show that &lt;math&gt;T_c=T_b&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\Delta T_p = T_p-\widetilde T_p = \frac 1 N T_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;N=\frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}&lt;/math&gt;

What we have done: We slightly increased the period of the p wave in order to remove one cycle. Thus causes the new p wave to cycle through all phase differences. Define &lt;math&gt;T_c&lt;/math&gt; to be the cycle time.  Now find a formula:

&lt;math&gt;NpT_p= T_c = \frac{T_p}{\Delta T_p}pT_p&lt;/math&gt; implies &lt;math&gt;\frac 1 T_c =\frac{\Delta T_p}{T_p^2}p&lt;/math&gt;

Graph: &lt;math&gt;T_p=2, T_q=3, \Delta T_p=.2&lt;/math&gt; Let delta

==Fourier analysis==
''See also'' [[w:Kramers–Kronig relations]], [[w:Cauchy principal value]], [https://wiki.seg.org/wiki/Dictionary:Hilbert_transform]and [[w:Sokhotski–Plemelj theorem]]

&lt;math&gt; \int_\infty^\infty e^{i\omega t}d\omega=2\pi\delta(t)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  - i \pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac{1}{X+i\epsilon} = \frac {X}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}  -  \frac {i\epsilon}{X^2+ \epsilon^2}&lt;/math&gt;

&lt;math&gt;\frac 1 X = \text{pp} \frac 1 X -i\pi \delta(X)&lt;/math&gt;

==Links==
'''Basic'''
* &lt;u&gt;[[Wikipedia:Beat (acoustics)]]&lt;/u&gt;: The fact that Wikipedia only covers the basic ideas supports my contention that material beyond these well known topics will always be murky.&lt;ref&gt;{{cite journal |last= Weinberger |first= Norman |date= September 2006 |title= Music And The Brain |url= https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/music-and-the-brain-2006-09/ |journal= Scientific American |volume= 16 |issue= 3 |pages= 36-43 |doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0906-36sp |accessdate=2022-08-04 }}&lt;/ref&gt;&lt;ref&gt;Note the inserted footnote templates regarding &quot;verification&quot; and &quot;original research?&quot; at [[w:special:permalink/1102305761]]. &lt;/ref&gt;
* &lt;u&gt;[http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Sound/beat.html Hyperphysics: Sound/beat:]&lt;/u&gt; parallels the Wikipedia article.
* [https://www.omnicalculator.com/physics/beat-frequency &lt;u&gt;Omnicalculator's beat frequency demonstration&lt;/u&gt;] effectively how the 3:2 rhythm pattern is just an ultra slow version of the consonant perfect fifth in music.

'''Advanced (or otherwise different)'''

* &lt;u&gt;[https://www.violinist.com/discussion/archive/18551/ Violinist.com]&lt;/u&gt; discussion on using beats to tune a violin

==Footnotes==</text>
      <sha1>af1wkoif9vdkldpdp5yip5q1pualo36</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:U3203265</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>286168</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412816</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:40:13Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2763" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3203265!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
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* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
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&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:40, 9 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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      <sha1>a4opgs2vyykgmvyfqrytr8myfq6x0jb</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>User talk:StormSar</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>286169</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412817</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:40:31Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Welcome</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="2763" xml:space="preserve">{{Robelbox|theme=9|title=Welcome!|width=100%}}
&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] StormSar!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
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* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
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You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:40, 9 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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      <sha1>d0lpd8oanmh4g2xyhc9qghme8owso24</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:Tyler pullum</title>
    <ns>3</ns>
    <id>286170</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2412820</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T12:42:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Dave Braunschweig</username>
        <id>426084</id>
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      <comment>Welcome</comment>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Tyler pullum!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
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You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 12:42, 9 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>File:Laurent.6.Application.6A.20220809.pdf</title>
    <ns>6</ns>
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      <id>2412831</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-09T13:40:19Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Young1lim</username>
        <id>21186</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>{{Information
|Description=Laurent.5: Applications 6A (20220809 - 20220808)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}</comment>
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      <text bytes="257" xml:space="preserve">== Summary ==
{{Information
|Description=Laurent.5: Applications 6A (20220809 - 20220808)
|Source={{own|Young1lim}}
|Date=2022-08-09
|Author=Young W. Lim
|Permission={{cc-by-sa-3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}
}}

== Licensing ==
{{self|GFDL|cc-by-sa-4.0,3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0}}</text>
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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== Licensing ==
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:Yeonjik</title>
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&lt;div style=&quot;{{Robelbox/pad}}&quot;&gt;
'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] Yeonjik!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 18:27, 9 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
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  <page>
    <title>User talk:U3201643</title>
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'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] U3201643!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:53, 10 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
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    <title>User talk:OliviaFabrizio</title>
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'''Hello and [[Wikiversity:Welcome|Welcome]] to [[Wikiversity:What is Wikiversity|Wikiversity]] OliviaFabrizio!''' You can [[Wikiversity:Contact|contact us]] with [[Wikiversity:Questions|questions]] at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]] or [[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|me personally]] when you need [[Help:Contents|help]]. Please remember to [[Wikiversity:Signature|sign and date]] your finished comments when [[Wikiversity:Who are Wikiversity participants?|participating]] in [[Wikiversity:Talk page|discussions]]. The signature icon [[File:OOjs UI icon signature-ltr.svg]] above the edit window makes it simple. All users are expected to abide by our [[Wikiversity:Privacy policy|Privacy]], [[Wikiversity:Civility|Civility]], and the [[Foundation:Terms of Use|Terms of Use]] policies while at Wikiversity.

To [[Wikiversity:Introduction|get started]], you may
&lt;!-- The Left column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* [[Help:guides|Take a guided tour]] and learn [[Help:Editing|to edit]].
* Visit a (kind of) [[Wikiversity:Random|random project]].
* [[Wikiversity:Browse|Browse]] Wikiversity, or visit a portal corresponding to your educational level: [[Portal: Pre-school Education|pre-school]], [[Portal: Primary Education|primary]], [[Portal:Secondary Education|secondary]], [[Portal:Tertiary Education|tertiary]], [[Portal:Non-formal Education|non-formal education]].
* Find out about [[Wikiversity:Research|research]] activities on Wikiversity.
* [[Wikiversity:Introduction explore|Explore]] Wikiversity with the links to your left.
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- The Right column --&gt;
&lt;div style=&quot;width:50.0%; float:left&quot;&gt;
* Enable VisualEditor under [[Special:Preferences#mw-prefsection-betafeatures|Beta]] settings to make article editing easier.
* Read an [[Wikiversity:Wikiversity teachers|introduction for teachers]] and find out [[Help:How to write an educational resource|how to write an educational resource]] for Wikiversity.
* Give [[Wikiversity:Feedback|feedback]] about your initial observations.
* Discuss Wikiversity issues or ask questions at the [[Wikiversity:Colloquium|colloquium]].
* [[Wikiversity:Chat|Chat]] with other Wikiversitans on [[:freenode:wikiversity|&lt;kbd&gt;#wikiversity&lt;/kbd&gt;]].
&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;br clear=&quot;both&quot;/&gt;

You do not need to be an educator to edit. You only need to [[Wikiversity:Be bold|be bold]] to contribute and to experiment with the [[wikiversity:sandbox|sandbox]] or [[special:mypage|your userpage]]. See you around Wikiversity! --[[User:Dave Braunschweig|Dave Braunschweig]] ([[User talk:Dave Braunschweig|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/Dave Braunschweig|contribs]]) 01:53, 10 August 2022 (UTC)&lt;/div&gt;
&lt;!-- Template:Welcome --&gt;
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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What are the similarities and differences between wanting and liking, and what are the implications?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

Equity Theory</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

Equity Theory</text>
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== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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== Social Contributions ==
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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      <id>2412975</id>
      <parentid>2412972</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T03:56:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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        <id>2947552</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8469" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>oihlzymg0t0zjvppjmlxhx81kiyvgbo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413012</id>
      <parentid>2412975</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:07:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Btarmstrong24</username>
        <id>2947552</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Link add</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8541" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

Studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>3ssmy0ovo38buv3r17r27w0nxryvroe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413038</id>
      <parentid>2413012</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:20:25Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Btarmstrong24</username>
        <id>2947552</id>
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{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

Studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=A girl smiling, not relevant to content|thumb|Figure 1. Example image]]

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

Studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=A girl smiling, not relevant to content|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image]]

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 2''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>3ym7tvcfdiwomufhwsyyyia8wb6e3ik</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413053</id>
      <parentid>2413044</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:25:42Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Btarmstrong24</username>
        <id>2947552</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8653" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

Studying at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=A girl smiling, not relevant to content|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image|150x150px]]

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 2''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>0c0rvi5bou5pux6h3kk37audobxvly0</sha1>
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      <comment>Added about me</comment>
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      <text bytes="65" xml:space="preserve">About me

I am a psychology student at the University of Canberra</text>
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      <text bytes="151" xml:space="preserve">About me

I am a psychology student at the University of Canberra. My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.</text>
      <sha1>iueb5ngpjyaiu2mvivggll13dv9z3z7</sha1>
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      <comment>Added heatdins</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="190" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

== B'''ook chapter:''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.</text>
      <sha1>bq7kutobrwl7yb3xqats4672wyqn4fi</sha1>
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      <comment>/* Book chapter: */</comment>
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      <text bytes="189" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

== B'''ook chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.</text>
      <sha1>pct3s60e8cg36v17e7kutuf4dne05xh</sha1>
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      <comment>Added hobbies</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="237" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
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      <comment>Hyperlink</comment>
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      <text bytes="274" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a '''psychology''' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
      <sha1>fqykd6dybn43gqd3tktgc9x5gr9l6z2</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="307" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|''psychology'']]''' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ ''University of Canberra'']. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
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      <text bytes="313" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am a '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|''psychology'']]''' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ '''''University of Canberra''''']. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is 'contempt'.

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
      <sha1>4yek5hv8wtynh5o8op18nz63wv5dz3c</sha1>
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I am a '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|''psychology'']]''' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ '''''University of Canberra''''']. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Contempt|'''''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'Contempt'''''']].

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
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      <text bytes="415" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
[[File:Rorschach1.jpg|Rorschach1]] 

I am a '''[[wikipedia:Psychology|''psychology'']]''' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ '''''University of Canberra''''']. 

== '''Book chapter''' ==
My Wikiversity subject for my current course (motivation and emotion) is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Contempt|'''''&lt;nowiki/&gt;'Contempt'''''']].

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* Yoga
* Gym
* Psychology</text>
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      <comment>About me</comment>
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      <text bytes="119" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology.</text>
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      <text bytes="191" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I work as a volunteer with ReachOut Canberra, MIEACT and Rebus Theatre.</text>
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I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I work as a volunteer with Reach Out Canberra, MIEACT and Rebus Theatre.

=== Hobbies ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Gardening
* Woodworking 

== Book Chapter ==

=== Workplace Mental Health ===

==== What is Workplace mental health ====

=== Social contribution ===</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
== '''About me''' ==
I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I work as a volunteer with Reach Out Canberra, MIEACT and Rebus Theatre.

=== Hobbies ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Gardening
* Woodworking 

== Book Chapter ==

=== Workplace Mental Health ===

==== What is Workplace mental health ====

=== Social contribution ===</text>
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    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2412999</id>
      <parentid>2412971</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:03:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArtOfHappiness</username>
        <id>2947543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9021" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
== '''About me''' ==
I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology. I work as a volunteer with [https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra], [https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT] and [https://rebustheatre.com/ Rebus Theatre]. Currently I am learning [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

=== Hobbies ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Gardening
* Woodworking 

== Book Chapter ==

=== Workplace Mental Health ===

==== What is Workplace mental health ====

=== Social contribution ===</text>
      <sha1>ssneefcnqe4aoz3y5sp3edl1i5b0g7c</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413008</id>
      <parentid>2412999</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:05:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>ArtOfHappiness</username>
        <id>2947543</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="9082" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
== '''About me''' ==
I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I work as a volunteer with [https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra], [https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT] and [https://rebustheatre.com/ Rebus Theatre]. Currently I am learning [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

=== Hobbies ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Gardening
* Woodworking 

== Book Chapter ==

=== Workplace Mental Health ===

==== What is Workplace mental health ====

=== Social contribution ===</text>
      <sha1>9vzu56mm4lqt1jibmk5wy4n81g8nkzm</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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        <id>2947543</id>
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      <text bytes="9285" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
== '''About me''' ==
I am Manav Porwal, an aspiring Psychologist in the final Semester of Bachelor of Science in Psychology at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I work as a volunteer with [https://reachoutcanberra.com.au/ Reach Out Canberra], [https://mieact.org.au/ MIEACT] and [https://rebustheatre.com/ Rebus Theatre]. Currently I am learning [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]]. 

=== Hobbies ===

* Cooking
* Painting
* Gardening
* Woodworking 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Book chapter]] I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Workplace mental health training|Workplace mental health training]]

=== Workplace Mental Health ===

==== What is Workplace mental health ====

=== Social contribution ===</text>
      <sha1>47h18qmlzeo33jyf1gpym96vvgis2ip</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3207862</username>
        <id>2947553</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;About me  I am a third yer student at the University of Canberra studying psychology&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="84" xml:space="preserve">About me

I am a third yer student at the University of Canberra studying psychology</text>
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      <comment>Started page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="76" xml:space="preserve">About me

I am a lecturer in '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.</text>
      <sha1>qg5kwpvw8efdd0ykql3dqn5fzsaa9jd</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <comment>Expanded</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="258" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>dke4um3n228gdk98unpyn4rqxmrf980</sha1>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="294" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>gw2iaxcln94hvfk9ci9hzgqq08rd0dd</sha1>
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      <comment>/* About me */ Added links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="379" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>rij2587eam3afvp3jxetqzle79zz5hu</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */ + link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="456" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="499" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>mob8j9f9rr9802upq1bxmae096f2lm4</sha1>
    </revision>
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      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */ + image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="606" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|Figure 1. Happiness is an example of an emotion.]]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="604" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|Figure 1. Happiness is an example of an emotion.]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>noupy3zfkbz3dodvkl5yynt7mr09ad3</sha1>
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        <id>10242</id>
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      <comment>/* About me */ Make image smaller</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="614" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|Figure 1. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* About me */ cite Figure 1</comment>
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      <text bytes="681" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|Figure 1. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion (see Figure 1 for an example of an emotion)]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Approach motivation|Approach motivation]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* Social contributions */ + contribution</comment>
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      <text bytes="820" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|Figure 1. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion (see Figure 1 for an example of an emotion)]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on - ==

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FConspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2413059&amp;oldid=2410713 Added sub-title to conspiracy theory chapter] - 10/8/22</text>
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      <text bytes="824" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|''Figure 1''. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion (see Figure 1 for an example of an emotion)]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on - ==

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FConspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2413059&amp;oldid=2410713 Added sub-title to conspiracy theory chapter] - 10/8/22</text>
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      <text bytes="851" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|alt=Picture of girl smiling|thumb|''Figure 1''. Happiness is an example of an emotion.|150x150px]]I am a lecturer in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

l am teaching [[motivation and emotion|motivation and emotion (see Figure 1 for an example of an emotion)]].

I have worked at UC for 20+ years.

== Hobbies ==

* Cricket
* Gardening
* Worm farming

# Mountain biking
# Podcasts - favourite podcast James?

=== Music ===

=== Movies ===
== Book chapter I'm working on - ==

== Social contributions ==

# [https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion%2FBook%2F2022%2FConspiracy_theory_motivation&amp;type=revision&amp;diff=2413059&amp;oldid=2410713 Added sub-title to conspiracy theory chapter] - 10/8/22</text>
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      <text bytes="356" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''Psychology''' at the University of Canberra. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

About me:

I love Skiing, Snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.</text>
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      <text bytes="360" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''Psychology''' at the ''University of Canberra''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

About me:

I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.</text>
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      <text bytes="486" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''Psychology''' at the ''University of Canberra''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

== About me: ==
I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.

== Book Chapter in progress ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Hobbies ==

* Skiing 
* Snowboarding
* Downhill
* Soccer</text>
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      <text bytes="883" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/?ef_id=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!589066594450!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!12340014388!118571458020&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE University of Canberra]''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

== About me: ==
I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.

== Book Chapter in progress ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Hobbies ==

* Skiing 
* Snowboarding
* Downhill
* Soccer</text>
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      <text bytes="903" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/?ef_id=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!589066594450!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!12340014388!118571458020&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE University of Canberra]''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

== About me: ==
I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.

== Book Chapter in progress ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Hobbies ==

* [[wikipedia:Skiing|Skiing]]
* Snowboarding
* Downhill
* Soccer</text>
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      <text bytes="980" xml:space="preserve">Hello, I am a student of '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at the ''[https://www.canberra.edu.au/future-students/?ef_id=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE:G:s&amp;s_kwcid=AL!10441!3!589066594450!e!!g!!university%20of%20canberra!12340014388!118571458020&amp;gclid=CjwKCAjwi8iXBhBeEiwAKbUofV30BVaJPsDkgQ0xdtyJNdLiFDAd6pFhk9AOU1wCVoYTOdQP-gRGDxoCp4AQAvD_BwE University of Canberra]''. I am currently studying a bachelor of science in psychology and I am in my second year of study.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

== About me: ==
I love skiing, snowboarding and riding mountain bikes. I have a keen interest in psychology. and I am keen to pursue post-graduate study after finishing my undergrad studies.

== Book Chapter in progress ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Klammer Franz 049.jpg|alt=Skiing|thumb|Figure 1. Downhill ski racing]]
* [[wikipedia:Skiing|Skiing]]
* Snowboarding
* Downhill
* Soccer</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;About me  I am a university student at the University of Canberra, studying psychology.&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="87" xml:space="preserve">About me

I am a university student at the University of Canberra, studying psychology.</text>
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      <text bytes="203" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a university student at the University of Canberra, studying psychology.

== Hobbies ==

* Basketball
* Gaming
* Writing

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="266" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a university student at the University of Canberra, studying psychology. I have been studying at University of Canberra for four years.

== Hobbies ==

* Basketball
* Gaming
* Writing

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="366" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a university student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying [[w:Psychology|psychology]]. I have been studying at University of Canberra for four years. I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]] 

== Hobbies ==

* Basketball
* Gaming
* Writing

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="392" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a university student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying [[w:Psychology|psychology]]. I have been studying at University of Canberra for four years. I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]] 

== Hobbies ==

* Basketball
* Gaming
* Writing

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
Interoception and Emotion

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="393" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a university student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], studying [[w:Psychology|psychology]]. I have been studying at University of Canberra for four years. I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]] 

== Hobbies ==

* Basketball
* Gaming
* Writing

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
Interoception and Emotion.

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;About me:  I am a student at the University of Canberra in my third year. I am doing two degrees, one in psychology and one in arts.&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="132" xml:space="preserve">About me:

I am a student at the University of Canberra in my third year. I am doing two degrees, one in psychology and one in arts.</text>
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      <text bytes="346" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the University of Canberra in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in psychology and one in arts, specialising in global studies. 

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling</text>
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      <text bytes="391" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the University of Canberra in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in psychology and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life.  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling</text>
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      <text bytes="422" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in psychology and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life.  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling</text>
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      <text bytes="535" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life. One of my classes in second semester 2022 is [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling</text>
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      <text bytes="583" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life. One of my classes in second semester 2022 is [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy and its applications. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling
* Bingeing movies/tv shows</text>
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      <text bytes="659" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life. One of my classes in second semester 2022 is [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy and its applications. 

== Hobbies ==

* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling
* Bingeing movies/tv shows
[[File:Daffodil -- Narcissus 'Tahiti'.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Tahiti daffodil]]</text>
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      <text bytes="715" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra] in my third year. I am doing two undergraduate degrees, one in [[w:Psychology|psychology]] and one in arts, specialising in global studies. I have lived in Canberra for my whole life. One of my classes in second semester 2022 is [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].  

== Book chapter I am working on ==
I am working on a chapter about nature therapy and its applications. 

== Hobbies ==
[[File:Jigsaw puzzle 01 by Scouten.jpg|alt=One of my hobbies.|thumb|200x200px|Figure 1. Jigsaw puzzle.]]
* Reading
* Listening to music and podcasts
* Jigsaw puzzling
* Bingeing movies/tv shows

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>Initial addition of About Me information</comment>
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      <text bytes="1019" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

Business owner of ''Monumental Health'', previous Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College'' and ''Bachelor of Science in Psychology'' student at the University of Canberra.


I provide psychosocial disability support, in combination with Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills training, to those deemed to have &quot;complex&quot; mental health conditions who have been dismissed from other services. Monumental Health is currently in the process of developing accessible, online workshops to those is need.


Canberra-born but a country girl at heart, I enjoy the great outdoors. I love hiking and camping and can often be found studying by the river or walking my dog through the town park. I believe in holistic health so I appreciate a solid session at the gym, weekly yoga classes and cooking nutritious, balanced meals. In my downtime, I like to curl up by the window and read a book or indulge in Netflix.


Please contact me via email if you require any further information: 

support@monumentalhealth.com.au</text>
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      <text bytes="915" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

Business owner of ''Monumental Health'', previous Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College'' and ''Bachelor of Science in Psychology'' student at the University of Canberra.


I provide psychosocial disability support, in combination with Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills training, to those deemed to have &quot;complex&quot; mental health conditions who have been dismissed from other services. Monumental Health is currently in the process of developing accessible, online workshops to those is need.


Canberra-born but a country girl at heart, I enjoy the great outdoors. I love hiking and camping and can often be found studying by the river or walking my dog through the town park. I believe in holistic health so I appreciate a solid session at the gym, weekly yoga classes and cooking nutritious, balanced meals. In my downtime, I like to curl up by the window and read a book or indulge in Netflix.</text>
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      <comment>Content addition</comment>
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      <text bytes="1050" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

Business owner of ''Monumental Health'', previous Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College'' and ''Bachelor of Science in Psychology'' student at the University of Canberra.


I provide psychosocial disability support, in combination with Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills training, to those deemed to have &quot;complex&quot; mental health conditions who have been dismissed from other services. Monumental Health is currently in the process of developing accessible, online workshops to those is need.


Canberra-born but a country girl at heart, I enjoy the great outdoors. I love hiking and camping and can often be found studying by the river or walking my dog through the town park. I believe in holistic health so I appreciate a solid session at the gym, weekly yoga classes and cooking nutritious, balanced meals. In my downtime, I like to curl up by the window and read a book or indulge in Netflix.

My content on wikimedia will focus on my studies as a student of psychology. Of note, is my entry page, titled: Window of Tolerance -</text>
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      <comment>Updated hobbies</comment>
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      <text bytes="882" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
Business owner of ''Monumental Health'', previous Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College'' and ''Bachelor of Science in Psychology'' student at the University of Canberra.


I provide psychosocial disability support, in combination with Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills training, to those deemed to have &quot;complex&quot; mental health conditions who have been dismissed from other services. Monumental Health is currently in the process of developing accessible, online workshops to those is need.

== Current Projects ==
My content on wikimedia will focus on my studies as a student of psychology. Of note, is my entry page, titled: Window of Tolerance -

== Social Contributions ==

* Volunteer work with ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

== Hobbies ==

* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading</text>
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      <id>2412995</id>
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      <text bytes="970" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
Business owner of ''Monumental Health'', previous Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College'' and ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].


I provide psychosocial disability support, in combination with Dialectical Behaviour Therapy skills training, to those deemed to have &quot;complex&quot; mental health conditions who have been dismissed from other services. Monumental Health is currently in the process of developing accessible, online workshops to those is need.

== '''Hobbies''' ==
* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading

== '''Current Projects''' ==

* Window of Tolerance - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can we.... 

== '''Social Contributions''' ==

* Business owner/Mental Health Professional @ ''Monumental Health'' 
* Volunteer Co-Facilitator at ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

*</text>
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      <text bytes="1021" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
I am the business owner of Monumental Health, a local support service providing psychosocial support and psychoeducational services.

I currently study Motivation and Emotion as part of a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== '''Monumental Health''' ==

* Psychosocial disability support 
* Psychoeducational services
** Skills Training (Informed by Dialectical Behaviour Therapy)
** Situation Survival Workshops

== '''Hobbies''' ==
* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading

== '''Current Projects''' ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Window of tolerance|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can we.... 


== '''Notable Roles''' ==

* Business owner/Mental Health Professional at ''Monumental Health'' 
* Volunteer Co-Facilitator at ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

== '''Social Contributions''' ==

*</text>
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      <comment>/* Current Projects */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="1036" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
I am the business owner of Monumental Health, a local support service providing psychosocial support and psychoeducational services.

I currently study Motivation and Emotion as part of a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

== '''Monumental Health''' ==

* Psychosocial disability support 
* Psychoeducational services
** Skills Training (Informed by Dialectical Behaviour Therapy)
** Situation Survival Workshops

== '''Hobbies''' ==
* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading

== '''Current Projects''' ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Window of tolerance|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can this concept be applied in practice?
== '''Notable Roles''' ==

* Business owner/Mental Health Professional at ''Monumental Health'' 
* Volunteer Co-Facilitator at ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

== '''Social Contributions''' ==

*</text>
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      <text bytes="1221" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
I am the business owner of Monumental Health, a local support service providing psychosocial support and psychoeducational services.

I currently study Motivation and Emotion as part of a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

=== '''Personal Interests &amp; Hobbies''' ===
* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Mindfulness
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading

=== Personal &amp; Professional Beliefs ===

* Holistic Approach
* Biopsychosocial Theory
* Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
* Power in Lived Experience

== '''Monumental Health''' ==

* Psychosocial disability support 
* Psychoeducational services
** Skills Training (Informed by Dialectical Behaviour Therapy)
** Situation Survival Workshops

== '''Current Projects''' ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Window of tolerance|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can this concept be applied in practice?

== '''Notable Roles''' ==

* Business owner/Mental Health Professional at ''Monumental Health'' 
* Volunteer Co-Facilitator at ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

== '''Social Contributions''' ==

*</text>
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      <comment>/* Personal Interests &amp; Hobbies */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="1215" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
I am the business owner of Monumental Health, a local support service providing psychosocial support and psychoeducational services.

I currently study Motivation and Emotion as part of a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]'' at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

=== Personal Interests &amp; Hobbies ===
* Yoga
* Weight-training
* Mindfulness
* Craft
* Camping
* River walks
* Cooking
* Reading

=== Personal &amp; Professional Beliefs ===

* Holistic Approach
* Biopsychosocial Theory
* Dialectical Behaviour Therapy
* Power in Lived Experience

== '''Monumental Health''' ==

* Psychosocial disability support 
* Psychoeducational services
** Skills Training (Informed by Dialectical Behaviour Therapy)
** Situation Survival Workshops

== '''Current Projects''' ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Window of tolerance|Window of Tolerance]] - What is the Window of Tolerance and how can this concept be applied in practice?

== '''Notable Roles''' ==

* Business owner/Mental Health Professional at ''Monumental Health'' 
* Volunteer Co-Facilitator at ''BPD Awareness ACT''
* Educator at the ''ACT Recovery College''

== '''Social Contributions''' ==

*</text>
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      <text bytes="82" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

I am currently a psychology student at the University of Canberra.</text>
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      <text bytes="207" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a psychology student at the University of Canberra.

== '''Book Chapter''' I'm working on ==

* Fear

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding</text>
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      <text bytes="297" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a psychology student at the University of Canberra.

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

== '''Book Chapter''' I'm working on ==

* Fear

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding</text>
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      <text bytes="445" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* Fear

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding</text>
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      <text bytes="487" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear|Fear]]

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding</text>
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      <comment>/* Hobbies */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="519" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear|Fear]]

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding
* badminton
* painting
* puzzle</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="549" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear|Fear]]
[[File:Scared man.png|thumb]]

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding
* badminton
* painting
* puzzle</text>
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      <comment>/* Book Chapter - I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="600" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear|Fear]]
[[File:Scared man.png|thumb|alt=man is scared|fear is one of the core emotions]]

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding
* badminton
* painting
* puzzle</text>
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        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
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      <comment>/* Book Chapter - I'm working on */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="627" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
I am currently a [[w:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra].

In the future, I hope to become a clinical psychologist specialising in Autism and PTSD.

I'm undertaking [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] and developing a book chapter. 

== '''Book Chapter''' - I'm working on ==

* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Fear|Fear]] (See Figure 1.)
[[File:Scared man.png|thumb|alt=man is scared|Figure 1: Fear is one of the core emotions.]]

== '''Social contributions''' ==

== '''Hobbies''' ==

* snowboarding
* badminton
* painting
* puzzle</text>
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      <comment>Started page</comment>
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      <text bytes="73" xml:space="preserve">About me 

I am a student doing psychology at the University of Canberra.</text>
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    <revision>
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      <comment>Expanded</comment>
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      <text bytes="194" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra. 

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading
* Tea lover

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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        <id>2947642</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */ Added links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="280" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. 

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading
* Tea lover

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* Book chapter I'm working on */ added link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="341" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. 

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading
* Tea lover

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Needle fear|Needle fear]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>8bw1guh6agkvueo72ddc3e7pmw1omzg</sha1>
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      <comment>/* About me */ added image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="442" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. 

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading
* Tea lover
* [[File:Jeong Han BEHIND.png|alt=Picture of Jeong han|thumb|Figure 1. Jeong Han is an example of ]]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Needle fear|Needle fear]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>54d5h6kvjod9w7fp2xuhcwbfv6utoqq</sha1>
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        <id>2947642</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hobbies */ added picture</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="443" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. 
[[File:Boseong green tea and green tea desserts.jpg|alt=Picture of tea|thumb|Figure 1. Tea example]]

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading

* Tea lover

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Needle fear|Needle fear]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>tv6ok74x90pofaz8vp1n82u9on1405i</sha1>
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      <comment>/* Hobbies */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="529" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I am a student doing [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]]. 
[[File:Boseong green tea and green tea desserts.jpg|alt=Picture of tea|thumb|Figure 1. Tea example|195x195px]]

== Hobbies ==

* Baking
* Reading

* Tea lover (see Figure 1 for an example of tea).

# Pu'er tea
# Green tea
# White tea


== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Needle fear|Needle fear]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 03:57, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>perdpa8licmk4jrt45mocefl2o8by8e</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
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    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286195</id>
    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:02:45Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216256</username>
        <id>2942574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{subst:ME/BCS}} ~~~~&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8604" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]
[[User:U3216256|U3216256]] ([[User talk:U3216256|discuss]] • [[Special:Contributions/U3216256|contribs]]) 04:02, 10 August 2022 (UTC)</text>
      <sha1>6wcn1iq3qoquxer9508nw5twzusvaus</sha1>
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    <title>User:U3203655</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T04:04:30Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
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      </contributor>
      <comment>start</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="131" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I study [[w: Psychology|psychology]] at University of Canberra


Hobbies 

- 

Book Chapter 


Social Contributions</text>
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      <text bytes="224" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I study [[w: Psychology|psychology]] at University of Canberra


== Hobbies ==
- 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Physiological needs: How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="277" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
I study [[w: Psychology|psychology]] at University of Canberra


== Hobbies ==
- 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Physiological needs|Physiological needs: How do human's physiological needs affect motivation?]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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    <title>User:BradMcgrath</title>
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      <comment>About me</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="61" xml:space="preserve">== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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== About me ==


== Book Chapter ==


== Social Contribution ==</text>
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== About me ==


== Book Chapter ==


== Social Contribution ==</text>
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      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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        <id>2947551</id>
      </contributor>
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      <text bytes="8529" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Hedonic adaptation prevention model:&lt;br&gt;What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <comment>Introduction</comment>
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      <text bytes="585" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi! My name is Lyndel. I am a [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/SCB302/1/2022 Bachelor of Social and Economic Policy (Sociology)] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. My degree includes a Core Major in Government and Policy, and a Specialist Major in Sociology.

I am studying psychology as an elective.

== Book chapter I am working on: ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Hedonic adaptation prevention model|Hedonic Adaptation Prevention (HAP) Model]]

What is the HAP model and how can it be applied?

== Social contributions: ==</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}} === [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839 - 1903)]] === &lt;hr /&gt; '''Notable Accomplishments''' * Statistical Thermodynamics &lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt; '''Publications''' {{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gibbs, Josiah Willard}} {{RoundBoxBottom}} &lt;hr /&gt;&quot;</comment>
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=== [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839 - 1903)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Statistical Thermodynamics
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gibbs, Josiah Willard}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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=== [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839 - 1903)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Josiah Willard Gibbs -from MMS-.jpg|thumb|Josiah Willard Gibbs -from MMS-]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Statistical Thermodynamics
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gibbs, Josiah Willard}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839 - 1903)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Josiah Willard Gibbs -from MMS-.jpg|thumb|Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839 - 1903)]]
[[File:JWgibbs-signature.jpg|thumb|Signature]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Statistical Mechanics &amp; Thermodynamics
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gibbs, Josiah Willard}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
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=== [[w:Josiah Willard Gibbs|Gibbs, Josiah Willard (1839 - 1903)]] ===
&lt;hr /&gt;
[[File:Josiah Willard Gibbs -from MMS-.jpg|thumb|Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839 - 1903)]]
[[File:JWgibbs-signature.jpg|thumb|Signature]]
'''Notable Accomplishments'''
* Thermodynamics
* Classical Statistical Mechanics
* Gibbs Free Energy
&lt;br /&gt;&lt;hr /&gt;
'''Publications'''
{{User:Jtwsaddress42/Bibliography/Gibbs, Josiah Willard}}
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
&lt;hr /&gt;</text>
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      <text bytes="162" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''': ==
I'm a student at UC.

==== Hobbies ====
I like basketball, running, and learning new things.

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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I'm a student at UC.

=== Hobbies ===

* Basketball
* Running
* Learning new things

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="208" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''': ==
I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

=== Hobbies ===

* Basketball
* Running
* Learning new things

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

=== Hobbies ===

* Basketball
* Running
* Learning new things

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural economics and motivation|Behavioural Economics and Motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].
[[File:Jack White, Duke Blue Devils (cropped).jpg|thumb]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Basketball
* Running
* Learning new things

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural economics and motivation|Behavioural Economics and Motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="387" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''': ==
I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].
[[File:Jack White, Duke Blue Devils (cropped).jpg|thumb|229x229px]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Basketball
* Running
* Learning new things

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural economics and motivation|Behavioural Economics and Motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot;'''About me'''  Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra.&quot;</comment>
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Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra.</text>
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      <text bytes="182" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="229" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===
Gardening 

Reading 

Pilates 

Walking my dog

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="232" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year psychology student at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Reading
* Pilates
* Walking my dog

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>j9h6birjybwsd07pnzmed1olyn71b9h</sha1>
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      <text bytes="342" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. 

I a enrolled in the unit [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Reading
* Pilates
* Walking my dog

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>ri71e6l0jf6pn7ciy350orm8pu1y1fl</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="479" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. 

I a enrolled in the unit [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Reading
* Pilates
* Walking my dog

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Ecological_grief&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1 Ecological grief] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="585" xml:space="preserve">[[File:European honey bee extracts nectar.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Bees are a vital part of the environment]]

== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I'm Jess. I am a third year [[wikipedia:Psychology|psychology]] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. 

I a enrolled in the unit [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Reading
* Pilates
* Walking my dog

== Book Chapter I'm working on ==
[https://en.wikiversity.org/w/index.php?title=Motivation_and_emotion/Book/2022/Ecological_grief&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1 Ecological grief] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>Added info</comment>
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      <text bytes="126" xml:space="preserve">About Me: 

Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the University of Canberra, currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.</text>
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      <comment>Added headings</comment>
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      <text bytes="211" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the University of Canberra, currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Interests ===

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>Added book chapter</comment>
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      <text bytes="424" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the University of Canberra, currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Interests ===

=== Employment ===

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==
Chapter 67: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Urgency bias and productivity|Urgency bias and productivity]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it?

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>/* Interests */</comment>
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      <text bytes="551" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Interests ===

* Listening to Music
* Reading
* Indoor Plants 
* NRL (St George Illawarra Dragons Supporter) 

=== Employment ===

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==
Chapter 67: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Urgency bias and productivity|Urgency bias and productivity]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it?

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="666" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Interests ===

* Listening to Music
* Reading
* Indoor Plants 
* NRL (St George Illawarra Dragons Supporter) 

=== Employment ===
I currently work as a Case Manager for Children and Young People who live in Out of Home Care (OOHC) in Canberra. 

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==
Chapter 67: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Urgency bias and productivity|Urgency bias and productivity]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it?

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="700" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, I'm Anna. I'm a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], currently studying a Bachelor of Science in Psychology.

=== Interests ===

* Listening to Music
* Reading
* Indoor Plants 
* NRL (St George Illawarra Dragons Supporter) 

=== Employment ===
I currently work as a Case Manager for Children and Young People who live in Out of Home Care (OOHC) in Canberra. 

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==
Motivation and Emotion Book 2022, Chapter 67: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Urgency bias and productivity|Urgency bias and productivity]] - What is the impact of urgency bias on productivity and what can be done about it?

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="136" xml:space="preserve">'''About me'''

Hi, I am Josh King. I Study psychology at the University of Canberra. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.</text>
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      <comment>Added headings</comment>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="221" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study psychology at the University of Canberra. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>85yfkxlxy5zuj5yedc599mjpn23wyiw</sha1>
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      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
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      <text bytes="360" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study psychology at the University of Canberra. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

=== Hobbies ===

* Geocaching
* Hiking
* Bowling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3213250</username>
        <id>2947520</id>
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      <comment>Linked geocaching website</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="402" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study psychology at the University of Canberra. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* Hiking
* Bowling

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>gjh7stwi9mea9438srbpps1pqvr4l3s</sha1>
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        <username>U3213250</username>
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      <text bytes="1691" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study psychology at the University of Canberra. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=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&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>0pa6181j8dfu5rfqrj3lx3o4d0t8rdv</sha1>
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      <comment>More hyperlinks</comment>
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      <text bytes="1733" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [http://canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=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&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1776" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [http://canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=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&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1824" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [http://canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=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&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]
[[File:Anatomy of the basal ganglia.jpg|thumb]]

== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1833" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [http://canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEJECMgUIABCRAjIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEJECMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEJECOgcIABBHELADOgoIABBHELADEMkDOggIABCSAxCwAzoHCAAQsAMQQzoKCAAQ5AIQsAMYAToUCC4QxwEQ0QMQyAMQsAMQChBDGAI6DwguENQCEMgDELADEEMYAjoECCMQJzoECC4QJzoLCAAQgAQQsQMQgwE6BAgAEEM6EQguEIAEELEDEIMBEMcBENEDOgQIABADOggIABCxAxCDAToKCAAQsQMQgwEQQzoOCC4QgAQQsQMQgwEQ1AI6BwgAEMkDEEM6BQgAEJIDOggIABDJAxCRAjoICAAQgAQQsQM6BQguEIAEOgQIABAKSgQIQRgASgQIRhgBUPcHWKAVYJkWaAJwAXgAgAHdAYgBzxKSAQYwLjEzLjGYAQCgAQHIARHAAQHaAQYIARABGAnaAQYIAhABGAg&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

[[File:Anatomy of the basal ganglia.jpg|thumb]]


== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="1873" xml:space="preserve">== '''About me''' ==
Hi, I am Josh King. I Study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [http://canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]. I have '''thoroughly''' enjoyed my studies so far.

I am studying [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* [https://www.geocaching.com/play/search Geocaching]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+hikinh&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsYNBm0-G8tT8eYNiF49KvMWrBLw4A%3A1660118245372&amp;ei=5WTzYqS0FsqH4-EPtK2ouAM&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjkurOy5rv5AhXKwzgGHbQWCjcQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+hikinh&amp;gs_lcp=Cgdnd3Mtd2l6EAMyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIFCAAQgAQyBQgAEIAEMgUIABCABDIICAAQgAQQyQMyBQgAEIAEOgcIABBHELADOgcIABCwAxBDOgQIABBDOgsIABCABBCxAxCDAToICAAQgAQQsQM6BwgAEIAEEApKBAhBGABKBAhGGABQvgdYigxgog1oAnABeACAAbcBiAHOBpIBAzAuNZgBAKABAcgBCsABAQ&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Hiking]
* [https://www.google.com/search?q=what+is+bowling&amp;rlz=1C1CHBF_en-GBAU883AU883&amp;sxsrf=ALiCzsbx_zfO5FUCfBPl1I4czFsFve0_3Q%3A1660118240311&amp;ei=4GTzYtzNEqqK4-EP2P2-mAE&amp;ved=0ahUKEwjcvf6v5rv5AhUqxTgGHdi-DxMQ4dUDCA4&amp;uact=5&amp;oq=what+is+bowling&amp;gs_lcp=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&amp;sclient=gws-wiz Bowling]

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
The Book chapter I am working on is: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Nucleus accumbens and motivation]]

[[File:Anatomy of the basal ganglia.jpg|thumb|Figure 1.1 Anatomy of the Basal Ganglia]]


== Social Contributions ==</text>
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      <comment>New resource with &quot; About Me :- I am a mature age student ,studying Psychology at University of Canberra.&quot;</comment>
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      <text bytes="301" xml:space="preserve">== '''&lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt;''' :- ==
I am a mature age student ,studying '''Psychology''' at University of Canberra.

== Book Chapter I am working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

== Hobbies ==

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===</text>
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      <text bytes="303" xml:space="preserve">== '''&lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt;''' :- ==
I am a mature age student ,studying '''Psychology''' at University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter I am working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===</text>
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      <text bytes="562" xml:space="preserve">== '''&lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt;''' :- ==
I am a mature age student ,studying '''Psychology''' at University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter I am working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist.</text>
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      <text bytes="773" xml:space="preserve">== '''&lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt;''' :- ==
I am a mature age student ,studying '''[https://psychology.org.au/training-and-careers/careers-and-studying-psychology/studying-psychology Psychology]''' at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter I am working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as Organissational</text>
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      <text bytes="889" xml:space="preserve">== '''&lt;u&gt;About Me&lt;/u&gt;''' :- ==
I am a mature age student ,studying '''[[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' at [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 University of Canberra].

I am learning [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Zoom fatigue|Zoom Fatigue]]

== Social Contribution ==

== Future Interest ==

=== Plan for next 1 Year ===
I plan to finish my Bachelors Degree by 2023 and enrol for Honors Program .

=== Plan for next 2 Year ===
Continue with my Honors Program and prepare to get my application ready for Masters in Clinical Psychology.

=== Plan for next 5 Year ===
Hopefully get a practicing License to work as an Independent Psychologist. Would like to get my learning experience as [https://www.allpsychologyschools.com/organizational-psychology/job-description/ Organisational Psychologist]</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:41:58Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>created little bio</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="131" xml:space="preserve">About me:

I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra</text>
      <sha1>i6tysiytj40kts2q5kd3hq4zal2r5p6</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413148</id>
      <parentid>2413113</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
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      <comment>headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="213" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

== Hobbies ==</text>
      <sha1>34jrovho89zy0o230g7igw8vxvzhnzk</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413158</id>
      <parentid>2413148</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:48:46Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>subheading</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="215" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

=== Hobbies ===</text>
      <sha1>hg6ldnhxkdb464ckbnzaduuapuqdhua</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413177</id>
      <parentid>2413158</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:53:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>dot points added</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="239" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in psychology at the University of Canberra

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social Contribution ==

=== Hobbies ===

* photography
* hiking</text>
      <sha1>3hbwy5k5fid41adque681uk88irknv1</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413227</id>
      <parentid>2413177</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:08:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="439" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in [[w:psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]

I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] this semester.

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mindful self-care|Mindful self-care]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Hobbies ===

* photography
* hiking</text>
      <sha1>jdqlqjjk2ch0b5ygihuom2vcoawftne</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <parentid>2413227</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="562" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
[[File:Melbourne Australia from Yarra River.JPG|alt=City scape from river|thumb|Figure 1. Melbourne from the Yarra River]]
I'm Claire

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in [[w:psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]

I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] this semester.

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mindful self-care|Mindful self-care]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Hobbies ===

* photography
* hiking</text>
      <sha1>oeoc7y032xmkg8e3m3s9g887z2lygvr</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413291</id>
      <parentid>2413281</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:29:10Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Clairelogan</username>
        <id>2947574</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>bio added</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="584" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
[[File:Melbourne Australia from Yarra River.JPG|alt=City scape from river|thumb|Figure 1. Melbourne from the Yarra River]]
I'm Claire,

I am from Melbourne

I am currently studying bachelor of business/bachelor of science in [[w:psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au University of Canberra]

I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]] this semester.

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mindful self-care|Mindful self-care]]

== Social Contribution ==

=== Hobbies ===

* photography
* hiking</text>
      <sha1>dodad4zeqhl9c3oee43ef35tvxehdn4</sha1>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:42:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
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      <comment>Started editing my user page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="106" xml:space="preserve">About Me:

Hello Everyone,

I'm Rhys Meredith a politics/psychology student at the University of Canberra.</text>
      <sha1>44buxclkpirsdvvb64xgo68g9f159u1</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413131</id>
      <parentid>2413114</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:44:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="107" xml:space="preserve">About Me:

Hello Everyone!

I'm Rhys Meredith, a politics/psychology student at the University of Canberra.</text>
      <sha1>ebin943mxcsx6z3evd0mhdoio6gb3jq</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413147</id>
      <parentid>2413131</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Added headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="194" xml:space="preserve">== About Me: ==
''Hello Everyone,''

I'm Rhys Meredith, a 3rd year politics/psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

=== Hobbies: ===

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>mns73ghai06l1atvy2ammvxxu2404rh</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413157</id>
      <parentid>2413147</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:48:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="191" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
''Hello Everyone,''

I'm Rhys Meredith, a 3rd year politics/psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

=== Hobbies: ===

== Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>meyu3yyf44p9js8kuew176bx7gcf9m3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413173</id>
      <parentid>2413157</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:53:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
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      <comment>Added a link to my Book Chapter and a list of my hobbies</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="360" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
''Hello Everyone,''

I'm Rhys Meredith, a 3rd year politics/psychology student at the University of Canberra. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Hanging out with friends 
* Hiking 
* Listening to music
* Swimming
* Watching movies and Youtube videos 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Topophilia|Topophilia]] 

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>nqmrjc7tqn6cxijt5zp25d9actbgu6x</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413202</id>
      <parentid>2413173</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:01:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>/* About Me */ Added links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="492" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
''Hello Everyone,''

I'm Rhys Meredith, a 3rd year [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/SCB201/1/2022 Politics]/[https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 Psychology] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Hanging out with friends 
* Hiking 
* Listening to music
* Swimming
* Watching movies and Youtube videos 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Topophilia|Topophilia]] 

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>0qy4cabk3y941n3iuy5u9njcz27ysjc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413215</id>
      <parentid>2413202</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:05:08Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>RSPMeredith</username>
        <id>2947580</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="563" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
''Hello Everyone,''

I'm Rhys Meredith, a 3rd year [https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/SCB201/1/2022 Politics]/[https://www.canberra.edu.au/course/780AA/4/2022 Psychology] student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I have created this page in order to study [[motivation and emotion]]. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Hanging out with friends 
* Hiking 
* Listening to music
* Swimming
* Watching movies and Youtube videos 

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Topophilia|Topophilia]] 

== Social Contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>fl2d2pazzs3wv95zqefr044rbayaz1q</sha1>
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    <title>User:U3216654</title>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
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      <comment>Started page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="152" xml:space="preserve">'''About me:'''

I am a student at University of Canberra, I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.</text>
      <sha1>8fjkypv0al13ag8g1mgweyre88igrz1</sha1>
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      <id>2413152</id>
      <parentid>2413115</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:56Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="215" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I am a student at University of Canberra, I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book Chapter ==

== Social contribution ==</text>
      <sha1>jz7kc0vguo1ucxizyelkw2qlp99upnv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413175</id>
      <parentid>2413152</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:53:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="252" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I am a student at University of Canberra, I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.

=== Hobbies ===

* Reading
* Baking
* Going on walks

== Book Chapter ==

== Social contribution ==</text>
      <sha1>4lur693n1nxdkh4oummuno8cmw09gds</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413193</id>
      <parentid>2413175</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:59:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="282" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I am a student at [http://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.

=== Hobbies ===

* Reading
* Baking
* Going on walks

== Book Chapter ==

== Social contribution ==</text>
      <sha1>5mmoj87jm7i4w89zykcl3e5e1bj8zg0</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413228</id>
      <parentid>2413193</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:08:59Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="357" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I am a student at [http://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.

=== Hobbies ===

* Reading
* Baking
* Going on walks

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Revenge motivation|Revenge Motivation]]

== Social contribution ==</text>
      <sha1>3c6aygcfwm8fio4jwbvyihhojk1l05b</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413284</id>
      <parentid>2413228</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:24:20Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3216654</username>
        <id>2947563</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="424" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
I am a student at [http://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra], I am studying Bachelors of Science in Psychology with a Breadth major in Counselling studies.
[[File:Psychology.jpg|thumb|209x209px|Figure 1. Psychology words]]

=== Hobbies ===

* Reading
* Baking
* Going on walks

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Revenge motivation|Revenge Motivation]]

== Social contribution ==</text>
      <sha1>alqi9jru0t64b09zrfpauh4whrk5112</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User:Jtneill2</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:42:15Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Started page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="90" xml:space="preserve">About me

Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.</text>
      <sha1>fjdjabvnwcu2ux57swtnj7fv2dniitc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413146</id>
      <parentid>2413116</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:38Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ Headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="175" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>o9jibpb2zx5lk57c8w01uckqnevrfrv</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413176</id>
      <parentid>2413146</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:53:49Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */ Added bullet points</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="242" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' '''psychology''' at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Mountain biking
* Playing cricket

# Music
# Movies

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>20ph8yibngip2zo5sruzlo1g3uf2ta3</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413229</id>
      <parentid>2413176</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:09:00Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ links</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="422" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Mountain biking
* Playing cricket

# Music
# Movies

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Episodic memory and planning|Episodic memory and planning]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>fg7nkpkytnsibnbpc47bzzn6ty1u7nu</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413282</id>
      <parentid>2413229</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:23:44Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>+ image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="615" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:A Smiling boy from Bangladesh.jpg|alt=Black and white photograph showing a smiling boy in Bangladesh|thumb|Figure 1. Joy is an example of a core emotion that we will be learning about]]
Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Mountain biking
* Playing cricket

# Music
# Movies

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Episodic memory and planning|Episodic memory and planning]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>fmkf6c63i7d4nkxd6s1dy63eap2uhyf</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413289</id>
      <parentid>2413282</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:27:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="671" xml:space="preserve">== About me ==
[[File:A Smiling boy from Bangladesh.jpg|alt=Black and white photograph showing a smiling boy in Bangladesh|thumb|Figure 1. Joy is an example of a core emotion that we will be learning about]]
[[File:Girl with sad face.jpg|thumb|l.....asdfasdfasf]]
Hi, I'm James Neill. I ''teach'' [[w:Psychology|psychology]] at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra].

I am teaching [[motivation and emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Gardening
* Mountain biking
* Playing cricket

# Music
# Movies

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Episodic memory and planning|Episodic memory and planning]]

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>n2vuhi0d4iotiye892om6bqllq5pbrs</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User:U962051</title>
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      <id>2413117</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:42:16Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U962051</username>
        <id>2947541</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Started page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="153" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!

About me: I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;.</text>
      <sha1>nj3gok6gg6cmx3kisaufoebae96hznm</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413136</id>
      <parentid>2413117</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:45:33Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U962051</username>
        <id>2947541</id>
      </contributor>
      <minor />
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="158" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!

== About me ==
I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;.</text>
      <sha1>h8or1nm1lizxx5v2xlz8wj2qtoxa1on</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413154</id>
      <parentid>2413136</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U962051</username>
        <id>2947541</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Add headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="249" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!

== About me ==
I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;.

=== Hobbies ===

== My Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Another Chapter ==</text>
      <sha1>eomadv8bph4rfqjlqbnd0uc1p24p18o</sha1>
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      <text bytes="281" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!

== About me ==
I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;.

=== Hobbies ===

* Travel
* My Spoodle
* Hiking

== My Book Chapter ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Another Chapter ==</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="481" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!

== About me ==
I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Travel
* My Spoodle
* Hiking

== My Book Chapter is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer Tourism]] ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Another Chapter ==</text>
      <sha1>thmiunv9tid1dxtp5176g0v8b5m2otp</sha1>
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      <comment>/* My Book Chapter is Volunteer Tourism */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="569" xml:space="preserve">This is my first attempt at creating some content!
[[File:HandsOnMiamiVolunteersZooMiami.jpg|thumb|Figure 1. Many hands make light work!]]

== About me ==
I'm a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]]''' student at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. I am studying [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]].

=== Hobbies ===

* Travel
* My Spoodle
* Hiking

== My Book Chapter is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Volunteer tourism motivation|Volunteer Tourism]] ==

== Social Contributions ==

== Another Chapter ==</text>
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My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology.'''</text>
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      <text bytes="157" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in Psychology.'''</text>
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      <text bytes="174" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].'''</text>
      <sha1>0pvi8lh7607sm3fhzbs1z4xw7ve74cz</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="261" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].'''

== Book Chapter I am Working On ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Embarrassment]]</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="275" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
My name is Olivia and I am in my third year of university studying a '''Bachelor of Business''' and a '''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]].'''

== Book Chapter I am Working On ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Embarrassment|Embarrassment]]</text>
      <sha1>md5wcvc6y261jh0lkzenf8sobx7oz9j</sha1>
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      <comment>Started page</comment>
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      <text bytes="100" xml:space="preserve">''About Me:'' Good Evening, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.'''</text>
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      <text bytes="93" xml:space="preserve">''About Me:'' Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.'''</text>
      <sha1>sjf2gvzjfy91fs7xisgcvm1xoprx18u</sha1>
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      <text bytes="99" xml:space="preserve">== ''About Me:'' Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.''' ==</text>
      <sha1>aibt67ustfg5pg5i0guclgwgljaj177</sha1>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="99" xml:space="preserve">== ''About Me:'' ==
Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.'''</text>
      <sha1>h0nnz2x8v7vy2whc5iq1gxm3wxexy7h</sha1>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2947531</id>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="160" xml:space="preserve">== ''About Me:'' ==
Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.'''

== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter ==

== What am I studying ==</text>
      <sha1>5u12ornrfb44btqi7xqbm1zrwb7po55</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3216389</username>
        <id>2947531</id>
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      <comment>added the UC home page link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="190" xml:space="preserve">== ''About Me:'' ==
Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.[https://www.canberra.edu.au/]'''

== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter ==

== What am I studying ==</text>
      <sha1>0efxky6weoxjs5ijvgu0edpmu6lw2vr</sha1>
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        <id>2947531</id>
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      <comment>added random image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="232" xml:space="preserve">== ''About Me:'' ==
[[File:Happiness .jpg|thumb|no caption]]
Hello, my name is Caleb and I am a student at the '''University of Canberra.[https://www.canberra.edu.au/]'''


== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter ==

== What am I studying ==</text>
      <sha1>ebab3yoywht7ef9ark0tnl6d0ba1nax</sha1>
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      <comment>About me</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="59" xml:space="preserve">About me:

Hi, i am a student at the University of Canberra</text>
      <sha1>7p033y6bqt4vdmpmrxsgu0j7wvtqxme</sha1>
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      <contributor>
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      <comment>headings</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="132" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the University of Canberra

=== Hobbies: ===

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>c20dpmtcurv2y971rbudzwf0m8wudmd</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="169" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the University of Canberra

=== Hobbies: ===

* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>1buapzwthu8107l0xrea1kdupcp7oex</sha1>
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      <id>2413168</id>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
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      <comment>/* Hobbies: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="260" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the University of Canberra. I am studying an undergraduate degree in Psychology with a major in Counselling studies. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>hcw7xqvgjkqe0dqndq9krl2hvgegl4l</sha1>
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      <contributor>
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        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Hobbies: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="270" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the University of Canberra. I am studying an undergraduate degree in Psychology with a major in Counselling studies. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Driving
* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>iys5ddwlqfnu8urzyn2fyhg8rba46em</sha1>
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      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="301" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am studying an undergraduate degree in Psychology with a major in Counselling studies. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Driving
* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>5i5suvwd2f24t01t7jcxf3xq9wswldw</sha1>
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      <id>2413203</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:02:04Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About me: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="318" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am studying an undergraduate degree in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with a major in Counselling studies. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Driving
* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>f3fxmcy6gtc7tyeafrwzk0zqjo3gv4y</sha1>
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      <id>2413225</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:08:27Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3210490</username>
        <id>2947795</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book Chapter: */</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="385" xml:space="preserve">== About me: ==
Hi, i am a student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]. I am studying an undergraduate degree in [[w:Psychology|Psychology]] with a major in Counselling studies. 

=== Hobbies: ===

* Driving
* Singing
* Video gaming
* Painting

== Book Chapter: ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Mixed emotions|Mixed emotions]]

== Social Contributions: ==</text>
      <sha1>kwsmpgacsejyh0prrbff0mlo87mvkjo</sha1>
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  <page>
    <title>User:EKS2001</title>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:42:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
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      <comment>info</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="82" xml:space="preserve">'''About me''' 

Hi, I'm Emma and I currently study at the University of Canberra.</text>
      <sha1>tsj6hc2is53ub9f4hyuk8akah6bpq2j</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413151</id>
      <parentid>2413122</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:47:50Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
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      <comment>+headings / info</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="214" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
Hi, my name is  Emma and I currently study psychology at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===
Netball 

Reading

Walking 

== Book chapter I am working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>8bgp7uto3v1dtszp3x3d80cxxtoktt3</sha1>
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    <revision>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:51:07Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
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      <comment>/* Hobbies *bulletpoints</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="217" xml:space="preserve">== '''About Me''' ==
Hi, my name is  Emma and I currently study psychology at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

== Book chapter I am working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>phwhuwdieil7eg115ys39hb5kjetyts</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413167</id>
      <parentid>2413165</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:51:28Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About Me */ bold</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="211" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is  Emma and I currently study psychology at the University of Canberra.

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

== Book chapter I am working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>0kb00i55n2a9mtnn9n2iefj5deqldzo</sha1>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413178</id>
      <parentid>2413167</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:54:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* About Me */ +bullet points</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="208" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is  Emma 

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

=== Education ===

* Student at the university of Canberra

== Book chapter I am working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>ae60xj8aj28npu38ms447pth6ubrxp8</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413187</id>
      <parentid>2413178</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T07:58:21Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
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      <comment>added link</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="271" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is  Emma 

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

# Local mountains 
# Forests  

=== Education ===

* Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]

== Book chapter I am working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>7e51iic08z9iho5ec5j2v5a50b0n995</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413222</id>
      <parentid>2413187</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:07:26Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>links added</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="431" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is  Emma and I study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] 

I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]]  

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

# Local mountains 
# Forests  

=== Education ===

* Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]

== Book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Equity theory|Equity Theory]] 

== Social contributions ==</text>
      <sha1>5moqp1x629umv5lhocdb76uh2mp3m0y</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413283</id>
      <parentid>2413222</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:23:57Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>EKS2001</username>
        <id>2947561</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>/* Book chapter I am working on */ image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="582" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
Hi, my name is  Emma and I study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] 

I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]]  

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

# Local mountains 
# Forests  

=== Education ===

* Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]

== Book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Equity theory|Equity Theory]]
[[File:Scale of justice 2 new.jpeg|left|thumb|323x323px|Equity is the quality of being fair and impartial. Often represented by scales. ]]


== Social contributions ==</text>
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Hi, my name is  Emma and I study [[w:Psychology|psychology]] 

I am currently studying [[motivation and emotion]]  

=== Hobbies ===

* Netball
* Reading
* Walking

# Local mountains 
# Forests  

=== Education ===

* Student at the [https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]

== Book chapter I am working on ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Equity theory|Equity Theory]]
[[File:Scale of justice 2 new.jpeg|left|thumb|323x323px|Figure 1. Scales which are used as a symbol of equity  ]]


== Social contributions ==</text>
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Hi, I'm Mary Stojanov-Klajner. I am a '''psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;. 

==== Hobbies ====

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="203" xml:space="preserve">== ''About me:'' ==
Hi, I'm Mary Stojanov-Klajner. I am a '''psychology''' student at the &lt;u&gt;University of Canberra&lt;/u&gt;. 

==== Hobbies ====

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <model>wikitext</model>
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      <text bytes="324" xml:space="preserve">== ''About me:'' ==
Hi, I'm Mary Stojanov-Klajner. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in Psychology and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. 

==== Hobbies ====

* Reading 
* Embroidery
* Walking

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="347" xml:space="preserve">== ''About me:'' ==
Hi, I'm Mary Stojanov-Klajner. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|'''Psychology''']] and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. 

==== Hobbies ====

* Reading 
* Embroidery
* Walking

== Book chapter I'm working on ==

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="535" xml:space="preserve">== ''About me:'' ==
Hi, I'm Mary Stojanov-Klajner. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|'''Psychology''']] and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. 

I am currently enrolled in a unit called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]], and my book chapter will be discussing what ''motivates kindness''.  

==== Hobbies ====

* Reading 
* Embroidery
* Walking

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
What motivates kindness 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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      <text bytes="518" xml:space="preserve">== ''About me:'' ==
Hi, I'm Mary. I am studying a ''Bachelor of Science in [[w:Psychology|'''Psychology''']] and Breadth Major in Counselling'' at the &lt;u&gt;[https://www.canberra.edu.au/ University of Canberra]&lt;/u&gt;. 

I am currently enrolled in a unit called [[Motivation and emotion|Motivation and Emotion]], and my book chapter will be discussing what ''motivates kindness''.  

==== Hobbies ====

* Reading 
* Embroidery
* Walking

== Book chapter I'm working on ==
What motivates kindness 

== Social contributions ==</text>
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== Hobbies ==

== Book Chapter I'm Working On ==</text>
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=== About me ===</text>
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=== About me ===
I am a psychology student studying Motivation and Emotion at the University of Canberra.</text>
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=== About me ===
I am a psychology student studying Motivation and Emotion at the [[University of Canberra]].


Hobbies</text>
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      <text bytes="258" xml:space="preserve">==== What is the Health Belief Model? and How can it be used to enhance Motivation and Emotion? ====

=== About me ===
I am a psychology student studying [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [[University of Canberra]].


Hobbies</text>
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      <text bytes="148" xml:space="preserve">==== About me ====
I am a psychology student studying [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [[University of Canberra]].</text>
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      <text bytes="257" xml:space="preserve">==== About me ====
I am a psychology student studying [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [[University of Canberra]].

The Book Chapter I am working on: [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]</text>
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      <text bytes="259" xml:space="preserve">==== About me ====
I am a psychology student studying [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022|Motivation and Emotion]] at the [[University of Canberra]].

The Book Chapter I am working on is [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]</text>
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=== What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? ===</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]

== Behavioural Economics and Motivation ==

=== What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? ===</text>
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      <text bytes="122" xml:space="preserve">== Behavioural Economics and Motivation ==

=== What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics? ===</text>
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{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
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      <parentid>2413253</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:15:40Z</timestamp>
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        <username>U3141987</username>
        <id>2947041</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Title</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8546" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Behavioural Economics and Emotion: What aspects of motivation theory are useful in behavioural economics?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>83xo7h1y3fl6xrtf3zvjdmaqv8af4mk</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Psychological distress</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286221</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:10:05Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>attempting to create a page</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="29" xml:space="preserve">{{Wikiversity at Wikipedia|}}</text>
      <sha1>m902vs2243rksd1bt78selp5igu3su3</sha1>
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        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>trying to create a page innit</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8498" xml:space="preserve">{{Wikiversity at Wikipedia|}}
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>agsutpptq6iwxni17e2q29l97jvmfne</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413245</id>
      <parentid>2413240</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:13:17Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>just some more edits innit</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8469" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>oihlzymg0t0zjvppjmlxhx81kiyvgbo</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413262</id>
      <parentid>2413245</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:17:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>I have attempted to put a picture into the format that I found on wikicommons</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8523" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

[[File:Hair pulling stress.jpg|Hair_pulling_stress]]

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>dtrkv1vne1xdo4n3w3y7h9rhdocypdc</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413267</id>
      <parentid>2413262</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:19:55Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8533" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

[[File:Hair pulling stress.jpg|Hair_pulling_stress|579x579px]]

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>t18hdhiiz68ax9748vbf8eeqachncb5</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413279</id>
      <parentid>2413267</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:23:43Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>U3190773</username>
        <id>2947576</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>trying to change image camption</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8573" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

[[File:Hair pulling stress.jpg|Hair_pulling_stress|579x579px|alt=A boy pulling his hair is displayed]]

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <id>2413285</id>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:25:12Z</timestamp>
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        <id>2947576</id>
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      <minor />
      <comment>changing the picture</comment>
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{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__
[[File:Hair_pulling_stress.jpg|alt=A boy pulling his hair is displayed|frame|Figure 1. Shows a boy pulling on his hair]]

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
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      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:25:42Z</timestamp>
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      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8600" xml:space="preserve">
{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__
[[File:Hair_pulling_stress.jpg|alt=A boy pulling his hair is displayed|Figure 1. Shows a boy pulling on his hair|thumb|220x220px]]

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2n12ofpxvav28us3pbek1vqvlyvurob</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413261</id>
      <parentid>2413249</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:17:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SoSilverLibby</username>
        <id>2947631</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8620" xml:space="preserve">[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]
{{title|Chapter Title: What is the Health Belief Model? and How can it be used to enhance Motivation and Emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>dbo6vpiu8cz2xqxeck0m7xoehkrnenl</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413266</id>
      <parentid>2413261</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:19:48Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SoSilverLibby</username>
        <id>2947631</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8618" xml:space="preserve">[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]
{{title|Chapter Title: What is the Health Belief Model? &amp; How can it be used to enhance Motivation and Emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>rp0i1or0niqz3egct4x8r2g3d2lonwe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413288</id>
      <parentid>2413266</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:26:47Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>SoSilverLibby</username>
        <id>2947631</id>
      </contributor>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8666" xml:space="preserve">[[File:Dynamic Health Belief Model2.gif|thumb]]
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]
{{title|Chapter Title: What is the Health Belief Model? &amp; How can it be used to enhance Motivation and Emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>1h2cjchr9xukp485j6r0egib7cz4td2</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413295</id>
      <parentid>2413288</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:39:24Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Remove image</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8618" xml:space="preserve">[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Behavioural model of health services]]
{{title|Chapter Title: What is the Health Belief Model? &amp; How can it be used to enhance Motivation and Emotion?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>rp0i1or0niqz3egct4x8r2g3d2lonwe</sha1>
    </revision>
    <revision>
      <id>2413296</id>
      <parentid>2413295</parentid>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:41:40Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>Adjust title</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8522" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Behavioural model of health services:&lt;br&gt;What is the BMHS and how can it be used?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>2pnf849m8hwevccfyxin1wcj04299ll</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Embarrassment</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286223</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413247</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T08:13:29Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Jtneill</username>
        <id>10242</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>New resource with &quot;{{subst:ME/BCS}}&quot;</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
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      <text bytes="747" xml:space="preserve">== About Me ==
I am Kristina and I am in my third year of my Bachelors Degree at the University of Canberra, where I study Pscyhology with a Breadth Major in Counselling. I strive to become a Clinical Psychologist at the end of my study jounrey where I will be trained in the ability to assess and diagnose mental illnesses/psychological problems and essentially provide advice in clinical and compensation areas.

== Hobbies ==

* Sports in particular Rugby League
* I play the Piano and Sing
* Baking
* Gyming

== Book Chapter ==
[[Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Academic self-regulation|Academic self-regulation]] - What is academic self-regulation, why does it matter, and how can it be fostered?

== Social Contribution ==
to be added to...</text>
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      <comment>added the template</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Courage motivation</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
    <id>286235</id>
    <revision>
      <id>2413325</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T10:42:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added the template</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
  <page>
    <title>Motivation and emotion/Book/2022/Closeness communication bias</title>
    <ns>0</ns>
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    <revision>
      <id>2413326</id>
      <timestamp>2022-08-10T10:43:37Z</timestamp>
      <contributor>
        <username>Icantchooseone</username>
        <id>2947542</id>
      </contributor>
      <comment>added the template</comment>
      <model>wikitext</model>
      <format>text/x-wiki</format>
      <text bytes="8468" xml:space="preserve">{{title|Chapter title:&lt;br&gt;Subtitle?}}
{{MECR3|1=https://yourlinkgoeshere.com}}
__TOC__

==Overview==
You are underway {{smile}}!

This template provides tips for [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]]. Gradually remove these suggestions as you develop the chapter. Also consult the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|author guidelines]].

At the top of the chapter, the title and sub-title should match the ''exact'' wording and casing as shown in the {{Motivation and emotion/Book}}. The sub-titles all end with a question mark.

This Overview section should be concise but consist of several paragraphs which engage the reader, illustrate the problem, and outline how psychological science can help.

{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
'''Focus questions:'''
* What is the first focus question?
* What is the second focus question? 
* What is the third focus question?
{{RoundBoxBottom}}
{{tip|
Suggestions for this section:
* What is the problem? Why is it important?
* How can specific motivation and/or emotion theories and research help?
* Provide an example or case study.
* Conclude with Focus questions to guide the chapter.
}}

==Main headings==
How you are going to structure the chapter? 

Aim for three to six main headings between the [[#Overview|Overview]] and [[#Conclusion|Conclusion]].
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Topic|topic development]], provide at least 3 bullet-points about key content per section. Include key citations.
* For the [[Motivation and emotion/Assessment/Chapter|book chapter]], expand the bullet points into paragraphs.
* If a section has a lot of content, arrange it into two to five sub-headings such as in the [[#Interactive learning features|interactive learning features section]]. Avoid having sections with only one sub-heading.
}}

==Learning features==
What brings an online book chapter to life are its interactive learning features. Case studies, feature boxes, figures, links, tables, and quiz questions can be used throughout the chapter.

===Case studies===
Case studies describe real-world examples of concepts in action. Case studies can be real or fictional. A case could be used multiple times during a chapter to illustrate different theories or stages. It is often helpful to present case studies using [[#Feature boxes|feature boxes]].

===Boxes===
Boxes can be used to highlight content, but don't overuse them. There are many different ways of creating boxes (e.g., see [[Help:Pretty boxes|Pretty boxes]]). Possible uses include:
* Focus questions
* Case studies or examples
* Quiz questions
* Take-home messages
{{RoundBoxTop|theme=3}}
;Feature box example
* Shaded background
* Coloured border
{{RoundBoxBottom}}

===Figures===
[[File:Monkey-typing.jpg|right|205px|thumb|''Figure 1''. Example image with descriptive caption.]]

Use figures to illustrate concepts, add interest, and provide examples. Figures can be used to show photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, etcetera. Figures can be embedded throughout the chapter, starting with the Overview section. Figures should be captioned (using a number and a description) in order to explain their relevance to the text. Possible images can be found at [[commons:|Wikimedia Commons]]. Images can also be uploaded if they are licensed for re-use or if you created the image. Each figure should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Figure 1).

===Links===
Where key words are first used, make them into [[Help:Links|interwiki links]] such as Wikipedia links to articles about famous people (e.g., [[w:Sigmund Freud|Sigmund Freud]] and key concepts (e.g., [[w:Dreams|dreams]]) and links to book chapters about related topics (e.g., would you like to learn about how to overcome [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2020/Writer's block|writer's block]]?).

===Tables===
Tables can be an effective way to organise and summarise information. Tables should be captioned (using APA style) to explain their relevance to the text. Plus each table should be referred to at least once in the main text (e.g., see Table 1 and Table 2).

Here are some [[Motivation and emotion/Wikiversity/Tables|example 3 x 3 tables]] which could be adapted.

===Quizzes===
Quizzes are a direct way to engage readers. But don't make quizzes too hard or long. It is better to have one or two review questions per major section than a long quiz at the end. Try to quiz conceptual understanding, rather than trivia.

Here are some simple quiz questions which could be adapted. Choose the correct answers and click &quot;Submit&quot;:
&lt;quiz display=simple&gt;
{Quizzes are an interactive learning feature:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
+ True
- False

{Long quizzes are a good idea:
|type=&quot;()&quot;}
- True
+ False
&lt;/quiz&gt;

To learn about different types of quiz questions, see [[Help:Quiz|Quiz]].

==Conclusion==
The Conclusion is arguably the most important section. It should be possible for someone to read the [[#Overview|Overview]] and the Conclusion and still get a good idea of the topic.
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* What is the answer to the question in the sub-title (based on psychological theory and research)?
* What are the answers to the focus questions?
* What are the practical, take-home messages?
}}

==See also==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#Interwiki_links|internal (wiki) links]] to relevant Wikiversity pages (esp. related [[Motivation and emotion/Book|motivation and emotion book chapters]]) and [[w:|Wikipedia articles]]. For example:
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2016/Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation|Anorexia nervosa and extrinsic motivation]] (Book chapter, 2016)
* [[w:David McClelland|David McClelland]] (Wikipedia)
* [[Motivation and emotion/Book/2018/Loss aversion|Loss aversion]] (Book chapter, 2018)
* [[w:Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Maslow's hierarchy of needs]] (Wikipedia)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Present in alphabetical order.
* Include the source in parentheses.
}}

==References==
List the cited references in [[w:APA style|APA style]] (7th ed.) or [[w:Wikipedia:Citing sources|wiki style]]. APA style example:
{{Hanging indent|1=

Blair, R. J. R. (2004). The roles of orbital frontal cortex in the modulation of antisocial behavior. ''Brain and Cognition'', ''55''(1), 198–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0278-2626(03)00276-8

Buckholtz, J. W., &amp; Meyer-Lindenberg, A. (2008). MAOA and the neurogenetic architecture of human aggression. ''Trends in Neurosciences'', ''31''(3), 120–129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2007.12.006

Eckardt, M., File, S., Gessa, G., Grant, K., Guerri, C., Hoffman, P., &amp; Tabakoff, B. (1998). Effects of moderate alcohol consumption on the central nervous system. ''Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research'', ''22''(5), 998–1040. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1530-0277.1998.tb03695.x
}}
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Important aspects for APA style include:
** Wrap the set of references in the hanging indent template. Using &quot;Edit source&quot;: &lt;nowiki&gt;{{Hanging indent|1= the full list of references}}&lt;/nowiki&gt;
** Author surname, followed by a comma, then author initials separated by full stops and spaces
** Year of publication in parentheses
** Title of work in lower case except first letter and proper names, ending in a full-stop.
** Journal title in italics, volume number in italics, issue number in parentheses, first and last page numbers separated by an en-dash(–), followed by a full-stop.
** Provide the full doi as a URL and working hyperlink
* Common mistakes include:
** incorrect capitalisation
** incorrect italicisation
** providing a &quot;retrieved from&quot; date (not part of APA 7th ed. style).
** citing sources that weren't actually read or consulted
}}

==External links==
Provide up to half-a-dozen [[Help:Contents/Links#External_links|external links]] to relevant  resources such as presentations, news articles, and professional sites. For example:
* [https://students.unimelb.edu.au/academic-skills/explore-our-resources/essay-writing/six-top-tips-for-writing-a-great-essay Six top tips for writing a great essay] (University of Melbourne)
* [http://www.skillsyouneed.com/write/structure.html The importance of structure] (skillsyouneed.com)
{{tip|Suggestions for this section:
* Only select links to major external resources about the topic
* Present in alphabetical order
* Include the source in parentheses after the link
}}
[[Category:{{#titleparts:{{PAGENAME}}|3}}]]</text>
      <sha1>thp5r91aziue2l80cis4wxipwwn2uzy</sha1>
    </revision>
  </page>
</mediawiki>